Simple vs multiple sentences

Simple sentence
 a sentence structure that contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses
 can contain a compound subjects or verbs
 Jim and John play football every afternoon.  compound subjects + verb

Multiple sentence
 a sentence consisting of two or more clauses
 2 types:
 compound sentence
 complex sentence

Compound and complex sentences

Compound sentences
 consists of two independent clauses connected with a coordinating conjunction
 coordinators  for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so [FANBOYS]
 coordinators are always preceded by a comma, except for very short sentences
 I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.
 Jim played football, so Maria went shopping.  he played football first, then she ...
 Jim played football, for Maria went shopping.  he played football, because she ...

Complex sentences
 consists of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
 a dependent clause lacks one of the elements that would make it a complete clause
 dependent clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction; most common:
after, although, as, because, before, even though, if, since, though, unless, until, when,
whenever, whereas, whereever, while, ...
 when a complex sentence begins with a subordinator a comma is required at the end of
the dependent clause
 When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
 The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error.

COORDINATION

Syndetic coordination
 when the coordinated elements are linked by coordinating conjunctions such as:
and, or, but, ...
 Quickly and resolutely, he strode into the bank.

Asyndetic coordination
 when the coordinated elements are unlinked; the coordinators are absent
 TEST: insertion of the coordinator and with little alteration of meaning
 Quickly, resolutely, he strode into the bank.

1
Coordination and subordination (syntactis arrangements)

Coordination
 PARATAXIS  coordination: coordinators
 coordinating conjunctions are used to join independent clauses to make compound
sentences  the items have an equal status
 most frequent  for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so
 I wanted more popcorn. Sam wanted Junior Mints.
I wanted more popcorn, but Sam wanted Junior Mints.
 reversing the order of constituents :
Mary studies at the university and John works at a factory.
John works at a factory and Mary studies at a university.
 when two coordinated clauses have the same subject, the second can be omitted:
 Some people are fascinated by crime and [they] read a lot of crime novels.

Subordination
 HYPOTAXIS  subordination: subordinators
 subordinating conjunctions are used to make a complex sentence  underneath
arrangement
 most frequent  after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, if only,
rahter than, since, that, though, unless, until, when, where, whereas, wherever, whether,
which and while
 I wanted to get more soda because it's hard to eat popcorn without it.
Because it's hard to eat popcorn without it, I wanted to get more soda.
 reversing the order of constituents :
Although he tried hard, he failed.
*He tried hard, although he failed.
 if the clauses have the same subject, but one of the clauses is subordinate, the subject
cannot be omitted:
 * They read a lot of crime novels because ____ are fascinated by crime.

COORDINATORS
 pure coordinators:
 AND  presents non-contrasting items/ideas; They gamble and they smoke.
 OR  presents an alternative item/ idea; Every day they gamble or they smoke.
 BUT  presents a contrast or exception; They gamble, but they don't smoke.
 between pure coordinators and pure subordinators :
 FOR presents a reason; He is gambling with his health, for he has been smoking
far too long.
 SO presents a consequence; He gambled well last night so he smoked a cigar...
 THAT
 conjuncts, but resemble coordinators:
 YET presents a contrast or exception; They gamble, yet they don't smoke.
 SO  presents a consequence; He gambled well last night so he smoked a cigar...
 not a clear case of coordinator:
 NOR  presents a non-contrasting negative idea; They do not gamble nor do they

smoke.
 used as first, endorsing items in correlative pairs with and, or and nor; are not
coordinators themselves, can be preceded by a central coordinator:
 BOTH ... and
 EITHER ... or

2
  NEITHER ... nor
Syntactic features of coordinators:
1) Clause coordinators are restricted to clause-initial position
 and, or, but
 John plays the guitar, and his sister plays the piano.
* John plays the guitar, his sister and plays the piano.
2) Coordinated clauses are sequentially fixed
 clauses beginning with coordinators are sequentially fixed in relation to the
previous clause; they cannot be transposed
 They are living in England, or they are spending a vacation there.
* Or they are spending the vacation there, they are living in England.
 also true for conjuncts (nevertheless), subordinators (for),
the resultative (so that)
3) Coordinators are not preceded by a conjunction
 and, or (central cooridnators) and but, for and so that don't allow another
conjunction to precede them
 He was unhappy about it, and yet he did as he was told.
 * He was unhappy about it, but and he did as he was told.
 * He was unhappy about it, because and he did as he was told.
4) Coordinators can link clause constituents
 and and or may link constituents smaller than a clause
 I may see you tomorrow or I may phone you later in the day.
I may see you tomorrow or may phone you later in the day.
 also found with but, though less frequently
 The Polish athletes have succeeded today, but may not repeat their success
tomorrow.
5) Coordinators can link subordinate clauses
 and and or
 I wonder whether you should go and see her or whether it is better to write to her
the second.
6) Coordinators can link more than two clauses
 and and or
 The battery may be disconnected, or the connection may be loose, or the bulb may
be faulty.

Polysyndetic coordination
 marks dramatic sequence of events, or suggests open-endedness
 The wind roared, and the lightning flashed, and the sky was suddenly as dark as night.

 yet, so, neither, and nor are best treated as conjuncts, which are very coordinator-like;
may be called semi-coordinators, or quasi-coordinators

3
THE USE OF COORDINATORS
 The uses of AND:
a. the second clause is a consequence or result of the first; the order of the clauses
reflects chronological sequence:
 He heard an explosion and he (therefore) phones the police.
b. the second clause is chronologically sequent to the first, but without
implication:
 I washed the dishes and (then) I dried them.
c. the second clause introduces a contrast; but can replace and:
 Robert is secretive and (in contrast) David is candid.
d. first clause has a concessive force; the contents of the second are surprising:
 She tried hard and (yet) she failed.
e. the first clause is the condition of the second; the first clause contains a directive
speech act (promise/threat) and the second describes the consequence:
 Give me some money and (then) I'll help you escape.
f. the second clause makes a point similar to the first:
 A trade agreement should be no problem, and (similarly) a cultural
exchange could be easily arranged.
g. the second clause is a pure addition to the first
 He has long hair and (also) he often wears jeans.
h. the second clause adds an appended comment on or explanation of the first:
 They disliked John - and that's not surprising in view of his behaviour.
 The uses of OR:
 introduces an alternative
a. exclusive  excludes the possibility that both conjoins are true/can be fulfilled:
 You can sleep on the couch in the lounge or you can go to a hotel.
b. inclusive  implies that both conjoins may be true/possible:
 You can boil an egg, (or) you can make some sandwiches.
c. a restatement of a corrective to what is said in the first conjoin  afterthought;
interpolated coordination:
 They are enjoying themselves, or at least/rather they appear to be enjoying
themselves.
d. implying negative conditions:
 Give me some money or (else) I'll shoot.
 The use of BUT:
 expresses a contrast which could be alternatively expressed by and yet
 the content of the second conjoin is unexpected in view of the content of the
first
 John is poor but he is happy.
John is poor yet he is happy.

Semantic relationship between two coordinate clauses:

 RESULT:
 He could see the girls watching him a way off, and that pleased him.
 CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE (we can insert then):
 Then it came to an end, and the men went back to work.
 CONDITIONAL, CONSESSIVE
 The days went by and she received no sign
 CONTRAST
 It could go, and there would be no absolute loss.

4
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

Coordination and subordination

Subordinate and superordinate clauses

Matrix clause:
 main/superordinate clause - subordinate clause = matrix clause
 I think I'd like coffee.
 matrix clause  I think + subordinate clause  I'd like coffee

Main clause:
 head clause/principal clause/superordinate
 independent clause; not subordinate to anything else

Subordinate clause:
 dependent on another phrase or clause  an superordinate clause
 may be regarded as downgraded to a subclausal unit, e.g. a prepositional phrase
 a clause that doesn't express a complete thought
 functions as one of the elements of an superordinate clause
 We noticed that they were nervous.  functions as an object

5
FINITE CLAUSES
 clause whose verb element is finite
 I can't go out.

NONFINITE CLAUSES
 a clause whose verb element is nonfinite
 Knowing my temper, ...
 2 types:
 with a subject
 subjectless; with an understood or implicit subject
 4 structural types:
 to-infinitive clause:
 without subject  The best thing would be to tell everybody.
 with subject  The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
 bare infinitive clause:
 without subject  All I did was hit him on the head.
 with subject  Rather than you do the job, I'd prefer to finish it myself.
 in pseudo-cleft sentences, the infinitival particle is optional  What they
did was (to) dig a shallow channel around the tent.
 -ing participle:
 without subject  Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
 with subject  Her aunt having left the room, I asked Ann...
 subject in genitive case, or introduced by a preposition  With the
audience turning restive, the chairman....
 -ed participle:
 without subject  Covered with confusion, they apologized abjectly.

VERBLESS CLAUSES
 subtype of nonfinite clauses
 clauses which exhibit no overt verbal element, but are nevertheless capable of being
analysed into clause elements
 they are commonly subjectless
 the predicate normally contains an adjective phrase, adverb phrase, etc. that functions
as subject complement or subject related adverbial
 Whether right or wrong, he always comes off worst in argument.
(Whether he is right or wrong...)
 can be treated as reduced versions of nonfinite clauses:
 Too nervous to reply, he stared at the floor.
(Being too nervous to reply, ...)
 subject is often introduced by with:
 With the children at school, we can't take our vacations when we want to.
 some verbless clauses appear with subordinators:
 Though somewhat edgy, she said she would stay a little longer.