Planar graphs

Graph colourings

Lecture 13
Planar graphs.
Graph colourings. Chromatic polynomials

Isabela Drămnesc UVT

Computer Science Department,

West University of Timişoara,
Romania

January 2018

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 1 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Planar graphs
Definition and examples

A graph G is planar if it can be drawn in the plane such that pairs

of edges intersect only at vertices, if at all. Such a drawing is
called planar representation of G .
Example (Planar graphs)
.
. . . .
.
. . . . . . . . .
. .
. .
.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 2 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Planar graphs
Definition and examples

A graph G is planar if it can be drawn in the plane such that pairs

of edges intersect only at vertices, if at all. Such a drawing is
called planar representation of G .
Example (Planar graphs)
.
. . . .
.
. . . . . . . . .
. .
. .
.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 2 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Auxiliary notions
Region of a planar representation of a graph G : maximal section of the
plane in which any two points can be joined by a curve that does not
intersect any part of G .
Example
.
. .
determines 7 regions
. . .
. .

.
. .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 3 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Auxiliary notions
Region of a planar representation of a graph G : maximal section of the
plane in which any two points can be joined by a curve that does not
intersect any part of G .
Example
.
R7 . R1 .
determines 7 regions
. . . R7 is the outer region
R2 R3
. R4 .

R5 . R6
. .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 3 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Auxiliary notions
Region of a planar representation of a graph G : maximal section of the
plane in which any two points can be joined by a curve that does not
intersect any part of G .
Example
.
R7 . R1 .
determines 7 regions
. . . R7 is the outer region
R2 R3
. R4 .

R5 . R6
. .

Every region is delimited by edges.

An edge is in contact with one or two regions.
An edge borders a region R if it is in contact with R and with
another region.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 3 / 31
 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Regions and bound degrees

.
e1
. e1 is in contact only with S1
e2 e2 and e3 are in contact only with S2
.
S1 e3 S1 is bordered by e7 , e8 , e9
e7 S .
e9
S3 is bordered by e4 , e5 , e6
2
e 6 S3
e4

S2 is bordered by e4 , e5 , e6 , e7 , e8 , e9
. e5 .
. e8 .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 4 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Regions and bound degrees

.
e1
. e1 is in contact only with S1
e2 e2 and e3 are in contact only with S2
.
S1 e3 S1 is bordered by e7 , e8 , e9
e7 S .
e9
S3 is bordered by e4 , e5 , e6
2
e 6 S3
e4

S2 is bordered by e4 , e5 , e6 , e7 , e8 , e9
. e5 .
. e8 .

The bound degree b(S) of a region S is the number of edges that

border S.
b(S1 ) = 3, b(S2 ) = 6, b(S3 ) = 3

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 4 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Properties
Let G be a connected graph with n nodes, q edges, and a planar
representation of G with r regions.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 5 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Properties
Let G be a connected graph with n nodes, q edges, and a planar
representation of G with r regions.

n − q + r = 2 in all cases.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 5 / 31
 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Properties of connected planar graphs

Theorem (Euler’s Formula)

If G is a connected planar graph with n nodes, q edges and r
regions then n − q + r = 2.

Proof: Induction on q.
Case 1: q = 0 ⇒ G = K1 and n = 1, q = 0, r = 1, thus
n − q + r = 2.
Case 2: G is a tree ⇒ q = n − 1 and r = 1, thus
n − q + r = n − (n − 1) + 1 = 2.
Case 3: G is a connected graph with a cycle. Let e be an edge of
that cycle, and G 0 = G − e.
G 0 is connected with n nodes, q − 1 edges, and r − 1 regions ⇒ by
Induction Hypothesis: n − (q − 1) + (r − 1) = 2.
Thus n − q + r = 2 holds in this case too.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 6 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Consequences of Euler’s Formula

Corollary 1
K3,3 is not planar.

Proof: K3,3 has n = 6 and q = 9 ⇒ if it were planar, it would

5
X
have r = q − n + 2 = 5 regions Ri (1 ≤ i ≤ 5). Let C = b(Ri ).
i=1
Every edge is in contact with at most 2 regions
⇒ C ≤ 2 q = 18.
K3,3 is bipartite ⇒ C3 is no subgraph of K3,3 , thus b(Si ) ≥ 4
for all i, therefore C ≥ 4 · 5 = 20
⇒ contradiction, thus K3,3 can not be planar.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 7 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Consequences of Euler’s Formula

Corollary 2
If G is a planar graph with n ≥ 3 nodes and q edges then q ≤ 3 n − 6.
Moreover, if q = 3 n − 6 then b(S) = 3 for every region S of G .
r
X
Proof. Let R1 , . . . , Rr be the regions of G and C = b(Ri ). W̧e
i=1
know that C ≤ 2 q and C ≥ 3r (because b(Ri ) ≥ 3 for all i). Therefore
3 r ≤ 2 q ⇒ 3 (2 + q − n) ≤ 2 q ⇒ q ≤ 3n − 6.
If the equality holds,
Pr then
3 r = 2 q ⇒ C = i=1 b(Ri ) = 3 r ⇒ b(Ri ) = 3 for all regions Ri .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 8 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Consequences of Euler’s Formula

Corollary 2
If G is a planar graph with n ≥ 3 nodes and q edges then q ≤ 3 n − 6.
Moreover, if q = 3 n − 6 then b(S) = 3 for every region S of G .
r
X
Proof. Let R1 , . . . , Rr be the regions of G and C = b(Ri ). W̧e
i=1
know that C ≤ 2 q and C ≥ 3r (because b(Ri ) ≥ 3 for all i). Therefore
3 r ≤ 2 q ⇒ 3 (2 + q − n) ≤ 2 q ⇒ q ≤ 3n − 6.
If the equality holds,
Pr then
3 r = 2 q ⇒ C = i=1 b(Ri ) = 3 r ⇒ b(Ri ) = 3 for all regions Ri .

Corollary 3
K5 is not planar.

Proof: K5 has n = 5 nodes and q = 10 edges ⇒ 3 n − 6 = 9 < 10 = q

⇒ K5 can not be planar (Cf. Corollary 2).
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 8 / 31
 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Consequences of Euler’s Formula

Corollary 4
δ(G ) ≤ 5 for every planar graph G .

Proof: Suppose G has n nodes and q edges.

Case 1: n ≤ 6 ⇒ every node
X has degree ≤ 5 ⇒ δ(G ) ≤ 5.
Case 2: n > 6. Let D = deg(v ). Then
v ∈V

D = 2q (obvious)
≤ 2 (3 n − 6) (by Corollary 2)
= 6 n − 12.
X X
If δ(G ) ≥ 6 then D = deg(v ) ≥ 6 = 6 n, contradiction.
v ∈V v ∈V
Thus δ(G ) ≤ 5 holds.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 9 / 31
 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Subdivisions

Let G = (V , E ) be an undirected graph, and (x, y ) an edge.

A subdivision of (x, y ) in G is a replacement of the edge
(x, y ) in G with a path from x to y through some new
intermediate points.
A graph H is a subdivision of a graph G if H can be produced
from G through a finite sequence of edge divisions.

Example
. . . .
.
G: . H: . .
..
. . . .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 10 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Criteria to detect planar graphs

We say that a graph G contains a graph H if H can be produced

by removing edges and nodes from G .
Remark
If H is a subgraph of G then G contains H. The converse is false:
“G contains H” does not imply “H is a subgraph of G ”.
H is a subgraph of G iff it can be produced from G by node
removals.

Theorem (Kuratowski’s Theorem)

G is planar if and only if it contains no subdivisions of K3,3 and of
K5 .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 11 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Kuratowski’s Theorem
Illustrated examples

Apply Kuratowski’s Theorem to decide which of the following

graphs are planar or not:
3 2
7
1. 4 1

5 6
8
4 1

2. 5 2

6 3
7

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 12 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Kuratowski’s Theorem
Illustrated examples

Apply Kuratowski’s Theorem to decide which of the following

graphs are planar or not:
3 2
No, because it contains a subdivision of K3,3 :
7 1 7 2
1. 4 1 3 4

5 6
5 6
8
4 1

2. 5 2

6 3
7

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 12 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Kuratowski’s Theorem
Illustrated examples

Apply Kuratowski’s Theorem to decide which of the following

graphs are planar or not:
3 2
No, because it contains a subdivision of K3,3 :
7 1 7 2
1. 4 1 3 4

5 6
5 6
8 No, because it contains a subdivision of K3,3 :
4 1
4 3 2
2. 5 2 5 1

6 3 6 7 8
7

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 12 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Kuratowski’s Theorem
Illustrated examples

Apply Kuratowski’s Theorem to decide which of the following

graphs are planar or not:
3
4 2

3. 5 1

6 8
7
1

a1
2 5
a2 a5
4.
a3 a4

3 4

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 13 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Kuratowski’s Theorem
Illustrated examples

Apply Kuratowski’s Theorem to decide which of the following

graphs are planar or not:
3 No, because it contains a subdivision of K5 :
4 2 3
5
3. 1
5 1 2
6 4 7
6 8 8
7
1

a1
2 5
a2 a5
4.
a3 a4

3 4

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 13 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Kuratowski’s Theorem
Illustrated examples

Apply Kuratowski’s Theorem to decide which of the following

graphs are planar or not:
3 No, because it contains a subdivision of K5 :
4 2 3
5
3. 1
5 1 2
6 4 7
6 8 8
7
1

a1 No, because it contains a subdivision of K3,3 :

2 5 a4 4 5
a2 a5
4.
1 a1
a3 a4 a5 a2
a3 3 2
3 4

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 13 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Motivating problem

Alan, Bob, Carl, Dan, Elvis, Ford, Greg and John are senators
which comprise 7 committees:
C1 = {Alan, Bob, Carl}, C2 = {Carl, Dan, Elvis},
C3 = {Dan,Ford}, C4 = {Adam, Greg}, C5 = {Elvis, John},
C6 = {Elvis,Bob,Greg}, C7 = {John, Carl, Ford}.
Every committee must fix a meeting time. Since each senator must
be present at each of his or her committee meetings, the meeting
times need to be scheduled carefully.
Question: What is the minimum number of meeting times?

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 14 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Answer to the motivating problem

Remarks:
Two committees Ci and Cj can not meet simultaneously if
and only if they have a common member (i.e., Ci ∩ Cj = ∅).
⇒ we can consider the undirected graph G with
nodes = the committees C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 , C5 , C6 , C7
edges (Ci , Cj ) if Ci and Cj share a member (i.e., Ci ∩ Cj = ∅)
We color every node Ci with a colour representing its meeting
time Ci
⇒ the problem is reduced to: what is the minimum number of
colours that can be assigned to the nodes of G , such that no
edge has endpoints with the same colours?

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 15 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Answer to the motivating problem

C3
C2
C4
G: C1
C5
C7
C6

Definition (node colouring, chromatic number)

A k-colouring of the nodes of a graph G = (V , E ) is a map
K : V → {1, . . . , k} such that K (u) 6= K (v ) if (u, v ) ∈ E .
The chromatic number χ(G ) of a graph G is the minimum value
of k ∈ N for which there exists a k-colouring of G .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 16 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Answer to the motivating problem

C3
C2
C4 K (C1 ) = K (C3 ) = K (C5 ) = 1

G: C1 K (C2 ) = K (C4 ) = 2

C5 K (C6 ) = K (C7 ) = 3
C7
C6

Definition (node colouring, chromatic number)

A k-colouring of the nodes of a graph G = (V , E ) is a map
K : V → {1, . . . , k} such that K (u) 6= K (v ) if (u, v ) ∈ E .
The chromatic number χ(G ) of a graph G is the minimum value
of k ∈ N for which there exists a k-colouring of G .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 16 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Answer to the motivating problem

C3
C2
C4 K (C1 ) = K (C3 ) = K (C5 ) = 1

G: C1 K (C2 ) = K (C4 ) = 2

C5 K (C6 ) = K (C7 ) = 3
C7 ⇒ the minimum number is 3.
C6 (we need 3 colours)

Definition (node colouring, chromatic number)

A k-colouring of the nodes of a graph G = (V , E ) is a map
K : V → {1, . . . , k} such that K (u) 6= K (v ) if (u, v ) ∈ E .
The chromatic number χ(G ) of a graph G is the minimum value
of k ∈ N for which there exists a k-colouring of G .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 16 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Chromatic polynomials

The computation of χ(G ) is a hard problem (NP-complete).

Birkhoff (≈ 1900) found a method to compute a polynomial
cG (z) for any graph G , called the chromatic polynomial of G ,
such that
cG (k) = the number of k-colourings of the nodes of G
⇒ χ(G ) = niminum value of k for which cG (k) > 0.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 17 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Chromatic polynomials

The computation of χ(G ) is a hard problem (NP-complete).

Birkhoff (≈ 1900) found a method to compute a polynomial
cG (z) for any graph G , called the chromatic polynomial of G ,
such that
cG (k) = the number of k-colourings of the nodes of G
⇒ χ(G ) = niminum value of k for which cG (k) > 0.
We will present
1 simple formulas of cG (z) for some special graphs G .
2 two recursive algorithms for the computation of cG (z) for any
graph G .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 17 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Chromatic polynomials for special graphs

...
1 The empty graph En : v1 v2 vn

every node can be coloured with any of the z available colours:

⇒ cEn (z) = z n and χ(En ) = 1

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 18 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Chromatic polynomials for special graphs

...
1 The empty graph En : v1 v2 vn

every node can be coloured with any of the z available colours:

⇒ cEn (z) = z n and χ(En ) = 1
2 Tree Tn with n nodes:
z alternatives to colour the root node
any other node can be coloured with any colour different from
the colour of the parent node ⇒ z − 1 alternatives to colour it

1 if n = 1,
⇒ cTn (z) = z · (z − 1)n−1 and χ(Tn ) =
2 if n > 1.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 18 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Chromatic polynomials for special graphs

...
1 The empty graph En : v1 v2 vn

every node can be coloured with any of the z available colours:

⇒ cEn (z) = z n and χ(En ) = 1
2 Tree Tn with n nodes:
z alternatives to colour the root node
any other node can be coloured with any colour different from
the colour of the parent node ⇒ z − 1 alternatives to colour it

1 if n = 1,
⇒ cTn (z) = z · (z − 1)n−1 and χ(Tn ) =
2 if n > 1.
3 Special case: the graph Pn (path with n nodes) is a special
...
tree with n nodes: v1 v2 vn

n−1 1 if n = 1,
⇒ cPn (z) = z · (z − 1) and χ(Pn ) =
2 if n > 1.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 18 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Chromatic polynomials for special graphs

...
1 The empty graph En : v1 v2 vn

every node can be coloured with any of the z available colours:

⇒ cEn (z) = z n and χ(En ) = 1
2 Tree Tn with n nodes:
z alternatives to colour the root node
any other node can be coloured with any colour different from
the colour of the parent node ⇒ z − 1 alternatives to colour it

1 if n = 1,
⇒ cTn (z) = z · (z − 1)n−1 and χ(Tn ) =
2 if n > 1.
3 Special case: the graph Pn (path with n nodes) is a special
...
tree with n nodes: v1 v2 vn

n−1 1 if n = 1,
⇒ cPn (z) = z · (z − 1) and χ(Pn ) =
2 if n > 1.
4 Complete graph Kn :
cKn (z) = z · (z − 1) · . . . · (z − n + 1) and χ(Kn ) = n.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 18 / 31
 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

The computation of chromatic polynomials

Special operations on graphs

LEt G = (V , E ) be an undirected graph, and e = (x, y ) an edge

from E
I G − e is the graph produced from G by removing e
I G /e is the graph produced G as follows:
Collapse x and y into one node, whose neighbours are the
previous neighbours of x and y .

Example
a
w• • •z
b• •c
w
•
a
•
z
•
G − (b, c):
b• •c x• •y
G: a
w• • •z
x• •y • b&c
G /(b, c):
x• •y

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 19 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

The computation of chromatic polynomials

Recursive formulas

Note, that, for every e ∈ E : cG (z) = cG −e (z) − cG /e (z)

⇒ two algorithms for the recursive computation of the chromatic
polynomial:
1 Reduce G by eliminating edges e ∈ E one by one:

cG (z) = cG −e (z) − cG /e (z)

until we reach special polynomials En or Tn :

Base cases: cEn (z) = z n and cTn (z) = z · (z − 1)n−1
2 Extend G by adding edges that are missing from G :

cG (z) = cḠ (z) + cḠ /e (z)

where e is an edge missing from G , and Ḡ = G + e

Base case: cKn (z) = z · (z − 1) · . . . · (z − n + 1)
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 20 / 31
 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

The computation of the chromatic polynomial by reduction

Illustrated example

d
e c cG (z) = cG1 (z) − cG2 (z), where
G :
a b
d d
e c e c
G1 = G − (a, b): G2 = G /(a, b):
a b a&b

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 21 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

The computation of the chromatic polynomial by reduction

Illustrated example

d
e c cG (z) = cG1 (z) − cG2 (z), where
G :
a b
d d
e c e c
G1 = G − (a, b): G2 = G /(a, b):
a b a&b
cG1 (z) = cG11 (z) − cG12 (z) and cG2 (z) = cG21 (z) − cG22 (z), where
d d d d
e c e e c e
G11 : G12 : G21 : G22 :
a b a b&c a&b a&b&c

The following graphs are isomorphic: G12 ≡ G21 and G22 = K3 ,

thus:
cG (z) = cG11 (z) − 2 · cG12 (z) + z(z − 1)(z − 2)
| {z }
cK3 (z)

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 21 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

The computation of the chromatic polynomial by reduction

Illustrated example (continued)

cG (z) = cG11 (z) − 2 · cG12 (z) + z(z − 1)(z − 2)

d d
e c e
G11 : G12 :
a b a b&c

Note that
cG11 (z) = cT5 (z) − cT4 (z) = z(z − 1)4 − z(z − 1)3
cG12 (z) = cT4 (z) − cT3 (z) = z(z − 1)3 − z(z − 12 )

⇒ cG (z) =z(z − 1)4 − z(z − 1)3 − 2(z(z − 1)3 − z(z − 1)2 )

+ z(z − 1)(z − 2)
= z 5 − 7 z 4 + 18 z 3 − 20 z 2 + 8 z

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 22 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

The computation of the chromatic polynomial by extension

Illustrated example

d
e c cG (z) = cG1 (z) + cG2 (z), where
G :
a b
d d
e c c&e
G1 : G2 :
a b a b

cG2 (z) = z(z − 1)(z − 2)(z − 3) because G2 ≡ K4 , and

d d
e c c
G
cG1 (z) = cG11 (z) + cG12 (z) where 11 : G12 :
a b a b&e
d d
cG11 (z) = cG111 (z) + cG112 (z) e c e a&c
G111 : G112 :
= cK5 (z) + cK4 (z) where
a b b
G111 ≡ K5 G112 ≡ K4

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 23 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

The computation of the chromatic polynomial by extension

Illustrated example (continued)

cG (z) = cG1 (z) + cG2 (z) = (cG11 (z) + cG12 (z)) + cK4 (z)
= cK5 (z) + cK4 (z) + cG12 (z) + cK4 (z)

d
c
where G12 :
a b&e

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 24 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

The computation of the chromatic polynomial by extension

Illustrated example (continued)

cG (z) = cG1 (z) + cG2 (z) = (cG11 (z) + cG12 (z)) + cK4 (z)
= cK5 (z) + cK4 (z) + cG12 (z) + cK4 (z)

d
c
where G12 :
a b&e
cG12 (z) = cG121 (z) + cG122 (z) = cK4 (z) + cK3 (z) where
d d
c
where G121 : where G122 :
a b&e a&c b&e
G121 ≡ K4 G122 ≡ K3

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 24 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

The computation of the chromatic polynomial by extension

Illustrated example (continued)

cG (z) = cG1 (z) + cG2 (z) = (cG11 (z) + cG12 (z)) + cK4 (z)
= cK5 (z) + cK4 (z) + cG12 (z) + cK4 (z)

d
c
where G12 :
a b&e
cG12 (z) = cG121 (z) + cG122 (z) = cK4 (z) + cK3 (z) where
d d
c
where G121 : where G122 :
a b&e a&c b&e
G121 ≡ K4 G122 ≡ K3

⇒ cG (z) = cK5 (z) + 3cK4 (z) + cK3 (z) = z 5 − 7 z 4 + 18 z 3 − 20 z 2 + 8 z

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 24 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Properties of the chromatic polynomial

If G = (V , E ) is an undeirected graph with n nodes and q edges

then the chromatic polynomial cG (z) satisfies the following
conditions:
I It has degree n.
I The coefficient of z n is 1.
I Its coefficients have alternating signs.
I The constant term is 0.
I The coefficient of z n−1 is −q.

Example
d
e c n = 5, q = 7
G : cG (z) = z 5 − 7 z 4 + 18 z 3 − 20 z 2 + 8 z
a b

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 25 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Remarkable results
Maps and planar graphs

Every country from a planar map is represented by a node (a

point inside it)
Two nodes get connected if and only if their respective
countries share a nontrivial border (mode than just a dot).
⇒ undirected graph GH corresponding to a map H. For example:

Remark: H is a planar map if and only if GH is a planar

graph.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 26 / 31
 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Remarkable results
4-colourings of a map

The countries of a planar map H can be coloured with 4

colours, such that no two neighbouring countries have the
same colour.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 27 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Remarkable results
4-colourings of a map

The countries of a planar map H can be coloured with 4

colours, such that no two neighbouring countries have the
same colour.

Remarks

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 27 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Remarkable results
4-colourings of a map

The countries of a planar map H can be coloured with 4

colours, such that no two neighbouring countries have the
same colour.

Remarks
1 This is one of the most famous problems from Graph Theory

Extremely long, tedious, and complex proof

The problem was proposed in 1858; first proof was given in
1976 (Appel & Haken)
The problem is equivalent with the statement that the planar
graph GH is 4-colorable.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 27 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

Remarkable results
4-colourings of a map

The countries of a planar map H can be coloured with 4

colours, such that no two neighbouring countries have the
same colour.

Remarks
1 This is one of the most famous problems from Graph Theory

Extremely long, tedious, and complex proof

The problem was proposed in 1858; first proof was given in
1976 (Appel & Haken)
The problem is equivalent with the statement that the planar
graph GH is 4-colorable.
2 This theorem is equivalent with the statement:
χ(G ) ≤ 4 for every planar graph G .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 27 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

5-colourings of planar maps

The countries of a planar map H can be coloured with 5
colours, such that no two neighbouring countries have the
same colour. or, equivqlently: χ(G ) ≤ 5 for every planar graph G .
Proof: Induction on n = the number of nodes of G .
The statement is obvious for n ≥ 5, thus we assume n ≥ 6.
δ(G ) ≤ 5 by Corollary 4, thus G has a node v with deg(v ) ≤ 5.
Let G 0 be the graph produced by removing v from G ⇒ G 0 has
n − 1 nodes, thus χ(G 0 ) ≤ 5 by Inductive Hypothesis. Therefore,
we can assume G 0 has a 5-colouring with colours 1,2,3,4,5.
Case 1: deg(G ) = d ≤ 4. Let v1 , . . . , vd be the neighbours of v ,
with colours c1 , . . . , cd .
c1 cd
v1 vd for v we can choose any colour
v c ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} − {c1 , . . . , cd }
v ⇒ G is 5-colourable.
c2 2

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 28 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

5-colourings of planar maps

Proof (continued)

Case 2: deg(v ) = 5, thus v has 5 neighbours v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 ,

which we assume to be coloured with c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 , c5 , respectively.
1 If {c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 , c5 } =
6 {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, we can colour v with any
colour c ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} − {c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 , c5 } ⇒ G is
5-colourable.
2 If {c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 , c5 } = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, we can assume
c1 = 1, c2 = 2, c3 , c4 = 4, c5 = 5.
2
v2
3 v3 v1 1
v
4 v4 v5 5

Main idea: We will rearrange the colours of G 0 in order to make

possible a colouring of v .
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 29 / 31
 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

5-colourings of planar maps

Proof (continued)

2
v2
3 v3 v1 1
v
4 v4 v5 5

We consider all nodes of G 0 which are coloured with 1 (red) and 3 (green).
Case 2.1. G 0 has no path from v1 to v3 coloured only with 1 and 3.
Let H be the subgraph of G 0 made of all paths starting from v1 which are coloured
only with 1 (red) and 3 (green).
. . .
. . . .
. .
v

. .

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 30 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

5-colourings of planar maps

Proof (continued)

2
v2
3 v3 v1 1
v
4 v4 v5 5

We consider all nodes of G 0 which are coloured with 1 (red) and 3 (green).
Case 2.1. G 0 has no path from v1 to v3 coloured only with 1 and 3.
Let H be the subgraph of G 0 made of all paths starting from v1 which are coloured
only with 1 (red) and 3 (green).
. . .
. . . .
. .
v

. .

V [v3 ] ∩ V (H) = ∅, that is, neither v3 nor any of its neighbours is a node of H.

Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 30 / 31

 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

5-colourings of planar maps

Proof (continued)

2
v2
3 v3 v1 1
v
4 v4 v5 5

We consider all nodes of G 0 which are coloured with 1 (red) and 3 (green).
Case 2.1. G 0 has no path from v1 to v3 coloured only with 1 and 3.
Let H be the subgraph of G 0 made of all paths starting from v1 which are coloured
only with 1 (red) and 3 (green).
. . .
. . . .
. .
v

. .

V [v3 ] ∩ V (H) = ∅, that is, neither v3 nor any of its neighbours is a node of H.
We can interchange colours 1 and 3 in H, and afterwards assign colour 1 (red)
to v ⇒ G is 5-colourable.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 30 / 31
 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

5-colourings of planar maps

Proof (continued)

2
v2
3 v3 v1 1
v
4 v4 v5 5

We consider all nodes of G 0 which are coloured with 1 (red) and 3 (green).
Case 2.1. G 0 has no path from v1 to v3 coloured only with 1 and 3.
Let H be the subgraph of G 0 made of all paths starting from v1 which are coloured
only with 1 (red) and 3 (green).
. . . . . .
. . . . colour inter- . . . .
. . change in H . .
v v

. . . .

V [v3 ] ∩ V (H) = ∅, that is, neither v3 nor any of its neighbours is a node of H.
We can interchange colours 1 and 3 in H, and afterwards assign colour 1 (red)
to v ⇒ G is 5-colourable.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 30 / 31
 Planar graphs
Graph colourings

5-colourings of planar maps

Proof (continued)

2 v2
3 v3 v1 1
v
4 v4 v5 5

Case 2.2. G 0 has a path from v1 to v3 coloured only with colours 1 and 3 ⇒ we are
in one of the following two situations:

v2
v2 v3 v1
v3 v1
v
v or
v4 v5
v4 v5

In both cases, there can be no path from v2 to v4 coloured only with 2 and 4 ⇒ case
2.1 is applicable to nodes v2 and v4 ⇒ G is 5-colourable in this case too.
Isabela Drămnesc UVT Graph Theory and Combinatorics – Lecture 13 31 / 31