Introduction to

Nanoscience & Technology

Unit-1: Introduction
• What is special about the nanometer?
• What is Nano sceince and technology?
• Nano The Begining?
• How are nanotechnologies used today?
• What is the future of Nanotechnology?
• What are the safety, hazard and public
policy issues with Nanotechnology?
• Research & development of nanoscience
What is special about the nanometer

nano is a prefix as in nanometer, nanoamper, nanosecond, etc. referring to 10-9m

In this size regime, matter exhibits unusual properties, which makes this science
unique. The variation of properties as a function of size occurs in different materials
differently.

The variation of properties in nanomaterials is unique. There is no example in the

history of science, where properties of materials change with size without change in
chemical composition, except in this size range- that is central aspect of all
properties of a nanoscale materials.
 Definition
“Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at
dimensions of roughly 1 to 100 nanometers, where unique
phenomena enable novel applications.”

“Encompassing nanoscale science, engineering and technology,

nanotechnology involves imaging, measuring, modeling, and
manipulating matter at this length scale.”

7
 History of Nanotechnology – First
Example
The “Lycurgus Cup” is
a Roman artifact from
before 640 AD.

Red in transmitted light and green in reflected light. The

glass contains 70nm particles as seen in the TEM.
8
 History of Nanotechnology –
Stained Glass
As early as 500 AD,
glass artisans were
making stained glass
windows with vibrant
reds and yellows.
These colours were
much more luminous
and durable than dyes
could produce.
They were the products of “coinage metal” nanoparticles
imbedded in the glass.

9
 Why Now?
Richard Feynman’s famous presentation “There’s Plenty
of Room at the Bottom” was in the 1959 at the
American Physical Society.
Here he asked:
•Why can’t we manipulate materials atom by atom?
• Why can’t we control the synthesis of individual
molecules?
•Why can’t we write all of human knowledge on the
head of a pin?
•Why can’t we build machines to accomplish these
things?
 Impact of Nanotechnology
The benefit of nanotechnology is the ability to introduce new
characteristics from materials:
•Antibacterial behaviour
•Colour
•Conductivity
•Tensile strength
•Chemical behaviour
•Interaction with water
•“Self-cleaning”

11
How are nanotechnologies used
today?
• The majority of nanotechnologies
commercially used today are based on
nano-sized particles.
• Nanoscale ZnO has been used for its UV
absorbing properties to create sunscreen.
• The particles' small size makes them
invisible to the naked eye, so the lotion is
clear.
A breakthrough in the clothing
industry
• Small whisker-like particles are used to coat
the surface fibers of the fabric, creating a
stain-repelling surface.
• Healthcare companies are now marketing
antimicrobial bandages coated with silver
nanocrystals.
• Meanwhile, silver nanoparticles on the
surfaces of many new refrigerators, air
conditioners, and laundry machines act as
antibacterial and antifungal agents.
 Semiconductor particles, or
quantum dots
• By changing the size of the quantum dot the
color emitted can be controlled.
• With a single light source, one can see the
entire range of visible colors, an advantage
over traditional organic dyes.

Color depends on particle size

Quantum dots 3.2 nm in diameter have blue emission
Quantum dots 5 nm in diameter have red emission
 Nanocomposites
• Plastic nanocomposites are used for strong, lighter,
and rust-proof car components. Toyota recently
began using nanocomposites in bumpers that makes
them 60% lighter and twice as resistant to denting
and scratching.

• The biomedical field is manufacturing artificial bone

composites from nanocrystalline calcium phosphates.
These composites are made of the same mineral as
natural bone, yet have strength in compression equal
to stainless steel.
 The future of Nanotechnology
• Nanotechnology is expected to have an
impact on nearly every industry.
• The U.S. National Science Foundation has
predicted that the global market for
nanotechnologies will reach $1 trillion or
more within 20 years.
• The research community is actively pursuing
hundreds of applications in nanomaterials,
nanoelectronics, and bionanotechnology.
• Most near term (1-5 years) applications of
nanotechnology are in the form of
nanomaterials. These include materials
such as lighter and stronger
nanocomposites, antibacterial
nanoparticles, and nanostructured catalysts.
• Nanodevices and nanoelectronics are
farther off, perhaps 5-15 years, and will
have applications in medical treatments
and diagnostics, faster computers, and in
sensors.
 Benefits + Risks
An automated, self-contained factory could provide...
 Benefits + Risks
An automated, self-contained factory could provide...

Lifesaving medical Untraceable weapons of

robots or mass destruction
 Benefits + Risks
An automated, self-contained factory could provide...

Lifesaving medical Untraceable weapons of

robots or mass destruction

Networked computers for Networked cameras so governments

everyone in the world or can watch our every move
 Benefits + Risks
An automated, self-contained factory could provide...

Lifesaving medical Untraceable weapons of

robots or mass destruction

Networked computers for Networked cameras so governments

everyone in the world or can watch our every move

Trillions of dollars of A vicious scramble to

abundance or own everything
 Benefits + Risks
An automated, self-contained factory could provide...

Lifesaving medical Untraceable weapons of

robots or mass destruction

Networked computers for Networked cameras so governments

everyone in the world or can watch our every move

Trillions of dollars of A vicious scramble to

abundance or own everything

Rapid invention of Weapons development fast enough

wondrous products or to destabilize any arms race
 Benefits + Risks
An automated, self-contained factory could provide...

Lifesaving medical Untraceable weapons of

robots
AND mass destruction

Networked computers for Networked cameras so governments

everyone in the world
AND can watch our every move

Trillions of dollars of A vicious scramble to

abundance
AND own everything

Rapid invention of Weapons development fast enough

wondrous products
AND to destabilize any arms race
 Innovation & Economy
 Not just new products — a new means of production
 Manufacturing systems that make more manufacturing
systems — exponential proliferation
 Vastly accelerated product improvement — cheap rapid
prototyping
 Affects all industries and economic sectors — general-
purpose technology
 Inexpensive raw materials, potentially negligible capital cost
— economic discontinuity
 Portable, desktop-size factories — social disruption
 Impacts will cross borders — global transformation
 Dangers

Economic disruption from an abundance of cheap products

Economic oppression from artificially inflated prices

Personal risk from criminal or terrorist use

Constant intrusive surveillance

Oppression from abusive restrictions

Social disruption from new products/lifestyles

Unstable arms race leading to war

Collective environmental damage from unregulated products

Black market in molecular manufacturing (increases other risks)

Competing nanotechnology programs (increases other risks)
. . . and many more
 Rapid Progress
 Nucleic acid / protein engineering
 NASA study on machine self-replication
 Solution-phase artificial molecular machines
 Tool fabrication process for diamond
mechanosynthesis
 Russian roadmap
 Drexler’s roadmap
 Nanofactory design
The Next Industrial Revolution

Fifth Revolution
(2020? – ??)
Based in Developing World?
China? India? Brazil?

Nanotechnology

Molecular Manufacturing
 Nanotechnology Leadership
What it WILL NOT require:
• Heavy industry
• Scarce natural resources
• Massive capital
 Nanotechnology Leadership
What it WILL require:
• Highly educated scientists and
engineers
• Long-term (5-15 years) dedicated
effort
 Nanotechnology Leadership
What it SHOULD require:
• Openness
• Cooperation
UNDERSTANDING SIZE
Nano crystals
Nano powders
Nano Tubes
Nano wires
Nano wires
Classification of Nanostructures

0D Nanostructures

1D Nanostructures

2D Nano structures

3D Nanostructures
Quantum Confinement:
Quantum Structures
Tunneling:
Examples of Nano-Materials
Thin Films:

thin = less than about one micron ( 10,000 Angstroms,1000 nm) film = layer
of material on a substrate

• (if no substrate, it is a "foil")

Evaporation Techniques:

1. Resistive Heating
2. Electron beam Evaporation
3. Laser Abelation
4. Flash Evaporation

Sputtering Techniques

1. DC Sputtering
2. RF

1. Transition of the condensed phase ( solid or liquid ) into the gaseous state.
2. Traversal by the vapor of the space between the vapor source and the
substrate ( i.e., transport of vapor from the source to the substrate).
3. Condensation of the vapor upon arrival at the substrate ( i.e., deposition of
these particles on the substrate).
Resistive Heating/ Thermal evporation

Source Materials

1. Tungsten, Tantalum, Molybdenum- High melting points and low vapor

pressure

Types of sources
Draw backs:

1. They can be used only for metals or congruently evaporation alloys

2. Only a limited quantity of the materials can be evaporated at a time.

3. The material to be evaporated should wet the resistive filament wire upon

melting

4. Once heated, these elements become very fragile/brittle and will break if

not handled carefully.

Flash Evaporation:
Electron Beam Evaporation:
Laser Ablation:
Advantages:

1. Lasers are clean and introduce minimal contamination from heat source.

2. Film contamination from the support material is reduced because of the

surface evaporation characteristics beam

3. With the high power densities obtained by focusing the laser beams, high

melting point materials can be vaporized at high deposition rates.

4. Because of the small beam divergence, the laser and the associated

equipment could be kept far away, an attractive feature in radioactive areas.

5. Simultaneous or sequential multisource evaporation can be done easily by

directing the laser beam with external mirrors.

Fabrication of IC
 Introduction
Photolithography
• Temporarily coat photoresist on wafer
• Transfers designed pattern to photoresist
• Most important process in IC fabrication
• 40 to 50% total wafer process time
• Determines the minimum feature size

Hong Xiao, Ph. D. www2.austin.cc.tx.us/HongXiao/Book.htm 78

 Applications of Photolithography
• Main application: IC patterning process
• Other applications: Printed electronic board,
nameplate, printer plate, and et al.

Hong Xiao, Ph. D. www2.austin.cc.tx.us/HongXiao/Book.htm 79

 Film Deposition in IC Fabrication

Metal Contacts/Connections Low stress

Electrodes Adherent
Masks Uniformity, no pin holes
Wire insulation Conformal step coverage
Device encapsulation Thermal & electrical stability
 IC Processing Flow
Materials IC Fab

Dielectric Test
Metallizatio CM
depositio
n P
n
Wafers

Thermal Etch Packaging

Implant
Processes PR strip PR strip
Masks

Photo- Final Test

lithograp
hy
IC Design

81
 Photoresist

• Photo sensitive material

• Temporarily coated on wafer surface
• Transfer design image on it through
exposure
• Very similar to the photo sensitive
coating on the film for camera

82
 Photoresist

Negative Positive
Photoresist Photoresist
• Becomes • Becomes soluble
insoluble after after exposure
exposure
• When developed,
• When developed, the exposed parts
the unexposed dissolved
parts dissolved.
• Better resolution
• Cheaper 83
 Negative and Positive
Photoresists
Photoresist
Substrate

UV light
Mask/reticle

Photoresist
Exposure
Substrate

Negative
Photoresist
Substrate After
Positive Development
Photoresist
Substrate

84
Comparison of Photoresists

− PR + PR
Film Film

Substrate Substrate

85
Steps Used in Photolithography

Surface cleaning

Barrier layer formation (Oxidation)

Spin coating with photoresist

Soft baking

Mask alignment

Exposure

Etching

Removal of Photoresist/Development
Surface Cleaning

2-5 min. soak in acetone with ultrasonic agitation

2-5 min. soak in methanol with ultrasonic agitation

2-5 min. soak in DI H2 O with ultrasonic agitation

30 sec. rinse under free flowing DI H2 O

Spin rinse dry for wafers; N2 blow off dry for tools

Barrier layer formation (Oxidation)

in order to enhance a chemical process.

Example: thermal oxidation to Si to form SiO2.

Placing a batch of wafers in clean silica (Quartz) tube which can be heated
to very high temperatures

An oxygen containing gas such as dry O2 or H2) is flowed into the tube at
atmospheric pressure
Photoresist Spin Coating

The Si wafers are fist covered with an UV light sensitive organic material

or photemulsion called photoresist by dispensing the liquid resist onto the

wafer an spinning it rapidly (maxm 3000 rpm) to form a uniform coating.

Soft baking

To evaporate the coating solvent and to densify the resist after spin
coating.

Temperature : 90-100°C for 20 min. in a convection oven, 75-85°C for

45 sec. on a hot plate
Mask alignment

This involves first generating a retile/pattern which is a transparent silica plate
containing the desired pattern.

Opaque regions on the mask are made up of an UV light absorbing layer, such
as iron oxide.

The reticle typically contains the patterns corresponding to a single chip or die.

Exposure:

The UV light Shines on the Resist –covered wafer through Masking causing the

exposed regions to become soluble, is called Positive resist,

if exposed regions are insoluble is called Negative resist.

Etching:

After the photoresist pattern is formed, it can be used as a mask to etch the

material underneath.

HF can be use to etch SIO2 layers grown on a Si Substrate.

Removal of Photoresist:

The following chemicals are used to remove the Photoresist layers

Positive photoresists removal chemicals: acetone, trichloroethylene
(TCE), phenol-based strippers (Indus-Ri-Chem J-100

Negative photoresists chemicals: methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), CH3
COC2 H5, methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK), CH3 COC4 H9
 Sputter deposition

Figure : Schematic
diagram of DC-
powered sputter
deposition
equipment.

• Plasma is needed to make the gas conductive, and generated ions can then be
accelerated to strike the target.
• low pressures than evaporation: 1-100 mTorr.
• Better at depositing alloys and compounds than evaporation.
• The plasma contains ≈ equal numbers of positive argon ions and electrons as well
as neutral argon atoms. Typically only <0.01% atoms are ionized!

94
 Sputtering process
• Sputtering process can be run in DC or
RF mode (insulator must be run in RF
mode)
• Major process parameters:
o Operation pressure (∼1-100mTorr)
o Power (few 100W)
o For DC sputtering, voltage -2 to -5kV.
o Additional substrate bias voltage.
o Substrate temperature (20-700oC)
In addition to IC industry, a wide range of industrial
products use sputtering: LCD, computer hard
drives, hard coatings for tools, metals on plastics.
It is more widely used for industry than evaporator,
partly because that, for evaporation:
• There are very few things (rate and substrate
temperature) one can do to tailor film property.
• The step coverage is poor.
• It is not suitable for compound or alloy Targets for sputter deposition.
deposition.
• Considerable materials are deposited on 95

chamber walls and wasted.

 Sputter deposition advantages
Advantages:
• Able to deposit a wide variety of metals, insulators, alloys and composites.
• Replication of target composition in the deposited films.
• Capable of in-situ cleaning prior to film deposition by reversing the potential on
the electrodes .
• Better film quality and step coverage than evaporation.
• More reproducible deposition control – same deposition rate for same process
parameters (not true for evaporation), so easy film thickness control via time.
• Can use large area targets for uniform thickness over large substrates.
• Sufficient target material for many depositions.

Disadvantages:
• Substrate damage due to ion bombardment or UV generated by plasma.
• Higher pressures 1 –100 mtorr ( < 10-5 torr in evaporation), more
contaminations unless using ultra clean gasses and ultra clean targets.
• Deposition rate of some materials quite low.
• Some materials (e.g., organics) degrade due to ionic bombardment.
• Most of the energy incident on the target becomes heat, which must be
removed.
96
 Mechanisms of sputtering and alloy sputtering
The ion impact may set up a series of
collisions between atoms of the target,
possibly leading to the ejection of
some of these atoms. This ejection
process is known as sputtering.

Unlike evaporation, composition of

alloy in film is approximately the same
as target.
Target NOT melted, slow diffusion (no
material flow) mixing.
When target reaches steady state,
surface composition balances sputter
yield.
97
 DC plasma

Plasma is ionized gas, with nearly

equal number of ions and electrons,
plus neutrals (un-ionized molecules
including those at ground state and
excited state; free radicals such as
atomic O, H, F – but no free radicals
for Ar plasma).
Glow is due to de-excitation of excited
Ar.
So glow only exists where there are
lots of electrons to excite Ar.
Cathode glow region: very close to
cathode, secondary electrons are
created by Ar bombardment of target e is decelerated
material. (!!) toward
anode
Cathode dark space/sheath: electrons
pass too fast with little excitation.
Electron impact ionization
Anode sheath: electrons lost to anode
98
due to its faster random movement.
 Explanation of DC plasma structure
Different velocities in a plasma:
Thermal energy random movement of Ar – 400 m/sec, order (kBT/mAr)1/2.
Thermal energy random movement of electron – 10000 m/sec.
Velocity of Ar with energy 100eV – 20000 m/sec.
Velocity of electrons with energy 100eV – 6000000 m/sec.
Thus plasma is highly conducting due to fast electrons – very little voltage drop in
the plasma area where electrons are rich.
Voltage drop is only possible near the electrodes where electrons may lost to the
electrode.
Even without applied voltage (assume plasma still exist), voltage drop may still exist
due to faster random electrons movement that leads to their lost to electrode.
Therefore, the plasma is always positively biased relative to any electrode or
anything (floating or not) inside the plasma.
This positive bias will accelerate positive Ar
ion to strike the electrode.
But the bias VP near the anode is very small
(∼10V), so no significant sputtering of the
substrate.
The total bias (VP plus applied voltage) is
very high, leading to sputtering of cathode
(target). 99
 Properties of
Nano-Materials
 Why properties of Nano Materials are different ?

The properties of Nano Materials are very much

different from those at a larger scale.
Two principal factors cause the properties of Nano
Materials to differ significantly from other materials.

1.Increased relative surface area.

2.Quantum confinement effect.
These factors can charge or enhance properties such as
reactivity , strength and electrical characteristics.
 Microstructure vs. Nanostructure

Microstructure Nanostructure
/ Bulk

• Physics Semi-classical Q. mechanical

• Electron’s nature Particle-like Wave-like
• E or k-space Continuous Discrete
• Current Continuous Quantized
• Decision Deterministic Probabilistic
• Fabrication Micro-fabrication Nano-fabrication
•Surface:volume Small Very large
• Packing Low Very high
 Increase in a Surface Area to Volume ratio

Nano Materials have a relatively larger Surface area when

compared to the same volume or mass of the material
produced in a larger form.

Let us consider a Sphere of radius “r”.

Its Surface Area =4πr2.
Its volume= 4/3πr3
Surface Area to Volume Ratio= 3/r.
Thus when the radius of the Sphere decreases , its Surface
to Volume ratio increases.
 1m

surface area = 6 ×1m 2 ⇒ 6m 2


Let us consider one Cubic Volume shown in figure its the
Surface Area is 6m2 .

When it is divided into eight pieces its Surface Area
becomes 12m2, similarly When the same volume is divided
into 27 pieces its Surface Area becomes 18m2.

Thus we find that when the given volume is divided into
smaller pieces the Surface Area increases.

Hence as particle size decreases a greater proportion of
atoms are found at the surface compared to those inside.

Nano particles have a much greater surface area per given
volume compared with larger particles. It makes materials
more Chemically reactive.
1
m
2

1 2
surface area = 6 × ( m) × 8 = 12m2
2
 Surface Area
The total surface area (or) the number of surface atom increases with reducing
size of the particles
 Quantum Confinement

In Nano Crystals, the Electronic energy levels are not

continuous as in the bulk but are discrete (finite
density of states), because of the confinement of the
electronic Wave function to the physical dimensions
of the particles. This phenomenon is called
Quantum confinement and therefore Nano Crystals
are also referred to as quantum dots (QDs).
 Properties of Nano Materials

Nano Materials have properties that are different

from those of bulk materials.
Most Nano structure materials are Crystalline in
nature and they posses unique properties.
 Physical Properties of Nanomaterials
● Nano-sized condensed matter exhibits some
remarkable specific properties that may be
significantly different from the physical properties of
bulk materials. Some are known, but there may be a
lot more to be discovered.
● Origins：(i) large fraction of surface atoms,

(ii) large surface energy,

(iii) spatial confinement, and
(iv) reduced imperfections.
110
● Examples：
• Lower melting point or phase transition
temperature,
• Reduced lattice constants,
• Enhanced mechanical properties
• Different optical properties
• Higher or lower electrical conductivity
• Different magnetic properties
• Enhanced chemical reacitivity
● Many such properties are size dependent.
Properties of nanostructured materials can
be tuned considerably simply by adjusting
the size, shape or extent of agglomeration.
111
 Melting Point

The melting point decreases dramatically as the particle size gets below 5 nm

Source: Nanoscale Materials in Chemistry, Wiley, 2001

Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of materials usually increase
with decreasing size. →not always true.

a whisker can have a mechanical strength approaching to

the theoretical.
● The increase of mechanical strength
becomes appreciable only when the
diameter of a whisker is less than 10
microns.
● The enhancement in mechanical strength
starts in micron meter scale, which is
noticeably different from other property size
dependence. 113
 Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties improve as size decreases
• High atomic perfection

Strength (kg/mm)

d (µm)

Mechanical Strength of NaCl whiskers

114
Gyulai, Z. Z. Phys. 138, 317 (1954).
 Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties improve as size decreases
• High atomic perfection

Can fail due to high internal stress

115
http://hysitron.com/Portals/0/Updated%20Address/PICO02AN%20r1.f.pdf
Optical properties
● The reduction of materials’ dimension has
pronounced effects on the optical properties

─ One is due to the increased energy level

spacing →quantum size effect

─ the other is related to surface plasmon

resonance.

116
Quantum size effects
● When the size of a nanocrystal (i.e. a single
crystal nanoparticle) is smaller than the de
Broglie wavelength, electrons and holes are
spatially confined and electric dipoles are
formed, and discrete electronic energy level
would be formed in all materials. Similar to a
particle in a box, the energy separation
between adjacent levels increases with
decreasing dimenaions.

117
Size Effect: Optical Spectra

• Shift to higher energy in smaller size

• Discrete structure of spectra
• Increased absorption intensity

A.P.Alivisatos, J. Phys. Chem. 100, 13227 (1996)

 Particles & Light
Particles interact differently with light
Structures are smaller than wavelength of visible light

1X 220X 5000X 20,000X

• Photonic Crystals
• Surface Plasmon Resonance
• Quantum Dot Fluorescence

11912,
Militaries Study Animals for Cutting-Edge Camouflage. James Owen in England for National Geographic News March
2003, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B (1999) 266, 1403-1411
Optical Properties: Surface Plasmon Resonance
•Surface plasmon resonance is the coherent
excitation of all the "free" electrons within the
conduction band, leading to an in-phase
oscillation.

•When the size of a metal nanocrystal is smaller

than the wavelength of incident radiation, a
surface plasmon resonance is generated.

• The figure shows schematically how a surface

plasmon oscillation is created. The electric field
of an incoming light induces a polarization of the
free electrons relative to the cationic lattice.

•The net charge difference occurs at the

nanoparticle boundaries (the surface), which in
turn acts as a restoring force. In this manner a
dipolar oscillation of electrons is created with a
certain frequency.
 Electrical properties
• The electronic structure of Nano materials is
different from its bulk material.
• The density of the energy states in the conduction
band changes.
• When the energy spacing between two energy
levels is more than KBT , energy gap is created.
• Nano clusters of different sizes will have different
electronic structures and different energy level
separations.
• The Ionization potential at Nano sizes are higher
than that for the bulk materials
Electrical conductivity
Mechanisms for the effects of size on electrical
conductivity of nanostructures and nanomaterials
can be generally grouped into four categories:
● Surface scattering

● quantized conduction

● coulomb charging and tunneling

● widening and discrete of band gap

Other factors:
● Change of microstructures

● Increased perfection

123
Surface scattering
● Electrical conduction in metals or (Ohmic conduction)
can be described by the various electron scattering,
the total resistivity, ρT, is a combination of individual
and independent scattering, known as Matthiessen’s
rule：
rule
ρT＝ ρTh＋ ρD
ρTh：the thermal resistivity：andρD：the
defect resistivity
Thermal or phonon contribution, increases linearly
with temperature.

124
• The electrons undergo either elastic or inelastic
scattering. In elastic, also known as specular,
scattering, the electron does not lose its energy and
its momentum or velocity along the direction parallel
to the surface the electrical conductivity remains the
same.
• When scattering is totally inelastic, or nonspecular or
diffuse, the scattered electron loses its velocity along
the direction parallel to the surface or the
conduction direction, and the electrical conductivity
decrease. There will be a size effect on electrical
conduction.

125
Change of electronic structure
• A reduction in characteristic dimension below a
critical, i.e. the electron de Broglie wavelength, would
result in a change of electronic structure, leading to
widening and discrete band gap (changing optical
properties and a reduced electrical conductivity)

• Some metal nanowires may undergo a transition to

become semiconducting and semiconductor
nanowires may become insulators. (quantum size
effects)
• For example, single crystalline Bi nanowires undergo a
metal-to-semiconductor transition at a diameter
of~52nm. Si nanowires of ~15 nm became insulating.

126
Quantum transport
Ballistic Conduction
● Ballistic conduction occurs when the length of conductor is
smaller than the electron mean-free path. In this case,

● Each transverse waveguide mode or conducting channel

contributes G0＝2e2/h＝12.9kΩ-1 to the total conductance.

● No energy is dissipated in the conduction,

● The conductance of arc-produced multi-wall carbon nanotubes

is one unit of the conductance quantum G0, and no heat
dissipation is observed. Extremely high stable current
densities, J＞107 A/cm2 have been attained.

127
Coulomb blockade
● Coulomb blockade (or Coulomb charging or
Coulombic staircase) occurs when the contact
resistance is larger than the resistance of
nanostructures in question and when the total
capacitance of the object is so small that adding a
single electron requires significant charging energy.

● A discrete electron configuration permits one to pick

up the electric charge one electron at a time, at
specific voltage values.

● Nanoparticles with diameters below 2-3nm: Single

electron transistors (SETs)

128
Tunneling conduction
• Tunneling conduction：charge transport through an
insulating medium separating two conductors that
are extremely closely spaced.
• The electrical conductivity decreases exponentially
with increasing thickness of insulting layer.
• Electrons are able to tunnel through the dielectric
material when an electric is applied.
• Tunneling conduction is not a material property, but
is a system property depending on the characteristic
dimension.

129
Effect of microstructure
• Electrical conductivity may change due to the
formation of ordered microstructure, when the size
is reduced to a nanometer scale.
• For example, polymer fibers within nanometer fibris,
polymers are aligned parallel to the axis of the fibris,
which results in increased contribution of
intramolecular conduction and reduced contribution
of intermolecular conduction.
• Since intermolecular conduction is far smaller than
intramolecular conduction, ordered arrangement of
polymers with polymer chains aligned result in an
increased electrical conduction.
• A lower synthesis temperature also favors a better
alignment and thus a higher electrical conductivity.

130
 Band gap
The band gap is increases with reducing the size of the particles
 Medicine Electronic Industry
• Drug delivery systems • Data memory
• Active agents • Displays
• Medical rapid tests • Laser diodes
• Antimicrobial agents • Glass fibers
and coatings. • Filters
• Agents in cancer • Conductive, antistatic
therapy. coatings.
Applications of Nano Materials
 1. Nanotechnology Applications in Medicine

• Because of their small size, nanoscale devices can readily interact with
biomolecules on both the surface of cells and inside of cells.
• By gaining access to so many areas of the body, they have the potential to detect
disease and the deliver treatment.

• Nanoparticles can deliver drugs directly to diseased cells in your

body.
• Nanomedicine is the medical use of molecular- sized particles to
deliver drugs, heat, light or other substances to specific cells in the
human body.
• Quantum dot- that identify the location of cancer cells in the
body.
• Nano Particles - that deliver chemotherapy drugs directly to cancer
cells to minimize damage to healthy cells.
• Nanoshells - that concentrate the heat from infrared light to destroy
cancer cells with minimal damage to surrounding healthy cells.
• Nanotubes- used in broken bones to provide a structure for new bone
material to grow.
Nano shells as Cancer Therapy
Nano shells are injected into cancer area and they recognize cancer cells. Then by
applying near-infrared light, the heat generated by the light-absorbing Nano shells has
successfully killed tumor cells while leaving neighboring cells intact.
 Nanowires – used as medical sensor

• Nano sized sensing wires are laid down across a micro fluidic channel. As
particles flow through the micro fluidic channel, the Nanowire sensors pick up the
molecular identifications of these particles and can immediately relay this
information through a connection of electrodes to the outside world.
• These Nanodevices are man-made constructs made with carbon, silicon
Nanowire.
• They can detect the presence of altered genes associated with cancer and may
help researchers pinpoint the exact location of those changes