TEXTILE MANUFACTURING

INTRODUCTION

Textile

- Latin word came from the word “texere” which means “to weave”.

- Refers to a flexible material comprising of a network of natural or artificial fibers.

- Formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting and pressing fibers together.

History of Textile

3400 BC – the art of spinning linen and weaving developed in Egypt.

3000 BC – spinning of cotton started in India

2640 BC – discovery and consequent development of sericulture and spin silk methods in China.

600 & 700 BC – invention of flax and wool fabric in Swiss lake inhabitants.

400 AD – culture of silk was introduced in India.

1800 & 1900 AD – discovery of machines and their widespread application in processing natural fibers;
discoveries of various synthetic fibers like nylon.

Textile Core Areas

• Spinning

• Weaving

• Knitting

• Dyeing

• Printing

• Apparel

Spinning – is the twisting together of drawn-out strands of fibers to form yarn, and is a major
part of textile industry.
Weaving – method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns are interlaced at
right angles to form a fabric or cloth.

Knitting – a process of making a textile by connecting loops or stitches of one continuous yarn
using large needles.

Dyeing – is a process in which color is transferred to a finished textile.

Printing – the process of applying color to textile in definite patterns or designs.

Apparel – finished textile is turned into clothing.

Textile Manufacturing
Textile Fiber

- The raw material which is used to produce in order to make textile fabric.

Types of Textile Manufacturing Process:

a. Yarn Manufacturing

b. Fabric Manufacturing

c. Wet Processing

d. Garment Manufacturing

Yarn Manufacturing – series of processes involved in converting the fiber into yarn.

Cotton – the fiber that has rooted the yarn manufacturing

Processing Stages:

Fabric Manufacturing – series of processes involved in making interlaced/interloped yarn.

Textile fabric - is at least a two-dimensional structure produced by fiber/yarn interlacing.

Types of Fabric:

a. Woven Fabrics – made by using two or more sets of yarn interlaced at right angles to each other.

b. Knitted Fabrics – made by intermeshing of yarn and can be composed of any kind of fiber, yarn and
industrial end-uses.

c. Nonwoven Fabrics – materials produced by felting and bonding.

Wet Processing – the process is applied in textile in form of liquid which involves chemical reaction on
the textile.
Garment Manufacturing – is the combination of art and technology to create garment also known as a
piece of clothing.Technical Textile

Technical Textile – is an established domain of interdisciplinary application of textile products. Any

technical textile is a fibrous structure or a textile product that is produced for technical performance
rather than fashion or aesthetic requirements.

12 types of Technical Textile

1. Meditech

2. AgroTech

3. BuildTech

4. MobileTech

5. ProTech

6. InduTech

7. HomeTech

8. ClothTech

9. SportTech

10. PackTeck

11. EcoTech

12. Geotech

Meditech – sanitary diapers, bandages, sutures, mosquito nets, etc.

AgroTech – crop protection net, bird protection, etc.

BuildTech – ropes, tarpaulin, concrete reinforcement, etc.

MobileTech – car airbags, aircraft seats, seat belt, etc.

ProTech – protective gloves, knife and bulletproof vest, flame-retardant and chemical-resistant
clothes, etc.

InduTech – conveyor belts, cordage, filtration media, etc.

HomeTech – sofa and furniture fabric, floor covering, pillow, etc.

ClothTech – sewing threads, interlinings, san shade, etc.

 SportTech – sports shoe, swimsuit, sports nets, etc.

PackTech – tea bags, wrapping fabrics, jute sacks, etc.

EcoTech – erosion protection, air cleaning, water treatment, etc.

Geotech – nets for seashore and geo structures.

TEXTILE INDUSTRY

II. Process Characteristics, Capabilities and Limitations

TEXTILE MANUFACTURING

Can be classified into two groups:

1. Conventional Textile Manufacturing

- Converting the natural fiber into useful products including fabric, home textiles, and apparel
and more recently into a technical textile through utilization of special finishing effects.

2. Synthetic and Semi-synthetic Fiber Manufacturing

- Diversified with the utilization of monomer, chemical agent, precursor, catalyst, and a
variety of auxiliary chemicals resulting in the formation of fiber or yarn.

TEXTILE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Normally, the whole textile manufacturing process is divided by four branches. These are:

1. Yarn Manufacturing or Spinning.

2. Fabric Manufacturing or Weaving.
1. Wet Processing (Dyeing, Printing & Finishing)
3. Garments Manufacturing or Clothing.
 1. YARN MANUFACTURING

Here, the raw materials that have been harvested and processed are transformed from raw fibers
into yarn and threads. This is done by spinning the fibers. Spinning can be done by hand, but this
process is quite tedious and time consuming. These days, the vast majority of spinning is done by
spinning wheel. The fibers are drawn across the wheel, and as it spins, the fibers are collected on a
cylindrical object called a bobbin. The bobbin holds the spun fibers, which are now connected into a
long strand of thread or yarn. In the next step, the bobbins will be transferred to another machine,
where the yarn will continue on its journey into fabric.

Yarn:

 Yarn is defined as a linear assemblage of the fibers twisted together.

 The process of making the yarn from a textile fiber is called Spinning.
n

YARN MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

BALE OPENING

 The cotton tufts are opened in this process.

 As the cotton arrives in an extremely compressed condition the first operation is to loosen the
matted fibers
 The cotton fiber is loosen by means of rotating spiked rollers of the bale opener.

Mixing

 This is a process of mixing the same/different category of fibers to get desired properties and
cost effectiveness.
  Mixing is done after the study of the essential properties of fiber like staple length,Tensile
strength, fineness, uniformity etc. 

BLOW ROOM

 In this process the cleaning and opening of the cotton is done by beaters and openers.
 The foreign materials like dust particles, seeds of cotton and other impurities are partially
removed in this process.
 The cotton tufts are opened and cleaned in this process and the cotton lap is made out. 

CARDING

 Carding is the heart of spinning in this process the minute impurities like small seed
particles,immature fibers etc. are removed.
 The straightening and aligning of fibers are done in this process.
 In carding the Blow room lap is attenuated to the card sliver. 

Draw Frame

 Through drafting fibbers get paralleled

 Up to Eight Carded Slivers are fed into the Draw-Frame and they are stretched/Straightened and
made into a single sliver.
 Also fiber blending can be done at this stage.

Simplex (Roving Frame)

 Further drafting is done here to get the fibers more aligned/paralleled.

 The Sliver from Draw-Frame is thicker and will be difficult to be fed into the Ring-frame as is,
hence here the Slivers are stretched and were made thinner by Drafting and mild twisting (so as to
strengthen the Roving).
 The End-Product from the Simplex is called as Roving. 

Ring Frame (Spinning)

 The roving is fed into the Ring-frame and is made into yarn by further Drafting & Twisting.
 To draft the roving until the required fineness is achieved
 To impart strength to the fiber, by inserting twist.
 Depending upon the yarn count required , the drafting and twisting can be adjusted. 

2. FABRIC MANUFACTURING

After the raw materials have been converted into yarn, they're ready for the second step in the
production process, which involves joining these individual threads together to form fabric. This process
of joining the yarn together is called weaving. Weaving is done on a machine known as a loom and
requires two sets of yarn. The first set, called the warp set, is strung tautly across a metal frame. The
second, called the weft, is connected to metal rods, with one thread per rod. The loom is controlled by a
computer, which lets the weft know how the fabric should be woven.
Weaving Process

Weaving is a major process of making fabric or cloth . In it, two distinct sets of yarns called the warp and
the filling or weft are interlaced with each other to form a fabric. Yarn is a long continuous length of
interlocked fibers. The lengthwise yarns which run from the back to the front of the loom are called the
warp. The crosswise yarns are the filling or weft. A loom is a device for holding the warp threads in place
while the filling threads are woven through them. Yarns made from natural fibers like cotton, silk, and
wool and synthetic fibers such as nylon and Orlon are commonly used for weaving textile. But other
fibers can also be used for weaving. Yarn intended for the warp goes through operations such as
spooling, warping and slashing to prepare them to withstand the strain of the weaving process.

Knitting Process

Knitted fabric is a textile that results from knitting. Its properties are distinct from woven fabric in that it
is more flexible and can be more readily constructed into smaller pieces, making it ideal for seats.
Its properties are distinct from nonwoven fabric in that it is more durable but takes more resources to
create, making it suitable for multiple uses.
It is a known fact that the main material for fabric construction is yarn. Knitting is the second most
frequently used method, after weaving, that turns yarns or threads into fabrics. It is a versatile
technique that can make fabrics having various properties such as wrinkle-resistance, stretchability,
better fit, particularly demanded due to the rising popularity of home furnishings. The yarn in knitted
fabrics follows a meandering path , forming symmetric loops or stitches. When the interlocking loops
run lengthwise, each row is called a wale. A wale can be compared with the warp in weaving. When the
loops run across the fabric, each row is called a course. A course corresponds to the filling, or weft.
There are two major varieties of knitting: weft knitting and warp knitting. In weft knitting, one
continuous yarn forms courses across the fabric. In warp knitting, a series of yarns form wales in the
lengthwise direction of the fabric.

Nonwoven Fabrics

Nonwoven fabrics are made by bonding or interlocking fibers or filaments by Mechanical, Thermal,
Chemical or Solvent means. For making Staple non-woven, fibers are first spun, cut to a few centimeters
length, and put into bales. These bales are then scattered on a conveyor belt, and the fibers are spread
in a uniform web by a wet laid process or by carding. These nonwovens are either bonded thermally or
by using resin. The Spun laid non-wovens are made in one continuous process. Fibers are spun and then
directly dispersed into a web by deflectors or with air streams. Melt blown nonwovens have extremely
fine fiber diameters but are not strong fabrics. Spun laid is also bonded either thermally or by using
resin. Both staple and spun bonded non-wovens would have no mechanical resistance without the
bonding step.

3. Wet Processing (Dyeing, Printing & Finishing)

 A. Dyeing

Dyeing textile involved immersing or dipping a fibre, yarn or fabric in a colour pigment to change its
colour. We have been doing this for centuries and will continue to dye fabrics for many centuries to
come. Colour is known as a pigment and the way of keeping (fixing) the colour is to use a mordant, a
chemical that fixes the dye to help prevent loss of colour when washing or wearing the product. To be
successful at dyeing you must:

 Achieve the right colour

 Make sure the colour is fixed (often called colourfastness) so it does not run or wash out
 Make sure the colour is even throughout
 Make sure the dye does not damage the fibre, yarn, or fabric
 Make sure you can repeat the process and match the colour.

Stages of dye application

When we go to the market we find it is not only fabrics which are dyed but sewing threads and knitting
yarns are also available as dyed materials.

1. Chemical Dyeing
This is the method that uses pigment (chemical dyes with salts added to fix the dye; these can
be made up with water. The fibres, yarns or fabric are then immersed in the dye bath until the
depth of colour is achieved.

2. Natural Dyeing
Natural and vegetable dyes were the first-known dye pigments and with the move to be more
environmentally friendly are becoming popular again. These work best with natural and
regenerated fibres and fabrics and require a mordant to fix them to the fibres. With natural
dye,s it is difficult to reproduce the exact shade each time.

3. Industrial Dyeing
Industrial dyeing can be done at the following stages:

1. Fibre Stage
Both natural and manmade fibres can be dyed at this stage. It gives very uniform dyeing
and fast colours. But there is a lot of wastage during further processing of fibres.
Fibres are dyed in vats until the dye has penetrated the fibre to give good
uniform colour and fastness.
2. Yarn stage
Sometimes yarns are also dyed, especially when they have to be sold as such. Hence in
embroidery thread, sewing threads, and knitting yarn, dyeing is done at the yarn stage.
 Dye penetrates will but take-up may not be as uniform as when dyeing fibres then
making them into yarns.
3. Liquid Polymer Stage
The polymer (artificial fibre) is coloured before extrusion so the dye is part of the fibre
and gives excellent colourfastness.
4. Fabric stage
This is the most popular stage of dying. Most of the fabrics which are dyed in a single
solid colour are dyed at this stage. This method is a fast method and it is easy to match
colours. Blended fabrics can also be dyed.

This is quite a cost-effective method because manufacturers can hold undyed fabric and
dye it when needed, depending on changing fashions and demand. Cross-dyeing, where
two different yarns have been used, which take up the dye at different rates, gives
patterned effects such as stripes and checks.

Dyeing at the fabric sage is often known as pice dyeing, and the process can be batch
(fabric pieces are held in the dye), continuous (fabric goes through dye pads and rollers)
or semi-continuous (fabric goes through dye pads but is held for a time to set the
colour).
5. Garment Dyeing
Sometimes, after stitching the garment, there is a need to dye it, for example, dupattas
for suits are dyed after making.

4. Dip Dyeing
The fabric is dipped but not immersed to take up some dye on only part of the fabric or more
depth of colour on part of the fabric; then it may be dipped again to get two or more colours
blending together. This can be done in the classroom and achieves a popular patterned effect.

5. Resist Dyeing
In resist dyeing a piece of fabric is dyed but part of the fabric is made to resist the absorption of
dye as necessary to give a patterned effect.

6. Tie Dyeing
In tie-dyeing, the fabric is wrapped, tied or folded in section to stop the absorption of the dye.
The fabric is then put in the dye bath and left for the required time. A multi-coloured effect can
be achieved if the fabric is untied after the first colour is set a and the re-tied and redyed in the
second colour. Items such as buttons and pebbles can also be tied into to get further types of
patterns. The tied dye effect is popular for T-shirts and soft furnishing.

7. Batik
 Batik is the resist method of using melted wax, a flour mixture or gutta, which is applied to the
fabric in patterns to resist the dye when dry. The item is either dipped into the dye bath or the
fabric is stretched on a frame and dye is painted on to the fabric. Sometimes cracks appear in
the resist giving a cracked effect. Silk and cotton fabrics are best for this method.

8. Tritik
This is similar to Batik but the resist is made up of tightly pulled stitches instead of was. Again
this method works best with cotton and silk.

9. Shibori
This is a folding process, where dye is added to the folded fabric, which then steamed to set the
dye. Unfolding the fabric reveals a sculptured effect.

B. Printing

Printing is a process of decorating textile fabrics by application of pigments, dyes, or other related
materials in the form of patterns.

The four main methods of textile printing are block, roller, screen, and heat transfer printing. In each of
these methods, the application of the colour, usually as a thickened paste, is followed by fixation,
usually by steaming or heating, and then removal of excess colour by washing. 

C. Finishing

 Coating

“A material composed of two or more layers, at least one of which is a textile fabric and at least one of
which is a substantially continuous polymeric layer.”
This Polymeric layer is applied in liquid form in a solvent or water base, which evaporates off to leave
the polymer behind, applied to one or both surfaces. Dependent upon the application method the liquid
may require thickening so it does not soak through the fabric, or an anti-foaming agent to aid
processing. The thickness of the coating, or amount of product applied is controlled. Bonding occurs
either through the drying process (evaporation) or through a curing process, required to provoke cross
linking.

 Flame Retardants: Textile Finishes for Flame Resistant Fabrics

As the whole environment is going highly technical and risky, the demand for specially treated textile
such as flame resistant fabric has grown significantly. In the process of meeting with these demands,
synthetic fiber has played a significant role. Simply defined, flame retardants are materials that have the
quality of inhibiting or resisting the spread of fire. Textile is highly ignitable and contribute to rapid fire
spread. However, the ignitable property of a textile can be considerably reduced by any one of the three
methods- by using inorganic materials such as Asbestos, Glass etc; by chemically treating the textile with
flame retardant chemicals; and by modifying the polymer.

 Scotchgard fabric (Water Repellant)

Protect the things you love with Scotchgard protected Fabric. Whether it's a brand-new seats, or your
little wall, Scotchgard protected Fabric helps repel liquids and block stains without changing the look and
feel of the fabric. That means you can wipe the surface clean before the mess sinks in for beautiful, long-
lasting using. So host a family get-together, or your sofa with confidence knowing that Scotchgard
protected fabric is your secret defender from life's little mishaps.

4. Garment manufacturing

Garment is known as a piece of clothing. Garment design and manufacturing is the combination of art
and technology.

Garment manufacturing has seen several advancements in design development, computer-aided

manufacturing (CAD), and automation. However, the older version of garment manufacturing process is
still the main theme today—that is, the cutting and joining of at least two pieces of fabric. The sewing
machine has the function of joining woven or cut-knitted fabrics. Garments are mostly produced by
sewing the pieces of fabric using a sewing machine. These machines are still based on the primary
format used.

Today the important topics in the current garment manufacturing industry range over product
development, production planning, and material selection. The selection of garment design, including
computer-aided design, spreading, cutting, and sewing; joining techniques; and seamless garment
construction are beneficial in meeting the consumer needs. The development in finishing, quality
control, and care-labeling of garment are meeting the point-of-sale requirements.

Textile manufacturing:

Related machinery and equipment

The textile and clothing industry includes:

 TREATMENT OF RAW MATERIALS

 PRODUCTION OF FABRICS
 GIVING FABRICS THE VISUAL, PHYSICAL AND AESTHETIC PROPERTIES
  TRANSFORMATION OF THOSE FABRICS INTO PRODUCTS

TREATAMENT OF RAW MATERIALS

1. CARDING MACHINE

◦ In carding Machine the fibers are combed by a series of rotating drums and moving
carding bars are equipped with metal combing teeth.

2. SPINNING MACHINE

◦ During the spinning process, the transition from a loose fiber bundle to an actual yarn
takes place. The bundle of parallel fibers is twisted, which gives the yarn its tenacity. The
predominant spinning technologies, which have been established in the industry are
ring spinning and air jet spinning.

A. Ring Spinning Machine

◦ Ring spinning is one of oldest machine oriented spinning techniques used for staple
fiber spinning.

◦ During ring spinning, fibers are twisted around each other to produce a strong yarn.

C. Air Jet Spinning Machine

◦ It offers the fastest means of industrial production of staple fiber yarns.

◦ The main feature that distinguishes the morphology of air-jet spinning from the other up-to-
date technologies, is the use of swirling airflow in the stage of inserting a twist into the yarns.

PRODUCTION OF FABRICS

1. WEAVING

◦ In the weaving process, two yarn systems are used, warp and weft thread, that are interlaced
and lie at right angles to each other. The threads that run along the length of the fabrics (in
the direction of production) are known as warp ends whilst the threads that the weft threads
are oriented perpendicular to the direction of production. There are several methods for
inserting the weft thread into the fabric, the most common being shuttle, rapier and air jet
technology.

A. Shuttle Weaving

o In shuttle weaving, a shuttle that traverses back and forth across the loom width, inserts the
filling.
 o Filling yarn is wound on the quill and the quill is placed in the shuttle.

B. Rapier Weaving

◦ In Rapier weaving, a flexible or rigid solid element, called rapier, is used to insert the filling
yarn across the shed.

◦ The rapier head picks up the filling yarn and carries it through the shed. After reaching the
destination, the rapier head returns empty to pick up the next filling yarn, which completes
the cycle.

◦ A rapier performs a reciprocating motion.

C. Air-Jet Weaving

◦ The air jet weaving machines are the weaving machines with the highest weft insertion
performance.

◦ The air jet weaving machines require a high energy consumption to prepare the compressed
air and that this consumption rises definitely with increasing loom width and running speed.
The reduction in the energy consumption is in fact one of the main concerns of the
manufacturers, and builds for the user an important selection criterion.

2. KNITTTING

◦ Knitting is the most common method of interlooping and manufacturing textile products.

◦ The term knitting describes the technique of constructing textile structures by forming a
continuous length of yarn into columns of vertically intermeshed loops includes two main
textile techniques, weft and warp knitting.

A. Weft Knitting Machine

◦ Weft knitting is a one fiber technique, which means that only one fiber is needed to build the
stitches. The needles are moved separately.

◦ Weft knitting is the more diverse, widely spread and larger of the two sectors.

◦ Weft knitting machines, particularly of the garment-length type, are attractive to small
manufacturers because of their versatility, relatively low total capital costs, small floor space
requirements, quick pattern and machine changing facilities, and the potential for short
production runs and low stock-holding requirements of yarn and fabric.

B. Warp Knitting Machine

◦ The warp knitting needles are moved simultaneously. Therefore, all needles need the fiber
material at the same time.
3. BRAIDING MACHINE

◦ Braiding is a fabric production method, which requires at least three yarns

◦ A Braiding Machine is a device, which interlaces at least three strands of yarns or wires to
form a rope reinforced hose, covered power cords, and some type of laces.

◦ Braiding is ideal for mixed material systems and rapid and limited production runs.

GIVING FABRICS THE VISUAL, PHYSICAL AND AESTHETIC PROPERTIES

1. DYEING

A. Yarn Dyeing Machine

PACKAGE DYEING MACHINE

◦ Package dyeing machines are the most widely used now a days for dyeing of almost all type of
yarns, due to economical, automatic and accurate dyeing results.

◦ Yarn dyeing in package form is done at high temperature and under high pressure, with the
packages mounted on hollow spindles.

B. Fabric Dyeing Machine

JET DYEING MACHINE

◦ A machine used for dyeing of fabric in rope form.

◦ Jet dyeing machines came into existence with a purpose to minimize or eliminate the
drawbacks.

◦ In this process, dyeing is accomplished in a closed tubular system, basically composed of an

impeller pump and a shallow dye bath.

C. Woven Dyeing Machine

JIGGER DYEING MACHINE

◦ A Jig Dyeing machine, is an efficient dyeing technique. It is also known by the name of jigger.

◦ The Jig Dyeing machine operates by transferring the fabric back and forth. This happens from
roller to roller via the medium of a dye bath that is located at the base of the machine.

2. PRINTING

HEAT TRANSFER PRINTING

 ◦ Transfer printing is the term used to describe textile and related printing processes in which
the design is first printed on to a flexible non-textile substrate and later transferred by a
separate process to a textile.

3. FINISHING

Finishing is broken down into chemical and mechanical process:

◦ Chemical finishing covers those treatments that alter the performance of the textile fabric
where the chemical is the major component of the change.

◦ Mechanical finishing refers to certain types of mechanical devices that physically alters the
fabric.

MECHANICAL FINISHING

1. CALENDERING

◦ Calendering is a mechanical finishing process used on cloth where fabric is folded in half and
passed under rollers at high temperatures and pressures.

◦ The basic principle of calendaring is to expose the cloth to the combined effect of moisture,
heat and pressure until the fabric acquires a very smooth and light reflecting surface and gets
a good lustre.

2. SUEDING

◦ Sueding is a mechanical finishing process in which a fabric is abraded on one or both sides to
raise or create a fibrous surface.

◦ The sueding machine is made up of some rotating rollers coated with abrasive paper, which
emeries the cloth and produce a more or less marked effect depending upon the pressure
exerted on the fabric by the abrasive rollers.

TRANSFORMATION OF THOSE FABRICS INTO PRODUCTS

SEWING MACHINES

◦ Sewing machine with one or a plurality of sewing thread, a machine that forms one or more
stitches on a seam to make one or more seams interwoven or stitched together.
 TEXTILE MANUFACTURING
AUTOMATION

The term automation is defined as the use of equipment and machinery to help make
production easier and more efficient. Textiles such as cloth, yarn, cotton, and other fabrics have been
made easier to produce thanks to automation.

Advantages of Automation in the Textile Industry

 Fewer Work Hours for the Same Production. Automation made it possible for the same tasks to
be performed but with fewer hours of labor for employees. 
 Safer Working Conditions. This process often includes dyeing and spinning which are textile
processes that can be relatively dangerous to an individual. Automation has created equipment
to handle the bulk of these processes, making working conditions safer for all in the textile
industry.
 Higher Quality Product. When humans are tasked with a duty, there is always room for error for
various reasons: they don't feel well, personal company vendettas, etc. Although there are times
when mistakes may occur with the equipment, there is still a much lower probability for error
than when humans perform the same job.

Disadvantages of Process Automation

 Fear of losing their jobs. 

 Costs for investment. Implementing a process automation solution involves a considerable
initial investment.
 Loss of flexibility. Modify workflows; tasks and processes may involve certain rigidity.

Semi-automated vs. Fully Automated Processes

As the name suggests, semi-automated processes require a manual intervention or the

involvement of a human being at some point in order to complete the process. On the other hand, fully
automated processes can run entirely from beginning to completion without requiring the human
touch.

METROLOGY OF TEXTILE

Textile Measurement

Textile fibers, threads, yarns and fabrics are measured in a multiplicity of units.

FIBER

A fiber, a single filament of natural material, such as cotton, linen or wool, or artificial material

such as nylon, polyester, metal or mineral fiber are measured in terms of linear mass density, the weight
of a given length of fiber.
Linear density

There are two systems used for presenting linear density, direct and indirect. When the direct method is
used the length is fixed and the weight of yarn is measured, for example, tex gives the weight in grams
of one kilometer of yarn. An indirect method fixes the weight and gives the length of yarn created.

 den (denier) grams (0.035 oz) per 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) of yarn. Den is a direct measure of linear
density
 gr/yard grains (0.065 g) per yard (0.91 m) of yarn. Gr/yard is a direct measure of linear density.
 tex grams (0.035 oz) per kilometer (0.62 mi) of yarn. tex is a direct measure of linear density.
[3] Tex is used for measuring fiber size in many products, including cigarette filters, optical cable,
yarn and fabric.
 filament tex grams (0.035 oz) per kilometer (0.62 mi) of a single filament.
 Yield. Similar to tex and denier, yield is a term that helps describe the  linear density of
a roving of fibers. However, unlike tex and denier, yield is the inverse of linear density and is
usually expressed in yards per pound (yd/lb).

YARN AND THREAD

A yarn, a spun agglomeration of fibers used for knitting, weaving or sewing, is measured in

terms of cotton count and yarn density.

Thread, usually consisting of multiple yarns plied together producing a long, thin strand used in
sewing or weaving, is measured in the same units as yarn.

Twist

 Twists per inch. Number of twists per inch.

 Twists per meter. Number of twists per meter.

Yarn length

The following length units are defined:

 Bundle: usually 10 pounds (4.5 kg)

 Hank a length of 7 leas or 840 yards (770 m)
 Lea – 120 yards (110 m)
 Spyndle – 14,400 yards (13,200 m). Used in the English rope industry

FABRICS

Fabric, cloth typically produced by weaving, knitting or knotting textile fibers, yarns or threads, is

measured in units such as the momme, thread count (a measure of the coarseness or fineness of
fabric), ends per inch (e.p.i) and picks per inch (p.p.i).
Mommes (mm), traditionally used to measure silk fabrics, the weight in pounds of a piece of fabric if it were
sized 45 inches by 100 yards (1.2 m by 90 m). One momme = 4.340 g/m²; 8 mommes is approximately 1
ounce per square yard or 35 g/m².

The higher the weight in mommes, the more durable the weave, and the more suitable it is for heavy-duty
use
Thread count or threads per inch (TPI) is a measure of the coarseness or fineness of fabric. It is measured by
counting the number of threads contained in one square inch of fabric or one square centimeter, including
both the length (warp) and width (weft) threads. The thread count is the number of threads counted along
two sides (up and across) of the square inch, added together.

Ends per inch (EPI or e.p.i.) is the number of warp threads per inch of woven fabric. In general, the higher the
ends per inch, the finer the fabric is.

Picks per inch/Inch (or p.p.i.) is the number of weft threads per inch of woven fabric. A pick is a single weft
thread, hence the term. In general, the higher the picks per inch, the finer the fabric is.

Air permeability is a measure of the ability of air to pass through a fabric. Air permeability is defined as "the
volume of air in cubic centimeters (cm3) which is passed through in one second through 100cm2 of the fabric
at a pressure difference of 10 cm head of water".

The concept of air permeability is important for the design of active wear and insect netting.

QUALITY ASSURANCE

Quality means customer needs is to be satisfied. Quality is of prime importance in any aspect of

business. Customers demand and expect value for money. As producers of apparel there must be a
constant endeavour to produce work of good quality.

Quality assurance refers to the engineering activities implemented in a quality system so that
requirements for a product or service will be fulfilled. It is the systematic measurement, comparison
with a standard, monitoring of processes and an associated feedback loop that confers error prevention.
This can be contrasted with quality control, which is focused on process outputs.

Quality assurance system can be divided into following steps:

1. On line Quality assurance system

 Raw material control.
 Process control.
2. Off line Quality assurance system.

On Line Quality assurance System:

This type of quality control is carried out without stopping the production process. During the
running of production process a set up is automatically performs and detect the fault and also takes
corrective action. 
  Raw Material Control :
As the quality product depends on the raw material quality so we must be provided with the
best quality raw material with an economical consideration. The fabric must be without fault,
with proper absorbency, whiteness as per requirement of the subsequent process. The Grey
inspection report gives the condition of the raw fabric.
 Process Control :
The method chosen for the process must be provided with the necessary accurate parameters.
Here the specific gravity, water level, residual hydrogen per oxide etc. at each stage is checked.
 Laboratory :
Lab is the head of the textile industries. Higher precision lab can aid easily to achieve the goal of
the organization. Before bulk production a sample for the approval from industry is sent to the
buyer. As per the requirement of the buyer the shade is prepared in a lab considering the
economical aspects.

Off Line Quality assurance System:

Performed in the laboratory and other production area by stopping the production process consisting of
fabric inspection and other test. Correction steps are taken according to the test result.

Off-Line Tests: All the Off-Line tests for finished fabrics can be grouped as follows:

A. Physical tests
B. Chemical tests

A. Physical Tests:

1. GSM test
2. Shrinkage test
3. Spirality test
4. Tensile strength
5. Abrasion resistance
6. Pilling resistance
7. Button Strength Testing
8. Crease resistance
9. Dimentional stability
10. Brusting strength test

B. Chemical Tests:

1. Color Fastness to washing.

2. Color Fastness to lighting.
3. Color Fastness to heat.
4. Color Fastness to Chlorinated water.
5. Color Fastness to water spotting.
6. Color Fastness to perspiration.
7. Color Fastness to Seawater.
8. Fibre analysis.
9. PH test.
10. Repellency.

Tools of Quality Assurance:

1. Focus on the client(Internal/external): Services should be designed so as to meet the needs and

expectations of clients and communities.
2. Focus on system and Processes: Providers must understand the service delivery system and its
key service processes in order to improve them.
3. Focus on mesasurement : Analyze processes, identify problems, and measure performance.
4. Focus on teamwork: Quality is best achieved through a team approach to problem solving and
quality improvement

AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING

Automobile

a road vehicle, typically with four wheels, powered by an internal combustion engine or electric
motor and able to carry a small number of people.

Automobile Manufacturing

Engaged in the manufacturing of automobiles, including its components, such as engines and
bodies, but excluding tires, batteries, and fuel.

History of Automobile Manufacturing

1885- Karl Benz developed a petrol or gasoline powered automobile. This is also considered to be the
first "production" vehicle as Benz made several other identical copies. The automobile was powered by
a single cylinder four-stroke engine. It was also the first motor car in the world

Top speed: 16kph

Engine volume: 954 cc

Power: 0.9 hp
1901- “1901 Mercedes” designed by Wilhelm Maybach, deserves credit for being the first modern
motorcar. Its thirty-five-horsepower engine weighed only fourteen pounds per horsepower, and it
achieved a top speed of fifty-three miles per hour.

1913- The Ford Model T, created by the Ford Motor Company, became the first automobile to be mass-
produced on a moving assembly line. The Model T had a front-mounted 177-cubic-inch (2.9 L) inline
four-cylinder engine, producing 20 hp (15 kW), for a top speed of 40–45 mph (64–72 km/h).

1927- Ford had produced over 15,000,000 Model T automobiles.

1980- the rise of japan as the leading industry.

Body types of Automobiles

Sedan-A sedan typically has 4 doors and seats for 4 to 5 people. It also has a rear cargo area that’s
separated from the cabin and is covered with a trunk lid.

Hatchback-A hatchback is a car type with a rear door that opens upwards. They typically feature a four-
door configuration, excluding the rear door. However, two-door hatchbacks are not uncommon.

MUV-MUV stands for Multi Utility Vehicle and it is good for multiple purposes. They allow conversions
between multiple combinations of passenger and luggage capacity.

SUV-SUV stands for Sports Utility Vehicle and as the name suggests, it is more kind of sporty and has
high ground clearance. This gives them superior off-road capability.

Coupe-A coupe is classically defined as a closed two-door car with a fixed roof. Considered sporty by
nature, it generally gets just 2 seats or with a smaller-than-average rear.

Pickup-The characteristics of a pickup truck are its big rear cargo deck, sturdy chassis, and off-road
capable powertrain. It can carry many items ranging from sand bags to camping gears, and even a pair of
mountain bikes for outdoor activities.

Van-A van is a larger vehicle which can seat 10 to 12 passengers, or more. It can also be used to carry
many different items, which makes it a good delivery vehicle for business companies

MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND ASSEMBLY OF AUTOMOBILE

• CHASSIS PRODUCTION UNIT

• E-COATING PROCESS/ELECTROCOATING

• PRE-ASSEMBLY

• FINAL ASSEMBLY
Chassis Production Unit

• The chassis of the car is the baseline component. All other parts are integrated on, or within
the chassis. This is typically a welded frame that's initially attached to a conveyor that moves
along a production line. Using Awesome Backgrounds

• Parts that are sequentially applied to the chassis include the engine, front and rear
suspension, gas tank, rear-end and half-shafts, transmission, drive shaft, gear box, steering
box, wheel drums and the brake system.

E-coating Process/Electrocoating Process

• After chassis production the cars body is moved to another unit where it is protected by
corrosion

• The body is submerged in chemical where it is roated in 360 degrees to get coated from inside
and outside.

Four Stages of Automotive Paint1. PREPARATION

• The body is dipped into the Electro-Coat Paint Operation (ELPO/E-Coat), then a high voltage is
applied. The body works as a cathode and the paint as an anode sticking on the body surface.
It is an eco-friendly painting process. In E-Coat, also called CED paint, utilization is
approximately 99.9% and provides superior salt spray resistance compared to other painting
processes.

2. PRIMER

• The primer is the first coat to be applied. The primer serves several purposes.
• It serves as a leveler, which is important since the cab often has marks and other forms of
surface defect after being manufactured in the body shop. A smoother surface is created by
leveling out these defects and therefore a better final product.

• It protects the vehicle from corrosion, heat differences, bumps, stone-chips, UV-light, etc.

• It improves ease of application by making it easier for paints to stick to the surface. Using a
primer, a more varied range of paints can be used.

3. BASE COAT

The base coat is applied after the primer coat. This coat contains the visual properties of color and
effects, and is usually the one referred to as the paint. Base coat used in automotive applications
is commonly divided into three categories: solid, metallic, and pearlescent pigments.

• Solid paints have no sparkle effects except the color. This is the easiest type of paint to apply,
and the most common type of paint for heavy transportation vehicles, construction
equipment and aircraft.

• Metallic paints contain aluminium flakes to create a sparkling and grainy effect, generally
referred to as a metallic look. This paint is harder to manage than solid paints because of the
extra dimensions to consider.

• Pearlescent paints contain special iridescent pigments commonly referred to as "pearls". Pearl
pigments impart a colored sparkle to the finish which works to create depth of color.

4. CLEAR COAT

• Usually sprayed on top of a colored basecoat, clearcoat is a glossy and transparent coating
that forms the final interface with the environment. For this reason, clearcoat must be
durable enough to resist abrasion and chemically stable enough to withstand UV light.
Clearcoat can be either solvent or water-borne.[6]

Pre-Assemblies

 The painted shell proceeds through the interior assembly area where workers assemble all
of the instrumentation and wiring systems, dash panels, interior lights, seats, door and
trim panels, headliners, radios, speakersall glass except the automobile windshield,
steering column and wheel, body weatherstrips, vinyl tops, brake and gas pedals,
carpeting, and front and rear bumper fascias.
RELATED MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

Manufacturing of Automobile can be classified into to 4 shops.

• Engine shop

• Press and weld shop

• Paint shop

• Assemble line or TCP shop

Machine and Equipment used in manufacturing automobile

• CONVEYOR BELT- Used in transporting bulk materials.

• WELDING ROBOT- Mechanized programmable tools, which completely automate a welding

process by both performing the weld and handling the parts.

• PAINTING ROBOT- Used by vehicle manufacturing to do detailing work on their cars in a

consistent and systematic way.

• PRESS MACHINE- Machine tool used to shape or cut metal by deforming it with a die.

• BIN TRANSPORT ROBOT- Uses vision for scanning, planning and picking parts from the bin and
placing them into process.
• OVERHEAD COVEYOR- Type of conveyor gets in its name from where it is normally found in a
plant and factory-overhead.

• DIE CASTING MACHINE- Machine used to form a engine parts by forcing molten metal under
high pressure into a mold cavity.

• CNC MACHINE- Machine which pre-programmed computer software dictates the movement
of the factory tools.

• ENGINE TESTING DEVICE- Used for measuring force, power or torque of a engine.

Engine shop

• Where the engine blocks casting is made according to dimension and other engine parts are
assemble.

• Complete machining of gear blanks, shaft and assemble of gear box is done here.

Equipment and Machine Use in Engine Manufacturing

PRESS AND WELD SHOP

• The sheet metal operation is carried out where the different panels of the car are made such
as doors, pillars, hood, roof etc.

• In this shop the body of car where made

TYPES OF WELDING MACHINE USE IN AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRIES

• Resistance spot welding

The conventional steel body of a car, on an average, contains 4500 spot weld joints.
Resistance spot welding is the principle joining method used in automotive industries and has
been for many years. In this method the joint is produced by the heat generated due to the
resistance of work pieces to the flow of current and application of

• Resistance seam welding

In this type of resistance welding, the joint is produced progressively along the length of the
weld. This gives a continuous and leak tight joint in sheet metals. The weld may be made with
overlapping or continuous work pieces. In automobile industries, this welding process is used to
produce leak proof fuel tanks.

• Friction welding

In solid state welding the joint is produced by the application of pressure without significant
melting any of the work parts. Friction welding is a form of solid state welding where the heat is
obtained from the mechanically induced sliding motion between the parts to be welded . The
weld parts are held together under pressure. Generally, the frictional heat is generated by
rotating one part against the other. When certain temperature is reached, the rotational motion is
seized and the pressure applied welds the parts together

• Laser beam welding

The application of laser technology for welding the high volume automotive components has
gained popularity because of its distinct advantages. The main benefits include good flexibility,
improved productivity with substantial saving on maintenance and energy cost while producing a
strong weld.

EQUIPMENT USE IN WELDING

JIG WELDING

A jig is a large brace that keeps a welding project satble in the face of pressure, heat, motion,
and force. A quality jig will streamline welding work by keeping parts together in a vice grip.

PAINTING SHOP

• As name suggests, the painting of complete body is done and painted body is sent for final
assembly.

ASSEMBLY LINE OR TCF SHOP

• Trim chassis final shop where the engine is assembled with the body along with other parts
such as wheel, wind shield, seats. Dashboard, ac, etc.

Equipment use in assembly line

Conveyor

• a common piece of mechanical handling equipment that moves materials fromone location to
another.

• Especially useful in application involving the transportation of heavy and bulky materials

Automation

Robots in Manufacturing

 Industrial Robots is a;

 Programmable

 Multi-fuctional
  Designed to move materials, parts, tools, or special devices through programmed motions

Robotic handling operation

Assembly Process

1. Gripping

• Robotic arm controlled by computer , used to move object and place things.
2. Stamping
• stamping out and cutting parts from sheet metal.
3. Robotic Welding
• Spot welding
• Arc welding
- Parts can be welded either through the movement of the robot or by keeping the robot
relatively stationary and moving the parts past the robot

Robotic Dispensing

1. BODY IN WHITE OPERATION

• The shell of the vehicle passes through a brightly lit white room where it is fully wiped down
by visual inspectors using cloths soaked in hi-light oil.

• Under the lights, this oil allows inspectors to see any defects in the sheet metalnbody panel

• Dings, dents, and any other defects are repaired right on the line by skilled body repairments

2. Spray Painting
• An electrostatically charged bath undercoated paint (called the E-coat) that covers every
nook and cranny of the body shell, both inside and out, with primer,. Ths coat acts as a
substance surface to which the top coat of colored paint adheres.
• After the E-coat bath, the shell is again dried in a booth as it proceeds on the final paint
operation.
• Once the shell has been fully covered with a base coat of color paint and a clear top coat,
the conveyor transfers the bodies through baking ovens where the paint is cured at
temperatures exceeding 135 degrees Celsius.

Common Assets of Manufacturing including Metrology

Assets Definition

 An asset is an anything of monetary value owned by a Automobile manufacturing

company. Assets are classed as capital/fixed, current, tangible or intangible.
 Example

• Toyota's total assets amounted to around 51.9 trillion yen in the fiscal year of 2019

• The ford company held total assets of almost 260 billion U.S dollars

• The Chevrolet held 137 billion US Dollars in 2019 total assets

1. Capital Assets

a. Also known as FIXED ASSETS, Capital assets are those tangible physical assets acquired
to carry on the business of a company with a life exceeding one year.

EXAMPLE:

 Land

 Building

 vehicles

 Tools and Equipment

 Machinery

Non-Capital Intensive

 Business create wealth in ways that do not require plants,

machinery, or expensive equipment, rather they rely on “
INTELECTUAL CAPITAL”.

EXAMPLES:

 Software development firms

 Consultants

 writers

 accountants

 lawyer

Capital Intensive Assets

 Business that have a high ratio of capital costs to labor costs are known as capital intensive
business that require a large financial investment in capital asset to produce goods or services.
  Example:

 robots

 machineries

Current Assets

 Items that are currently cash or expected to be turned into cash within one
year are known as current assets.

This includes:

 cash

 inventory

 account recievable

Inventory

Tangible Assets

• have a physical existenceand can be touched and felt. Few

examples of tangible assets include stock, computers,
buildings, machines, etc.

Intangible Assets

• the opposite of tangible assets, Intangible assets dont have

physical existence and cannot be touch or felt. A few examples
of such intangible assets include good will, patent, copyright,
trademark, company's name, etc

Most luxury

1. Bugatti's voiture noire

The car is embedded with an 8-liter engine, 16 cylinder and 1500 brake horsepower. An ultra-
powerful car with six tailpipes.

Valve gear: (DOHC) 4valve per cylinder 64 valves in total

Bore x Stroke: 86 mm x 86 mm
FOAM

What is foam?

 Foam is an object formed by trapping pockets of gas in a liquid or solid. A bath sponge and
the head on a glass of beer are examples of foams. In most foams, the volume of gas is large,
with thin films of liquid or solid separating the regions of gas. 

 Solid foams can be closed-cell or open-cell. In closed-cell foam, the gas forms discrete pockets,
each completely surrounded by the solid material. In open-cell foam, gas pockets connect to
each other. A bath sponge is an example of an open-cell foam: water easily flows through the
entire structure, displacing the air.

Introduction to Foam

 Originally, foam rubber was made from natural latex, a white sap produced from rubber trees.
As early as 500 B.C. , Mayans and Aztecs used this latex for waterproofing purposes and also
heated it to make toy balls. During the early 1900s, the first patent for synthetic rubber was
granted and several decades later a process for foaming latex was invented. Another process
was developed in 1937 for making foams from isocyanate-based materials. After World War II,
styrene-butadiene rubber replaced the natural foam. Today, polyurethane is the most
commonly used material for foam products

 Foam rubber is found in a wide range of applications, from cushioning in automobile seats and
furniture to insulation in walls and appliances to soles and heels in footwear. Foams are made
by forming gas bubbles in a plastic mixture, with the use of a blowing agent. Foam manufacture
is either a continuous process for making laminate or slabstock or a batch process for making
various shapes by cutting or molding.

 Raw Material

 Most foams consist of the following chemicals: 50% polyol, 40% polyisocyanates, and 10% water
and other chemicals. Polyisocyanates and polyols are liquid polymers that, when combined with
water, produce an exothermic (heat generating) reaction forming the polyurethane. The two
polyisocyanates most commonly used are diphenylethane diisocyanate (MDI) and toluene
diisocyanate (TDI). Both are derived from readily available petrochemicals and are
manufactured by well-established chemical processes. Though MDI is chemically more complex
than TDI, this complexity allows its composition to be tailored for each specific application. MDI
is generally used in rigid foams, whereas TDI is typically used for flexible foam applications.
Blends of MDI and TDI are also used.

 Polyols are active hydrogen monomers based on polyesters, polyethers, or hydrocarbon

materials that contain at least two active hydrogen atoms. The type of polyol used will
determine whether the foam produced is flexible or rigid.
 A wide range of additives are also used. Catalysts (tin and amines) speed up the reaction,
allowing large volume production runs. Blowing agents that form gas bubbles in the
polymerizing mixture, are required to produce foam.

 Flexible foams are typically made using the carbon dioxide formed during the reaction of water
with isocyanate. Rigid foams use hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and pentanes as the
blowing agents.

 Surfactants are used for controlling the size of bubbles and include silicones, polyethers, and
similar materials. Other additives that may be used include cross-linking agents, chain-extending
agents, fillers, flame retardants and coloring materials, depending on the application.

Two basic types of foam

 Flexible foams have an open cell structure and can be produced in both high and low densities.
Applications include cushioning for furniture and automobiles, mattresses and pillows,
automotive trim, and shoe soling.

 Rigid foams are highly cross-linked polymers with a closed cell structure that prevents gas
movement. Their main application is as insulation for buildings, refrigerators and freezers and
refrigerated transport vehicles.

The Manufacturing
Process

1.Material preparation

The liquid chemicals are delivered either by railroad tanker cars or tank trucks and pumped into
large holding tanks. From there, the chemicals are pumped into smaller heated mixing tanks, and
are kept separate if they react with each other. For continuous manufacture of foam such as
slabstock, more than two monomer streams are typically used.

2. Dispensing and mixing

Continuous dispensing (also called open pouring or free-rise) is used in the production of rigid and
flexible low-density foams. A specific amount of each chemical, measured by metered pumps, is fed
from the mixing tanks into a mixing head, where the blending of the chemicals take place. The
reactive components are poured onto a moving surface or conveyor belt, where the foam rises and
cures to form slabstock.

3. Cutting and curing

As the foam moves toward the end of the conveyor belt, it is automatically cut by a horizontal
bandsaw into smaller pieces, usually 12 ft (3.66 m) long sections. After cutting, the foam sections are
cured at room temperature for 12 hours or more. They are not stacked since they are not firm
enough to withstand any weight. After curing, a second automatic bandsaw cuts the sections into
the desired thickness. Other shapes can also be cut.

4.Other forming processes

A continuous lamination process is used to form rigid foam laminate insulation panels known as
boardstock. For appliance insulation, liquid chemicals are injected between

TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS, AND LIMITATIONS OF FOAMS.

Types Of Foams

Flexible foams are useful when you need a material that bends, flexes, or absorbs force without
damage or delamination.

Rigid foams have a matrix structure that gives them little or no flexibility. They can be sealed to
prevent fluid absorption or air penetration for flotation, insulation, or gasketing.

Syntactic Foam is a composite consisting of rigid hollow glass, carbon, or polymers microspheres
held together by a metal, polymer, or ceramic matrix. The hollow particles make up more than half
of the composite’s volume. This means the foam has less density, more strength, a lower coefficient
of thermal expansion, and it resists compression

Current applications for syntactic foam

Marine Riser Tensioners

Remotely Operated Underwater Vehicles

Autonomous Underwater Vehicles

Boat Hulls

Memory foam also known as viscoelastic polyurethane, was developed by NASA for Space Shuttle
seats. It becomes more viscous at lower temperatures and also responds to heat — including body
temperature — to become more elastic and pressure sensitive. This means it conforms to a (living)
human body and makes it a good choice for use in mattresses.

Rate-responsive foam feels soft when you apply pressure relatively slowly. However, if you hit or
slap it, it becomes firm. The foam doesn’t act like a spring under load but instead relaxes, which
makes it good for cushioning and seating applications.

Reticulated foam is a very porous, low density solid foam. 'Reticulated' means like a net. Reticulated
foams are extremely open foams i.e. there are few, if any, intact bubbles or cell windows.

Characteristics of foam
Bulk density: 
The mass per unit volume for a material.

Tensile strength: 
The maximum stress needed to fail or break the material in a tension-loading test.

Elongation:
The percent of deformation occurring during a tensile or other mechanical test.

Tear strength: 
Used to measure the tear resistance of foam rubber, elastomeric foam, and other thin and flexible
foam materials.

Noise-reduction coefficient (NRC):

Indicates a foam’s ability to absorb noise.

Thermal conductivity:
Measures the linear heat transfer per unit volume through a material for a given temperature
gradient.

Dielectric strength: 
Maximum voltage a material can withstand before electrical breakdown.

Flammability: 
The ability to reduce or slow flame spread or resist ignition when exposed to high temperatures.

LIMITATION OF POLYURETHANE FOAMS

Polyurethane is a leading member of the wide-ranging and highly diverse family of polymers or
plastics. Polyurethane can be a solid or can have an open cellular structure, in which case it is called
foam and foams can be flexible or rigid.

LIMITATION OF POLYURETHANE FOAMS

Health Problems

Polyurethanes are widely used in many applications like building insulations, footwear and paints.
Energy research shows that polyurethanes release toxic fumes that are not healthy to inhale. People
who are over-exposed to polyurethane fumes experience health problems including allergic
reactions, rashes, difficulty in breathing, loss of consciousness and even blindness. “If your eyes or
skin come in contact with polyurethane foams, clean and rinse them thoroughly to avoid health
problems”.

Environmental Issues
Polyurethane foam emits toxic fumes if burned. Some blowing agents in polyurethanes produce
greenhouse gases that have negative effects on the atmosphere. Some polyurethane foams contain
non-renewable fossil fuels that adversely affects the environment. “Though polyurethanes are not
toxic as many other chemicals, they still harm the environment”.

Durability

Short life is a major disadvantage of polyurethane products. Polyurethanes have hydroscopic

tendencies, i.e. water absorption characteristics. Mattresses made from polyurethane foams absorb
water and gradually disintegrate and lose their quality of support. Polyurethane adhesives and
sealants have the same problem.

Odour

Polyurethanes emit odours and fumes, though they are not that highly noticeable. The petroleum-
based chemicals and flame retardant fumes cause physical pains, especially in case of mattresses
and paints, this becomes irritating. Prolonged exposure to this smell may make people ill.
Woodworkers who use polyurethane finish also encounter overwhelming fumes.

RELATED MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

Coir Mattresses / Rubberized Coir Sheet Forming Machine

 It is a machine that processes systematically, the coir fibre with the latex for manufacturing
Rubberized Coir Fleeces of 1” thickness. These fleeces are piled to make the mattress and other
allied items. This state-of-the-art machine has speed controls throughout and is fully automatic.
It is manufactured in 3 different capacities - 1 meter width, wherein you can process a maximum
width up to 3 feet, 1.4 meter width up to 4 feet and 2.2 meter width up to 6.5 feet.

Batch Foaming Machine

 Batch Foaming Machines are designed to produce flexible PU foam. The typical construction of
machine includes tanks, molds, and counters and is run by electrical motor. The whole
mechanism of the batch foaming machine is handled by computers and it ensures accurate
mixing and filling of raw materials in different machine tanks. It can reduce the maintenance
cost by its ability to work without huge manual labor. This feature of batch foaming machine
makes the process quick and efficient. The machine is designed to produce PU foam of different
thickness and quality.

The Rebonding Foam Machine

 The rebonding foam machine is mainly used for mixing the crushing foam scraps with binder
(adhesive glue), then through the mould, pressed by the hydraulic system, the corresponding
density of the regeneration of sponges required. The machine has a complete set production
line of stirring drum with mixing system, and compression mold.

 If choose with steam system, it takes approx 15~25mins for one block;

If without steam system, it takes approx 1 hour for one block foam

Circular Foam Cutting Machines

 Circular Foam Cutting Machines are used for cutting various thicknesses foam with accuracy and
diligence. The structure of circular foam cutting machines is made up of a circular table top
which gets rotary movements from AC motor that is controlled by PLC and cutting section which
is stationary. The PU foam blocks are placed on the circular table and when the machine is
started, the table gets circular movement and the PU foam blocks get cut in desired size and
thickness. Circular foam cutting machines are designed to manage high yield of manufacturing
units.

Vertical Foam Cutting Machine

 The Vertical Foam Cutting Machine is designed to provide a reliable means of trimming the
sides of flexible PU foam blocks and to split bigger blocks to desired sizes. These machines are
also used for cutting thick sheets & sofa cushions.

Horizontal Foam Cutting Machine

CONTINUOUS FOAMING MACHINE

 Slabstock foams are usually processed continuously by individual metering of chemicals

through a mixing head into the bottom of Trough to a parallel conveyorised tunnel with fall-
plates positioned at certain angles. The foaming mix is prepared continuously in a low
pressure or high pressure mixing head fed with various polyol , isocyanate , caralyst ,
surfactant and other additives streams in precisely defined proportion. The conveyers will
move at a controlled speed untill the foam bun rise to full height and ready for cutting into
predetermined lengths. The cut-foam buns are then moved away with the help of trolleys.

Automation in Manufacturing Foam.

LAMINATION:
LCN1000: Semi-Automated Lamination System

• Laminate Foam, Latex, & Pocket Coil Products With Roll Application
 Whatever way you manufacture mattresses, this machine is capable of a variety of foam
types, mattress builds, and glue needs. With the same robust design as other C³ lamination
equipment, this machine capitalizes on roll application efficiency while preserving needed
operator involvement.

Maximize Adhesive Efficiency with C³ Lamination

• Often, the LCN1000 system is installed to replace spray application processes. When installed,
the accuracy of glue dispensing and adhesion immediately improves.
Every drop of glue should be used to adhere the layers of your build, not create a mess on
your floor or of your products. C³’s lamination works towards efficient use of glue to save you
money in consumables and in overall production efficiency and quality.

Example Lamination Recipe

• For a standard queen, 3-layer foam mattress, we impart the following example recipe.

• Glue per layer: 6 g/ft2

Tamp Press Recipe: 25% compression with a 1 second dwell; 50% compression with a 1 second
dwell
Total Throughput: 45 seconds

• Using gap control, the rollers will meet the foam at the right height to ensure each layer
reaches the necessary glue coat weight. This prevents too much or too little glue application.

MATERIAL HANDLING:

TRN1000: Turning Table

Re-orient or inspect work in process with a quick turn on the turn table.

• 15 Second Cycle Time

• 75 Sq. Ft. Machine Footprint

• 12 inch Lift Height

Turn Product Without Manual Labor Or Disrupting Production

• The turn system is your ergonomic solution to rotating product without the exertion of an
operator. The machine lifts the product and rotates it to the degree needed to continue on to
 production. Most manufacturers use the turn to perform activities like zipping covers, final
inspection, or removing debris.

Automatic Destacking Units

• Unload Pallets Of Material Into Production Without Handling A Single Layer

• 15 Second Throughput Per Layer (Bump Mode)

• 254 Sq. Ft. Machine Footprint

• 0.5 Inches Minimum Layer Height

Pick Foam Layers From A Stacked Pallet And Convey Them Into Production

• Destacking units are typically used at the start of a lamination line to unload pallets of foam,
latex, or pocket coils. Each layer is conveyed to a lamination system in order of the laminate
build to automate the raw material infeed. Empty pallets are then recycled automatically
through the machine for pickup by a forklift.

How The Destacking Units Work

Pick

Using a bump conveyor or pickheads, product is picked and conveyed into the production line.

Convey

Product conveys in order of a recipe into the lamination system. Multiple destackers suit the
number of layers in a mattress build.

Recycle

Empty pallets are shuttled through the machine and return to the same place they started for pick
up.

Automatic STacking SYSTEMS

• A machine that stacks layers of foam and other products on to pallets for storage

• 18 Inches Max Product Height

• 175.5 Sq. Ft. Machine Footprint

• 80 Inches Max Stack Height (Up To)

or shipment.

VT1000: Vertical Trim Lines

 • Trim laminates and cut twin-sized mattresses before assembly with vertical trim systems.

• 30 Second Cycle Time

• 701 Sq. Ft. Machine Footprint

• 1 Centimeter Trim Accuracy

• C³ trimming machines consist of squaring section, conveyor, trim saw, and waste disposal
units. The system trims mattresses to spec or splits king-sized beds to twins without
interrupting the flow of production. C³ trim systems can be used before or after lamination.

Paper Manufacturing
(Introduction)

History of Paper Making

• 3000 BC - Egyptians mastered the art of creating papyrus paper.

• 150 BC – First organized production of paper started in China. It was made from macerated
hemp fibers, old fishnets, plant bark and water.

• 500 – Mayans used paper created from tree barks.

• 610 – Paper arrived and started to be manufactured in Japan.

• 751 – Arabs started producing paper after they learned its recipe from Chinese prisoners.

• 1495 – First paper mill established in England.

• 1690 – First paper mill established in USA.

• 1798 – Paper machine created by inventor N.L.Robert

• 1844 – Paper started being made from grounded wood.

Considerations in Manufacturing Paper

• Grammage and basis weight

• Dimensions (Sizes)

• Type
• Some Properties

Grammage – also known as GSM, it is a measure of aerial density which is expressed in grams per
square meter (g/m2). This measurement is used in most part of the world.

Basis Weight – it is a measure of aerial density which is expressed in terms of mass (expressed as
weight) per number of sheets of a specific size. The convention is used in the United Stated and a
few other countries using US paper sizes is pounds of a ream of 500 (or in some cases 1000) sheet
of a given (raw, still uncut) basis size.

Description of Grammage

• 35-55 gsm – The lightest type of paper, ranging from translucent tracing paper to newsprint.

• 75-90 gsm – This weight of paper in is found in sketchpads or notebooks. It’s thick enough to
draw on with pencil, but heavy ink or marker may bleed through.

• 90-100 gsm – This is the weight of most types of household printer paper.

• 120-140 gsm – The weight of average promotional poster. Think movie posters hanging on a
teenager’s bedroom walls or product posters hanging in store windows.

• 210-300 gsm – This thicker type of paper is stiffer but still bendable. You’ll see it used for some
magazine covers and higher-quality flyers. This is also the weight of most paper used for
watercolors or painting.

• 350-450 gsm – The highest GSM paper is pretty much cardstock. This is the stiffest, sturdiest
paper and is used for business cards and invitations.

Dimension (sizes)

Commonly used for office works

1. Letter size (215.9 mm x 279.4 mm) - commonly named as “short coupon”

2. Folio size (215.9 mm x 330.2 mm) – commonly names as “long coupon”

3. A4 size (219 mm x 210 mm)

Types of Paper

• Bond paper. This type of paper is stronger and more durable than the average sheet of paper.
Instead of being made from low grade wood pulp, it is mostly made up of rag pulp. It’s perfect
for letterheads, typed reports and envelopes.

• Gloss coated paper. This paper is typically used for flyers and brochures as it has a high shine.
As the ink dries well there is no need for a seal varnish as the ink does not rub off.
• Matt coated paper. This type of paper is the opposite to gloss – it is coated with a matt finish
to produce a paper that isn’t shiny, preventing glare. This type of paper is perfect for reports,
flyers and leaflets.

• Recycled paper. Made from re-used paper products, recycled paper is perfect for those who
are trying to reduce their environmental impact. It can be used for most documents including
reports, memo paper and forms.

• Silk coated paper. The interim between gloss and matt, silk coated paper has a smooth silky
coating, leaving it smooth to the touch but without the shine of glass paper. This type of paper
can be used for many things such as magazines, books and catalogues.

• Uncoated paper. Typically found in most office printers, uncoated paper has no coating,
making it excellent for ink receptivity and absorbency. As it is uncoated it has the advantage
of being used by both printer and pen, ideal for forms, letterheads and memo paper.

• Watermarked paper. Used in high quality paper watermarked paper give a feel of luxury and
high quality. To create its desired effect an impression is pressed into the paper by attaching a
wire pattern. This type of paper is commonly used as a security feature for important
documents, including exam certificates

Some Properties

• Brightness. The brightness (ISO) is a measure for the brightness degree of the paper expressed
in percent compared with the brightness standard (magnesium oxide = 100%). The higher the
brightness value, the brighter the paper is.

• Gloss. The gloss figure in the data sheets indicates the percentage of reflected light with a
defined angle of incidence. A higher gloss leads to stronger light reflections and higher gloss
values.

• PPS roughness(*PPS roughness – Parker Print-Surf roughness). The geometric form of a paper
surface is defined as deviation from the ideal flat level. The more the surface approaches the
ideal level, the smoother the paper is. The measuring method (PPS) is based on the
measurement of air leakage between the paper surface and the even measuring head. In the
case of PPS roughness, the average pore depth over a defined circular area is measured. The
higher the measured value is, the “rougher” the paper surface is.

• Opacity. The opacity is a measure for the opacity degree of the paper, expressed in percent in
relation to the reflected light. Paper which lets a lot of light through, is transparent; paper that
lets little light through, is opaque. The higher the value, the more opaque the paper is.

• pH value. The value in the data sheets defines the pH value of the surface. The pH values are
indicated on a scale from 0 to 14. The value 7 marks the neutral point which corresponds to
distilled water. Values below 7 refer to “increasingly acid ”, values above 7 stand for
 “increasingly alkaline”. Papers should have a pH close to the neutral point in order to meet
ideal requirements for printing and further treatment

• Specific volume. Paper thickness is expressed in micrometer (μm). To compare the thickness
of papers with different basis weights, specific volume is used.

Paper Manufacturing Processes

Wood and Pulp Production

1. Wood Production

2. Pulp Production

3. Paper Production

Wood Production

Wood as a raw material

• Approximately 25,000 plants with a woody stem are registered under the term wood.
However, the different varieties clearly differ in terms of usability for the production of paper.

• Conifers are preferred as the fibers are longer than, for example, fibers of deciduous trees.
Longer fibers form a firmer fibrous web and, hence, a firmer paper on the paper machine.

• The trunk with its different cells which are responsible for the transport of the nutrients and
the saps can be used for paper pulp, but not the bark.

Flow diagram for wood preparation

DEBARKING

• It is the process of removing bark from wood.

• It is required to ensure that the pulp is free of bark and dirt.

• It is necessary, as it has negligible useful fiber, darkens pulp, and requires extra chemical
usage.

Chipping

• After debarking, the logs or portion of logs are reduced to chip fragments suitable for the
subsequent pulping operation.

• The wood is cut into chips to make mass and heat transport during cooking.
Chip screening

• The chip is characterized by length. Industrial chips are typically 20-30 mm long and have a
thickness of below 8mmIn order to process wood chips into pulp, they must be separated
based on size.

• It is the process of removing foreign debris and removing oversized and undersized wood
pieces from the acceptable chips

Chip storage

• Chips are stored in the pulp mills in piles or silos.

• The chip storage is used to homogenize the flow of wood material to the digester.

• It is also used to control the portion of various chip types being fed to the digester.

PULP PRODUCTION

PULPING PROCESS

1. Mechanical Pulping

2. Chemical Pulping

Pulp

• Pulp consists of wood or other lignocellulosic materials that have been broken down
physically and/or chemically such that discrete fibers are liberated and can be dispersed in
water and reformed into web.

• Pulp is also commonly manufactured using recovered wastepaper as a raw material.

Pulping process

• The pulping process is aimed at removing lignin without loosing fiber strength, thereby freeing
the fibers and removing impurities that cause discoloration and possible future disintegration
of the paper.

• It can be done in two ways:

1. Mechanical pulping

2. Chemical pulping

MECHANICAL PULP
• In the case of mechanical pulp, the wood is processed into fiber form by grinding it against a
quickly rotating stone under addition of water. The yield of this pulp amounts to approx. 95%.

• The disadvantage of this type of pulp is that the fiber is strongly damaged and that there are
all sorts of impurities in the pulp mass.

• Mechanical pulp yields a high opacity, but it is not very strong. It has a yellowish color and low
light resistance.

• The use of mechanical pulp is confined mainly to nonpermanent paper such as newsprint and
catalog paper.

MECHANICAL Pulping

1. Process of delivery and washing of chips

An electromagnetic feeder adjusts the amount of chips that are supplied from a chip silo via a flow
conveyor. Next, a measuring conveyer continuously measures their weight. The chips are then
sent to the next process after foreign matter such as metallic materials, soil and sand is removed.

2. Disaggregation process (refiner process)

A refiner is equipped with two rotating disks that face each other. Radial grooves are cut into the
surfaces of the disks. Chips are passed between the disks and disaggregated (ground).

3. Screening process

The two types of screening equipment are cleaners and screens.

• Screens are used to separate raw materials from foreign objects depending on the size and
shape. Round holes or thin slits are made in a screen plate to allow the raw materials to pass
through them and the foreign objects remain on the screen plate.

• Cleaners, which are usually shaped as oblong cones, are used to separate raw materials from
foreign objects by differences in specific gravity. Raw materials are placed in a large opening
at the top of the equipment to flow and swirl down along the tangential line. During this time,
centrifugal force ejects unwanted objects with large specific gravity, which then hit the
surrounding walls, fall down and are drained out as dross. The foreign objects removed by
screens and cleaners are sent to the wastewater treatment process or burned after the
dewatering process.

• 4. Bleaching process

• Parts of the screened raw materials are bleached and some are not. Targeted brightness can
be obtained by changing the additive rate of bleaching chemicals (such as sodium hydrosulfite
and hydrogen peroxide). Volatile materials (e.g., chloroform) may be released to air,
depending on chemicals used.
• 5. Drainage process

• Because the concentration of pulp sent from the previous process is low, the pulp is drained
with thickener to increase the concentration, and then continuously stored in the chest. The
drained (white) liquor is sent to the wastewater treatment process.

CHEMICAL PULPING

• For the production of wood pulp, the pure fiber has to be set free, which means that the lignin
has to be removed as well. To achieve this, the wood chips are cooked in a chemical solution.

• The yield of chemical pulping amounts to approximately 50%. The fiber in the resulting pulp
are very clean and undamaged. The woodpulp produced by this process is called woodfree.

• It is this type of pulp which is used for all Sappi fine papers.

1. Cooking process

• Woodchips and chemical (white liquor: NaOH + Na₂S) are placed in a digester, cooked at a
high temperature and pressure (about 160 ℃ and 10 atmospheric pressures), and separated
into cellulose fibers and lignin, etc. The cellulose fibers are continuously washed in warm
water and sent to the bleaching process after uncooked materials are removed with a screen.
To be used as kraft paper for corrugated cardboard, they are sent directly to the papermaking
process without bleaching.

(2) Bleaching process

• The fibers are brownish after the cooking process, as they still contain some amount of lignin,
etc. Higher brightness can be obtained by removing the remaining lignin with chlorinate
bleach chemicals (chlorine, hypochlorite, and chlorine dioxide) and caustic soda in several
phases. At present, most mills adopt an oxygen bleaching process to remove lignin prior to
the chlorine bleaching process to reduce the environmental load in the subsequent process
that uses chlorinated chemicals. This can reduce dioxins emission in bleaching wastewater
almost to the limit of identification. It is expected that an increasing number of mills will
adopt the ECF method, which does not use chlorine to further reduce environmental load.

(3) Chemical recovery process

• Lumber ingredients (lignin and hemicellulose excluding fibers), which are separated at the
cooking process, and the remaining liquid chemicals are sent to the chemical recovery
process. The chemical compound (black liquor) is burned in recovery boilers after being
concentrated by vacuum evaporators and is effectively used as heat energy.

Papermaking

• The process of going from Pulp to Paper

Papermaking Process

a. Suspension at the Head box

- distribute fibers onto wires

b. Sheet formation in the wire section

- form sheet and remove water

c. Refining

-This is where the cellulose fibers pass through a refining process which is vital in the art of
papermaking. Before refining, the fibers are stiff, inflexible and form few bonds.

d. Screening and Cleaning

-Pulps contain undesirable fibrous and non-fibrous materials, which should be removed before
the pulp is made into paper .

-Cleaning involves removing small particles of dirt and grit using rotating screens and
centrifugal cleaners.

e. De-watering

-remove more water and improve smoothness and bonding.

f. Drying

- dry paper using evaporating steam heated cylinders.

Coating

• Coating

- is one of the most important process in paper industry. The purpose of coating is to improve
surface on paper and paper board.

• In film coating and roll coating a uniform layer of coating is applied to the base paper. The
surface contours of the paper remain visible. This is why the process is also known as “contour
coating”.

• In blade coating, an excess layer of coating is first applied to the paper, which is then partially
scraped off again (“doctored”) with a steel blade. The pressure exerted by this doctor blade
produces a uniform surface. The cavities of the paper are filled with coating and the fibre
backs remain nearly uncovered.
Coating
Finishing

Calendering

- means to “press with a roll”

• Calenders are used to make the paper surface extra smooth and glossy. A calender consists of
a number of rolls, where pressure and heat is applied to the passing paper.

Rewinding

- cutting and rolling paper to costumer needs.

• The function of the re-winder is to rewind the reels from one tambour to another tambour.

Packing and Storage

The paper is packaged for transport to the customer. The packing is important to avoid
transport damages and to provide protection against moisture.

Paper Recycling

Waste Paper
• Waste paper is collected from Waste Paper Banks and Commercial dumps.

• Waste paper currently represents 67% of the raw material in paper industry.

• Paper not suitable for recycling is removed.

• Pulping

- a process that extracts fibrous material, cellulose or other materials as prelude to

papermaking.

RELATED MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

PULP MILLS

Pulp mills separate the fibers of wood or from other materials, Such as rags, wastepaper or straw
in order to create pulp.

PAPER MILLS

Paper mills primarily are engaged in manufacturing paper from wood pulp and other fiber pulp.

DE-BARKER

Bark is stripped from the logs by knife, drum, abrasion, or hydraulic barker. The stripped bark is
then used for fuel or as soil enrichment.

CHIPPING MACHINE

A machine used for reducing wood (generally tree limbs or trunks) into smaller woodchips.

They are often portable, being mounted on wheels on frames suitable for towing behind a truck or
van. There are also high power chipper models mounted on trucks and powered by a separate
engine. These models usually also have a hydraulic crane.

HYDRAPULPER

 The wood fibers are brought into a circular tank containing water.

 This has a very powerful agitator at the bottom which breaks up the bales (wooden fibers)
into small pieces.

PAPER MAKING MACHINE

A slurry of fiber (usually wood or other vegetable fibers) is drained to create a continuous paper
web. After the forming section the wet web passes through a press section to squeeze out excess
water, then the pressed web passes through a heated drying section.

REFINER

Refiners are machines that mechanically macerate and/or cut pulp fibers before they are made
into paper. These are two principal types: disk and conical refiners. Disk refiners have superseded
the conical refiners for many purposes, as they offer many advantages.

TWIN WIRE FORMER

A twin-wire former captures the stock jet in the converging nip formed between two fabric-
covered rolls. These are also sometimes referred to as "gap" formers. There are four types of
twin-wire formers - blade, roll, hybrid and roll/blade.

COATING MACHINE

A primary reel, on which paper deficiencies can be removed, is superposed to the coating
machine. To bridge set-up times at the coating machine, this primary reel has to operate at a
higher speed than the paper machine. It has an unwinding system, designed for use of a flying
splice.

CALENDER MACHINE

A machine that takes paper from a reel and winds it onto a core and usually slits and trims the
edges at the same time.

REWINDER MACHINE

The function of the rewinder is to rewind the reels from one tambour to another tambour.
Here, the web run can be changed, from the outer to the inner side, the reel edges may be cut and
deficiencies in the paper can be removed.

SLITTER REWINDER

The finished paper, which on the tambour still has the full machine width, is cut to smaller reels
on the slitter rewinder. Circular knives cut the tambour to reels of specified width while the
tambour is being unwound.

CROSS CUTTER
 In a cross cutter, the smaller reels that have been cut to size from tambours by the slitter
rewinder, are cut to sheets of a specified size. Several reels can be processed simultaneously,
depending on the design of the cross cutter and the “cutting weight” of the paper.

GUILLOTINE

Guillotine type cutters are used for cutting relatively small quantities of paper in special sizes. In
these cases, completely refitting the cross cutter would not be economically sensible. Guillotines
are also used for the so-called four-sided trim which is necessary for certain print jobs.

Automation of
Paper manufacturing
including metrology and quality assurance

Automation

WHAT IS AUTOMATION?

The use of largely automatic equipment in a system of manufacturing or other production

process.

WHY IT IS USED ?

Because automation include higher production rates and increased productivity, more efficient
use of materials, better product quality, improved safety, shorter workweeks for labour, and
reduced factory lead times.

DISADVANTAGES

• worker displacement

• investment in automation (an automated system can cost millions of dollars to design,
fabricate, and install)

• a higher level of maintenance needed than with a manually operated machine

METROLOGY

• WHAT IS METROLOGY ?

Metrology is the science of measurement in the simplest of terms. It is the way that
manufacturers ensure all component parts fit and work correctly. It is also an essential part of the
inspection process.

• WHY IT IS IMPORTANT IN MANUFACTURING?

• Metrology ensures the quality of the product. A good engineering drawing will ensure that all
parts match the design intent. Getting the initial drawing right will also ensure that the project
stays within budget, thereby saving money.

• Clear dimensions and tolerances ensure that the manufacturers don’t need to waste time
clarifying each step and can confidently proceed with production, which will speed up the
overall manufacturing time.

THE RAUMA PAPER MILL BY

RAUMA REPULA AS REFERENCE

MANUAL MEASUREMENTS

• - consistency

• - freeness

• - brightness

• - light scattering coefficient

• - apparent densjty

• - Sommerville shive content

• - Bauer

• - McNett fractionation pH

• - temperature

• - ash

• - peroxide solution concentration

• - dithionite solution concentration

SEMI AUTOMATED MEASUREMENTS

- tensile strength, stretch,tensile energy absorption

- tear strength

- optical properties: brightness, dominant wavelength, excitation purity and opacity (Elrepho )

Fully Automated Measurements

- The information needed for sample identification and start-up of the equipment is
keyed in manually.

- - air resistance, Bendtsen

- - roughness, Bendtsen

- - qloss, Hunter

- - thickness

ON - LINE MEASUREMENTS

Many of the measurements traditionally performed in the laboratory are now available for direct
use in the process. Some of the advantages of these on-line measurements compared with
laboratory tests are :

- results are obtained fast without any handl ing of samples, transmission and laboratory operations

- paper can be analysed continuously during the manufacturing process

- continuous measurement simplifies and speeds up recording and correcting quality variations

Quality assurance

•  Quality includes ensuring that products are free of defects and working exactly as expected and
claimed to do

• Quality assurance is a way of preventing mistakes and defects in manufactured products and
avoiding problems when delivering products or services to customers

PROCESS

• Step 1: Identify Organizational Goals

• Step 2: Identify Critical Success Factors

• Step 3: Identify Internal and External Customers

• Step 4: Customer Feedback

• Step 5: Implement Continuous Improvements

• Step 6: Select Quality Management Software

• Step 7: Measure Results