UNIT 65

THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

OUTLINE
1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.
2. A HISTORY OF THE MODERN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED
KINGDOM.

2.1. Ancient times.

2.2. Medieval times.
2.3. Modern times.
2.3.1. The nineteenth century: the 1870 Educational Act.
2.3.2. The twentieth century: other Educational Acts.

3. THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

3.1. Definition: What is education?
3.2. The Education System in the United Kingdom.
3.2.1. The English Educationa l System.
3.2.1.1. State education.
3.2.1.2. Independent schools.
3.2.1.3. The universities.
3.2.1.4. Extracurricular education.
3.2.2. The Educational System in Northern Ireland.
3.2.3. The Educational System in Wales.
3.2.4. The Educational System in Scotland.

4. NEW DIRECTIONS ON LANGUAGE TEACHING.

5. CONCLUSION.
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 65, aims to provide a useful introduction to the Education System in the
United Kingdom as an attempt to offer a general overview of education in each country in terms
of differences and similarities. In doing so, the unit is to be divided into two main chapters: first,
Chapter 2 offers a history of the modern system of education in the United Kingdom so as to
better understand the current educational system in England, Northern Ireland, Wales and
Scotland. In doing so, we have offered a historical overview of education from (1) ancient times
and (2) medieval times, up to (3) modern times, where we have further examined the main
events during (a) the nineteenth century, namely regarding the 1870 Educational Act, and
during (b) the twentieth century, with respect to other Educational Acts up to the present day.

Chapter 3, then, provides a more current and general overview of the Education System in the
United Kingdom by offering first (1) a definition of term ‘education’ and, secondly, an analysis
of (2) the Education System in the United Kingdom, in which we include an approach to (a) the
English Educational System regarding (i) state education, (ii) independent schools, (iii)
universities, and (iv) extracurricular education; and then (b) the Educational System in Northern
Ireland, (c) the Educational System in Wales, and (d) the Educational System in Scotland,
which is different from the previous ones. Finally, Chapter 4 will be devoted to the main
educational implications in language teaching regarding the introduction of this issue in the
classroom setting; Chapter 5 will offer a conclusion to broadly overview our present study, and
Chapter 6 will include all the bibliography for further references.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

An influential introduction to the Education System in the United Kingdom is based on

Bromhead, Life in Modern Britain (1962); Howatt, A history of English Language teaching
(1984); and Richards, J., & Rodgers, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (1992).
Other sources include the Encyclopaedia Larousse 2000 (2000); the Encyclopedia Britannica
(2004); and the following up-to-date websites: www.historylearningsite.co.uk (2004),
http://en.wikipedia.org; and http://www.know-britain.com.

The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative

competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most

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complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the
guidelines in B.O.E. (2004) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; the Council of Europe, Modern
Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference
(1998); and van Ek and Trim, Vantage (2001).

2. A HISTORY OF THE MODERN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED

KINGDOM.

Chapter 2 offers a history of the modern system of education in the United Kingdom so as to
better understand the current educational system in England, Northern Ireland, Wales and
Scotland. In doing so, we have offered a historical overview of education from (1) ancient times
and (2) medieval times, up to (3) modern times, where we have further examined the main
events during (a) the nineteenth century, namely regarding the 1870 Educational Act, and
during (b) the twentieth century, with respect to other Educational Acts up to the present day.

2.1. Ancient times.

Following the website www.know-britain (2004), regarding general education in England, “ever
since the existence of man the teaching and learning process has been an integral part of human
experience. The communication of knowledge and practical skills has always been essential to
the development of individuals, groups and wider communities. If this is true of the most
primitive of communities it is all the more so in today’s complex society where personal
fulfilment depends to a large extent on one's social role which is often a direct result of acquired
knowledge and the ability to make the most of it. The ability to develop one’s critical sense, the
ability to analyse, to see how things and persons relate are all skills that are the result of
education.”

Moreover, “it was not long before communities realised that if they needed people of ability
then it had to encourage education. After all a society of any kind is not a mere abstraction but a
number of individuals that are in some way are related and interact. The development of society
as a whole depends on the development of each constituent part. Even the Homo Habilis of the
Stone Age had to learn to make rudimentary weapons to defend himself and to hunt for food. He
had to learn how to use the skins of the animals to make basic protective clothing. The
transmission of knowledge and skills (education) allowed him to survive.”

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So, we can affirm that education (in the sense of language teaching) traces back to ancient
civilizations. Also, as Richards & Rodgers (1992) state, the function of the earliest educational
systems was primarily to teach religion and to promote the traditions of the people. Thus, in the
Old Testament, one of the aims and methods of education among the ancient Jewish traditions
was to teach their children a foreign la nguage. Yet, it was around the fifth century B.C that in
ancient India the early states of language were written down as a set of rules which, in fact,
became a grammar of Sanskrit whose effects went far beyond the original intentions of the
authors.

2.2. Medieval times.

During the Middle Ages (15th-16th century), the early educational systems of the nations of the
Western world emanated from the Judea-Christian religious traditions, which were combined
with traditions derived from ancient Greece philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
According to Howatt (1984), Christianity in the Middle Ages became a powerful force in the
countries of the Mediterranean region and other areas in Europe. Many monastic schools, as
well as municipal and cathedral schools, were founded during the centuries of early Christian
influence.
Actually, following the website www.know-britain, some of these early schools built by the
time formal education was already taking shape in Britain still survive nowadays. During the
Middles Ages, schools ranged from those organised by the local parish to those connected to
Cathedrals, chantries and monasteries. These gave a very elementary education where pupils
were given religious instruction and were taught to read. From this period we have the first
grammar schools that prepared pupils for entrance into the colleges in Oxford and another very
prestigious institution, Eton College, which was founded by Henry VI in 1440. It is worth
mentioning that both Winchester College and Eton College still exist as very exclusive
institutions.

Apart from those already mentioned there are a number of other ancient schools that still
survive, such as St Paul’s School founded in 1509 by John Colet (1467?-1519). All of these
institutions provided specialised knowledge in Latin and Greek necessary for their future studies
in one of the Oxford colleges. Apart from these academically orientated institutions there were
also other forms of formal education especially those of a vocational kind. Apprentices learnt
their trade skills in schools run by the various guilds.

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As we can see, this double choice, dating from the age of primitive man down to the Middle
Ages and the Renaissance, is still present in the modern system of education in England today.
So, from early times we have two separate systems providing different types of education:
academic and vocational. Similarly, we also see existing side by side two types of educational
institutio ns: secular and religious since there has always been a close association between the
Church and education which has survived throughout the ages. Schools run by religious
organisations have always had a profound influence on the development of education and still
offer an invaluable service to the nation.

“Teachings, then, centered on grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and
music, and the chief storehouse of learning were the monasteries, which maintained archives
that preserved many manuscripts of the preceding classical culture, and durin g this period
universities were established in several countries, such as Italy, Spain, France and England.
Medieval education also took the form of apprenticeship training in some craft or service. As a
rule, however, education was the privilege of the upper classes, and most members of the lower
classes had no opportunity for formal learning.”

During the Renaissance period educators emphasized such subjects as history, geography,
music, and physical training, and taught mostly in Latin grammar schools. Montaigne, among
others, in the sixteenth century and Comenius and John Locke in the seventeenth century,
promoted alternative approaches to education, making specific proposals for curriculum reform
and for changes in the way Latin was taught (Howatt 1984), but since Latin had for so long been
regarded as the classical and therefore most ideal form of language, the role of language study
in the curriculum reflected the long-established status of Latin.

Beginning around the 16th century, French, Italian, and English gained in importance as a result
of political changes in Europe, and Latin gradually became displaced as a language of spoken
and written communication. In the seventeenth century, language study and therefore, education
was to be promoted in subsequent centuries through the fields of philosophy, logic, rhetoric,
sociology, and religion, among others, providing the framework for the main task of linguistic
scholars. This was basically to study and understand the general principles upon which all
languages are built and in doing so, teach them better. Some of those methodological and
theoretical principles and ideas are still used within the field of education nowadays.

Also, during the 17th century there was a rapid growth of scientific knowledge , which gave rise
to its inclusion in courses in the universities of the European countries and led to the exchange
and spread of scientific and cultural ideas throughout Europe. Children entering “grammar

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school” in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries in England were initially given a
rigorous introduction to Latin grammar (Howatt 1984) and were often met with brutal
punishment. Latin was said to develop intellectual abilities, and the study of Latin grammar
became an end in itself.

2.3. Modern times.

Following www.know-britain (2004), “the events that lead directly to the birth of the modern
system of education in England are to be sought mainly in the second half of the 19th-century.
There were certain individuals at the beginning of the 19th century who were in favour of
widespread education, however, for a number of reasons, they did not have the backing either of
the government or of the people. Later on in the century leaders of the Chartist Movement and
the Radicals were in favour of some sort of national system of education. However, it is safe to
say that there was no widespread desire for the education of the population as a whole. In the
social legislation of this period education did not become a real priority until the year of the first
Education Act, 1870.” Let us examine the steps that led to the English Modern Educational
System.

2.3.1. The nineteenth century: the 1870 Educational Act.

During the first half of the nineteenth century, several events related to education took place in
Britain. For instance, in August 1833, “parliament voted sums of money each year for the
construction of schools for poor children, distributed by the Treasury, the first time the state had
become involved with education. In 1839 government grants for the construction and
maintenance of schools were switched to voluntary bodies, and became conditional on a
satisfactory inspection,” and next year, “in 1840 the Grammar Schools Act expanded the
Grammar School curriculum from classical studies to include science and literature.”

“Before 1870, education was largely a private affair, with wealthy parents sending their children
to fee-paying schools. The Forster Elementary Education Act of 1870 required partially state
funded board schools to be set up to provide primary (elementary) education in areas where
existing provision was inadequate. Board schools were managed by elected school boards. The
schools remained fee-paying. The previous government grant scheme established 1833 ended on
December 31, 1870.” Then, “under the 1880 Elementary Education Act, education became free
up to the age of 10, but was also made compulsory up until that age as well.”

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Yet, “the 1891 Free Education Act provided for the state payment of school fees up to ten
shillings per week.” Later on, “the 1893 Elementary Education (School Attendance) Act raised
the school leaving age to 11 and later to 13. The Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf
Children) Act of the same year extened compulsory education to blind and deaf children, and
made provision for the creation of special schools.” And finally, by the end of the century, “the
Voluntary Schools Act of 1897 provided grants to public elementary schools not funded by
school boards.”

2.3.2. The twentieth century: other Educational Acts.

Also, by the turn of the century many changes took place within the field of education. For
instance, the first change occurred in April 1900 when “higher elementary schools were
recognised, providing education from the age of 10 to 15.” Two years later, “the 1902 Balfour
Education Act created Local Education Authorities (LEAs), who took over responsibility for
board schools from the school boards. Grammar schools also became funded by the LEA.”
In 1918 “the Fisher Education Act made secondary education compulsory up to age 14 and gave
responsibility for secondary education schools to the state. Under the Act, many higher
elementary schools and endowed grammar school sought to become state funded central schools
or secondary schools. However, most children attended primary (elementary) school up until
age 14, rather than going to a separate school for secondary education.” Then, “after the passing
of the 1929 Local Government Act, Poor Law schools became state funded elementary schools.”
Moreover, “the Butler Education Act of 1944 established the Tripartite System, and defined the
modern split between Primary and Secondary education at age 11.” Finally, “education was
made compulsory up to age 15 in 1947.”

Then, during the Post-War period, “due to the failures of the Tripartite system, the Labour
government of the time requested proposals from all the UK’s regions for them to move from
the Tripartite system to Comprehensive Schools. Note that this was an optional reform for the
regions, and as of late 2003 some regions still have the Tripartite System. Education was made
compulsory up to age 16 in 1972.” Seven years later, “following the 1979 General Election, the
Conservative party regained power in central government, and made two main changes in this
period.”

First, though the Labour Party had done some small efforts beforehand, the Conservative Party
achieved the considerable expansion of New Vocationalism. “This was seen as an effort to
reduce the high youth unemployment figures, which were seen as one of the causes of the

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rioting that was relatively commonplace at the end of the seventies. Secondly, the introduction
of the Assisted Places scheme which was introduced in 1980, “where gifted children who could
not afford to go to fee-paying schools would be given free places in those schools if they could
pass the school’s entrance exam.”

However, more important changes were just about to happen in the 1980s as for instance the
Education Reform Act of 1988, which made quite a few changes to the system of education.
“These changes were aimed at creating an education ‘market’ so that schools were competing
against each other for ‘customers’ (pupils), and that bad schools would lose pupils and close,
leaving only the good schools open.” The reforms include the following changes:

• The introduction of the National Curriculum, “which forced schools to teach certain
subjects, as opposed to the choice of subjects being up to the school as had previously
been the case.”
• “The Assessments of the National Curriculum at the key stages 1 to 3 (ages 7, 11, 14
respectively) through what were formerly called SATs. At key stage 4 (age 16), the
assessments were done with the GCSE exam.”
• The introduction of the so-called “League Tables, which started to be compiled showing
statistics for each school, which are published in newspapers so parents can see which
schools are doing well in each area of the country and which aren’t.”
• The introduction of formula funding, “which basically meant that the more children a
school could attract to it, the more money it got.”
• “Open Enrolment and choice for parents were brought back, so that parents could
(within limits) choose what school their children went to.”
• The establishment of the OFSTED, an inspection committee which was set up to inspect
schools.
• Finally, the choice for schools to be able to “opt out of local government control,
becoming opt-out schools and receiving funding direct from central government” if
enough of their pupils’ parents agreed. “The enticement for schools was that the
government offered more money than the school would get from the local authority, and
this was seen as a political move given that local authorities were not run by the
Conservative party as a rule, and central government was.”

The 1990s are characterized by the New Labour’s Educational Policies from 1997 onward.
Actually, “following the 1997 General Election, the Labour party regained power in central
government. New Labour’s political ideology meant that most of the changes introduced by the

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Conservatives during their time in power stayed.” Hence, the main changes that the Labour
Party stated are as follows:

• A new focus on tailoring education to each child’s ability substituted the previous
Labour focus on the Comprehensive system. “Critics see this as reminiscent of the
original (and proven to have failed) intentions of the Tripartite system.”
• “Comprehensives are being turned into specialist schools (known as Centres of
Excellence), which will teach the National Curriculum subjects plus a few specialist
branches of knowledge (e.g. business studies) not found in most other schools. These
schools will be allowed to select 10% of their pupils.
• New percentages since in 1997 there were 196 of these schools, and by August 2002
there were 1000. “By 2006 the plan is to have 2000, and the goal is to make all
secondary schools specialist eventually.”
• The introduction of the concept of Beacon schools, by means of which, in any area of
deprivation, a school that is doing well is marked as a Beacon school, and shares its
ideas and methods with other less successful schools.”
• The introduction of academies, “which are schools that have done so badly as to close,
and have been reopened under the control of central government and local
businesses/interested third parties.”
• The introduction of Education Action Zones, “which are deprived areas run by an
action forum of people within that area with the intention of make that area's schools
better.”
• The restructuring and renaming of vocational qualifications as follows: GNVQs became
Vocational GCSEs and AVCEs whereas NVQs scope expanded so that a degree-
equivalent NVQ was possible.
• The introduction of the New Deal, “which made advisors available to long-term
unemployed (in the UK this is defined as being unemployed for more than 6 months) to
give help and money to those who want to go back into Education.”
• The introduction of set targets for literacy and numeracy hours into schools, such as Set
Truancy targets.
• The setting of a maximum class size of 30 for 5-7 year olds.
• The introduction of the EMA, “which is paid to those between 16 and 18 as an
enticement to remain in full-time education and get A-Levels/AVCEs.”
• The introduction of Curriculum 2000, “which reformed the Further Education system
into the current structure of AS levels, A2 levels and Key Skills.”
• The abolition of the Assisted Places scheme.

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“In the 20th century Education became a sensitive social, economic and political issue in most
European countries. England was no exception. In the history of English education the most
important piece of legislation of the twentieth century was the Education Act of 1944, also
known as the “Butler Act”. It replaced all previous legislation. It became increasingly clear that
education was of vital importance to the nation and to the individual and the legislation passed
necessarily reflected this conviction. It also reflected political tendencies, as well as the social
and economic needs of the nation.”

3. THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

Chapter 3 provides a more current and general overview of the Education System in the United
Kingdom by offering first (1) a definition of term ‘education’ and, secondly, an analysis of (2)
the Education System in the United Kingdom, in which we include an approach to (a) the
English Educational System regarding (i) state education, (ii) independent schools, (iii)
universities, and (iv) extracurricular education; and then (b) the Educational System in Northern
Ireland, (c) the Educational System in Wales, and (d) the Educational System in Scotland,
which is different from the previous ones.

3.1. Definition: What is education?

On defining the term ‘education’ we shall follow Howatt (1984), who stated that a thorough
education consists not only of the acquisition of knowledge, but the physical, mental, emotional,
moral, and social development of the individual. Also, following wikipedia (2004), we may say
that “education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less
tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, good judgement and wisdom. One of
the fundamental goals of education is to impart culture across the generations.” Hence,
according to Howatt (1984), the early Greek aim was to prepare intellectually young people to
take leading roles in the activities of the state and of society, and Romans considered the
teaching of rhetoric and oratory important, with particular attention to the development of
character.

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3.2. The Education System in the United Kingdom.

Similarly, formal education occurs “when society makes a commitment to educate people,
usually the young. Formal education can be systematic and thorough, but the sponsoring group
may seek selfish advantages when shaping impressionable young scholars.” It is worth
remembering that education in England may differ from the system used elsewhere in the
United Kingdom. Actually, there are two main systems: one covering England, Wales and
Northern Ireland and one covering Scotland.

Basically, the two education systems have different emphases. For instance, on the one hand,
traditionally the English, Welsh and Northern Irish system has emphasised depth of education
whereas the Scottish system has emphasised breadth. Thus English, Welsh and Northern Irish
students tend to sit a small number of more advanced examinations and Scottish students tend to
sit a larger number of less advanced examinations. It should be noted that local English practice
can vary from this general picture although Scottish practice is well nigh universal. So, let us
examine the four main types within the United Kingdom.

3.2.1. The English Educational System.

Before examining the main types of education institutions in England, it is worth introducing
some general considerations regarding the students’ age, school years (which are closely
related), costs, types of schools, types of examination, details about the academic year in terms
of time, and the different stages within formal education (primary, secondary, tertiary
(university) education and so on).

• First of all, regarding age, following Bromhead (1962), “education is compulsory for all
children aged 5 to 16 years. Nine-tenths of all children are educated in ‘state schools’
(actually run by the local education authorities).” In general, the cut-off point for ages is
the end of August, so all children must be of a particular age on the 1st of September in
order to begin class that month.

• With respect to the school years the division between primary and secondary education
is at the age of eleven, when almost all children in the state system change schools. At
the age of sixteen about two-thirds of these pupils leave school and get jobs or
apprenticeships (if they can). A large proportion take part-time (or full-time) courses,

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 mainly related to work-skills, in the technical and commercial colleges which are also
operated by local authorities 1 .

Hence, within primary education we the school years are divided into: primary
education, infant School or Primary School, reception years (age 4 to 5), Year 1 (age 5
to 6), Year 2 (age 6 to 7; KS1 National Curriculum Tests –England only); Junior School
or Primary School, ranging from year 3 to year 6, that is, Year 3 (age 7 to 8), Year 4
(age 8 to 9), Year 5 (age 9 to 10), Year 6 (age 10 to 11; eleven plus exams in some areas
of England, KS2 National Curriculum Tests).

Within secondary education, we find the Middle School, High School or Secondary
School which ranges from year 7 to year 9, for instance, Year 7 (old First Form; age 11
to 12), Year 8 (old Second Form; age 12 to 13), Year 9 (old Third Form; age 13 to 14;
KS3 National Curriculum Tests, known as SATs (Standard Assessment Tests)). Then,
we find the Upper School or Secondary School from year 10 to year 11, for instance,
Year 10 (known as old Fourth Form, age 14 to 15), Year 11 (old Fifth Form; age 15 to
16 where students take old O Level examinations, modern GCSE examinations).
Finally, we find the Upper School, Secondary School, or Sixth Form College, from year
12 to year 13, for instance, Year 12 or Lower Sixth (age 16 to 17 (AS-level
examinations)), and Year 13 or Upper Sixth (age 17 to 18, where students take A2-level
examinations. Both AS-levels and A2-levels count towards A-levels.).

• Regarding costs, the costs for a normal education in the United Kingdom include no
charge for Primary, Secondary Education, and Further (Secondary) Education in either
a sixth form or college. Yet, Primary and Secondary education can also be charged for,
if a fee-paying school is attended by the child in question (i.e. public schools).
Moreover, there is no charge if under 19 in that particular academic year or on a low
income. However, Higher/Tertiary Education (at University) has a tuition fee per year
(around £1,000).

• In addition, regarding the types of schools, we find state schools, which are free; private
schools, which have to pay fees; grammar schools, which can be private or public, but
have to pass an exam to enter the school (high level of intelligence); preparatory

1
In some regions of England, pupils attend a Lower (Primary) School before going to, a Middle School between 8
and 12 or, more commonly 9 and 13, and then a High School or Upper School. Other, more vocational qualifications
offered including GNVQs and BTECs.

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 schools, which prepare children (age 7-13 years) for public boarding school (private);
boarding school, where children (age 11/13-18) board termly or weekly; and finally,
public schools, another type of boarding school but for the more elite, which cost much
more than a normal private school (i.e. Eton and Harrow).

Following Bromhead (1962:143), “the state system has effectively taken over and
incorporated most of the schools originally founded by churches. Complex laws define
the right of a church to keep some power, including influence over appointment of some
teachers, in a school to whose costs it makes a small contribution.” Actually, “about
one-quarter of children aged under eleven are in Church of England schools, but there
are few Church of England secondary schools. There is, on the other hand, a whole
range of Catholic primary and secondary schools, including some newly-built. Some
parents prefer not to use the ‘state’ system but pay for their children to be educated at
independent schools. These account for el ss than one-tenth of all chidren, but this
private sector includes the so-called ‘public schools’, some of whose names are known
all over the world, and whose importance is out of proportion to their numbers.”

• Regarding types of examination, “preparation for examination is not the first purpose of
education, but before we go on to look at the various types of schools in detail it may be
useful to mention the main certificates which indicate educational attainments.
Moderately assiduous children take the Certificate of Secondary Education (C.S.E.)
which indicates satisfactory completion of schooling to sixteen. More ambitious
children take the examinations for the General Certificate of Education (G.C.E.) at
ordinary level. This may be taken in any number of subjects, and some children take as
many as ten subjects. Many, after gaining this certificate, leave school to start training
for various careers; the certificate is the required starting-point for many types of
professional training” (Bromhead, 1962:144).

“Most young people who stay at school after passing their ordinary level examinations
prepare themselves for an attempt to win a certificate at advanced level, usually in only
two or three subjects. During the last years at school the pupils are almost obliged to
specialise in narrow fields, as the advanced level certificate demands intensive study of
the two or three subjects in which the examination is taken. Some people believe that
English education at this level is too higly specialised. In Scotla nd it is much broader
and the Scottish Higher Certificate may well cover five subjects.”

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 Also, “the examinations for the General Certificate of Education are not conducted by
the state or by any public authority, but by various examining boards, each of which
arranges its syllabus, prepares question-papers, grades the candidates and awards
certificates. In England there are six of these examining boards, each connected with a
university or a group of universities, and certain other boards as well. The examinations
set by the different boards differ in content and arrangement, but not in difficulty. In
practice each school prepares its pupils for the examination of one of the boards.”

“A student who receives further full-time education after the age of eighteen, either at a
university or at some other college giving training of a special type, can usually receive
a grant from the public authorities to cover his expenses, or almost all of them, unless
his parents have a large income. But the number of young people who can enter
universities is limited by the capacity of the universities, which is less than enough to
take all the young people who have the basic qualifications, in the form of general
certificates at advanced level, for university admission. In practice, therefore, entry to
the universities is competitive. But university degree courses are also available at
polytechnics, and entry to the Open University is less restricted.”

• Regarding some details about the academic year in terms of time, we may say that “the
teaching day is typically divided into seven periods of forty minutes each, and these
include periods for football, hockey and other sports on the playing fields beside the
school buildings, as well as for Physical Education in the gymnasium”
(Bromhead:1962:149). Then in general, “the academic year begins after the summer
holidays and is divided into three ‘terms’, with the intervals between them formed by
the Christmas and Easter holidays. The exact dates of the holiday vary from area to
area, being in general about two weeks at Christmas and Easter, plus often a week or
more at Whitsun, and six weeks in the summer, beginning rather late. Schools outside
the state system decide on their own holiday dates, generally taking a month off at
Christmas and Easter and eight weeks in the summer. The three terms are not
everywhere called by the same names; some schools call the January-March period ‘the
Spring Term’, others call it ‘Easter Term’, ‘Hilary Term’ or ‘Epiphany Term’. All this
illustrates a very English individualism, harmless enough but confusing and often rather
pointless” (Bromhead, 1962:144-5).

“Day-schools mostly work Mondays to Fridays only, from about 9 a.m. to between 3
and 4 p.m. Lunch is provided and parents pay part of the cost unless, by a complicated
formula, they show that their income is low enough to entitle them to free children’s

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 meals.” For instance, “out of 9 million children of all ages in maintained schools in
1977, 5 ½ million took schools meals, 14% of them without payment; the rest brought
their own sandwiches or went home for lunch.”

• Finally, among the different stages within formal education, we must mention early
childhood education, primary education, secondary education, tertiary education,
quaternary education, higher education, vocational education, post-secondary education,
university, college, and further education regarding independent schools and
extracurricular education.

3.2.1.2. State education.

Following Bromhead (1962:146-150), “state education is in two main stages: primary up to the
age of eleven, and secondary from eleven to eighteen. The primary stage is subdivided, with the
period between five and seven years being generally called ‘infants’. Nearly all children change
schools at the age of eleven, even if they have to travel a long way to the secondary school.
Boys and girls are together in nearly all primary schools, and at the secondary level only a few
separate schools for boys or girls still survive. The changeover to co-educational secondary
education has been accepted with virtually no opposition.”

“Everywhere in England the education committee of the local elected council is responsible for
all the schools, except for those which are ‘independent’ and a few which receive direct grants
from the state and form a special category [independent schools and extracurricular education].
The ‘state’ schools in inner London are run by the Inner London Education Authority, in outer
London by the London boroughs, in metropolitan counties by the districts. In all of the rest of
England the schools are under the control of the county councils. The education committee of a
council which has charge of schools is known as the Local Education Authority.”

“State laws provide a general framework within which the schools operate and the central
government provides a large part of the money, but there is only a fairly loose state control over
the schools throughout the country. The Department of Education and Science establishes
standards to which schools ought to conform and it sends out Her Majesty’s Inspectors, who are
officials of the Department, to visit and make thorough reports on the work of every school
from time to time. They give advice to the teachers and suggest new ideas, but their function is
above all advisory. In every school the head teacher has a great deal of autonomy in deciding
what is to be taught and how the teaching is to be carried out.”

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“Most primary schools are wholly owned and controlled (technically maintained) by the local
authorities, but about one-third belong to churches, either Anglican or Roman Catholic, having
been founded by religious bodies with the idea of providing not only general education but also
religious instruction according to the ideas of particular denominations. When education became
universal and free these church schools were taken into the general system but kept some degree
of independence. The general principle is that the more money the church contributes towards
the cost of maintaining the buildings the more independence it keeps 2 , the more positions on the
board of managers, the more control over the appointment of teachers.”

Within state education the present system (21st century) comprises children ranging between 5
and 11. It is during this time that children attend the primary school and then progress to
secondary school level, which normally means entry into a Comprehensive School. It is worth
noting that before the introduction of Comprehensive Schools the state education system in
England was essentially tripartite and was made up of grammar schools, secondary modern
schools, and secondary technical schools. Officially, a Comprehensive school is defined as the
type of school which is intended to provide all the secondary education of all the children in a
given area without an organisation in the tripartite system.

Among the Comprehensive Schools are also the Voluntary denominational schools (particularly
strong are the Roman Catholic Comprehensive Schools). These schools take all pupils
regardless of ability (except those children with special needs who attend special schools). They
therefore cater for children from a variety of social backgrounds, hence the name
"comprehensive". There is no examination or any other selection process for entry.
Comprehensive Schools, however, have not eliminated distinctions. There is what is called
‘streaming’ and ‘setting’ according to learning ability. This means that students are grouped
together in order to achieve a degree of uniformity in classes.

“Secondary schools of all types try seriously to build up the sense that the school is a real
community, with its hierarchy of order and authority. Every school wants a hall, big enough to
accommodate all the pupils, and this is expensive to build. The curriculum for children aged 11
to 16 gives them scope for choice, and the Certificate of Secondary Education enables children
to be examined in skills which are not strictly academic, as well as in the normal academic
school subjects. Actually, “local authorities also provide technical and commercial colleges,
which are remarkably active and many-sided institutions, whose work is developing very

2
“In the schools not connected with churches, religion is not neglected. In all schools run by local
authorities the day must, by law, begin with prayers, and there is religious instruction, though both the
prayers and the religious teaching are supposed to be ‘Christian’ without learning towards any particular
type of Christianity.

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rapidly. They are for the most part not like ordinary schools, in that most of their pupils, or
rather their students, are not undergoing full-time courses of instruction.”

3.2.1.3. Independent schools.

As mentioned above, outside the state system, we find other British institutions, such as the so-
called independent schools which are of many different types: private schools, which have to
pay fees; grammar schools, which can be private or public, but have to pass an exam to enter the
school (high level of intelligence); preparatory schools, which prepare children (age 7-13 years)
for public boarding school (private); boarding school, where children (age 11/13-18) board
termly or weekly; and finally, public schools, another type of boarding school but for the more
elite, which cost much more than a normal private school (i.e. Eton and Harrow).
According to Bromhead (1962:151-2), in this private-sector of education, “most of their pupils
are sent to them because their parents wish to exercise choice and are willing and able to pay
fees. A small proportion of pupils are paid for by local authorities for various reasons. These
reasons may include the absence of a state school with facilities suitable for a child or for its
parents’ requirements.” Yet, the term ‘public school’ is obviously misleading, because the
schools are in fact private.

Like other British institutions, “public schools had changed so much since their founding that
they were unrecognizable by the age of Victoria. Although the seven elite boarding schools
(Eton, Harrow, Westminster, Rugby, Winchester, Charterhouse, and Shrewsbury) and two
London day schools (St. Pauls and Merchant Taylors’s) identified as ‘Public Schools’ certainly
educated many major figures, some historians blame them for doing far more harm than good to
the nation” (wikipedia, 2004). Let us briefly examine their history.

“Virtually all secondary and tertiary (university) educational institutions in Great Britain were
originally founded to train clergy for the established church, the Church of England (or the
Anglican Church, as it was also known). Since members of the comparatively tiny nobility and
wealthy classes had private tutors, many, if not all, the public schools were intended for the
deserving poor. By the nineteenth century many of these schools had become means of upward
mobility, not for the poor, but for the upper-middle classes, who wished to move their children
into the aristocracy.”

“By the time Thomas Arnold, the poet’s father, assumed the headmastership of Rugby, ‘Public
Schools’ had become characterized by dreadful teaching, archaic curricula, bullying, sexual

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abuse, and dreadful living conditions. Rugby led the way in raising the general moral tone of
Public Schools and for a time even pioneered modern practices of art education for children and
other innovations. Nonetheless, even at their best, Public Schools concerned themselves more
with producing gentlemen than with preparing their graduates for the economic, political, and
technological challenges facing contemporary England.”

Moreover, “the assimilation of the British business classes to the social pattern of the gentry and
aristocracy had proceeded very rapidly from the mid nineteenth century, the period when so
many of the so-called ‘public schools’ were founded, or reformed by finally excluding the poor
for whom they had originally been intended. In 1869 they were more or less set free from all
government control and set about elaborating that actively anti-intellectual, anti-scientific,
games-dominated Tory imperialism which was to remain characteristic of them.”

“Unfortunately, the public school formed the model of the new system of secondary education,
which the less privileged sectors of the new middle classes were allowed to construct for
themselves after the Education Act of 1902, and whose main aim was to exclude from education
the children of the working classes, which had unfortunately won the right to university primary
education in 1870. Knowledge, especially scientific knowledge, therefore took second place to
the maintenance of a rigid division between the classes. The British therefore entered the
twentieth century and the age of modern science and technology as a spectacularly ill-educated
people.”

“If Public Schools failed to notice the importance of science and technology and hence had little
effect on these fields, they also did little to advance literature and culture. To be fair, one must
add that a few major British authors attended Public Schools: Matthew Arnold of course
attended Rugby, where his father was headmaster, and so did Arthur Hugh Clough. Anthony
Trollope did poorly at both both Harrow and Winchester, William Morris attended Marlborough
for several years, leaving after school riots. Arthur Henry Hallam studied at Eton, and Charles
Lutwidge Dodgson (Lewis Carroll) went to Westminster.”

3.2.1.4. The universities.

There are more than forty universities in Britain, which are to be classified into five main
categories: ancient universities (founded before the nineteenth century), red brick universities
(founded in the nineteenth and early twentieth century), glass plate universities (founded in the
years after WWII), new universities (formed when the distinction in status between polytechnic

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colleges and universities was abandoned in 1992), and finally, the open university or distance-
learning university (founded in 1968). It must be borne in mind that the University of London
and the University of Wales are unusual in that their colleges/constituent instit utions are treated
as universities in their own right.

Following Bromhead (1962:157-166), “all British universities are private institutions. Each has
its own governing council, including some local businessmen and local politicians as well as a
few academics.” The vast majority of British universities are state financed, with only one
private university - the University of Buckingham - where students have to pay all their fees.
However, none of the universities are actually state-owned. British undergraduate students (and
students from other EU countries) have to pay fees and living costs, but every student may
receive from the local authority of the place a personal grant (including lodging and food)
unless his parents are rich. Then their university fees go up to a maximum of approximately
£1,000 (assessed on the basis of the income of the student and of the student’s family).

At this point it is worth noting that “students in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland are also
eligible for a means-tested grant, and many universities provide bursaries to poorer students.
International students are not subsidised by the state and so have to pay much higher fees
similar to those paid at Ivy League universities in the USA. In principal all postgraduate
students are liable for fees, though a variety of scholarship and assistantship schemes exist
which may provide support” (wikipedia, 2004). Similarly, following Bromhead (1962:158),
“the Government gives money to the universitites to cover the cost of buildings and to cover
almost the whole of their current expenditure. The Department of Education and Science does
not exercise direct control, but it can have important influence on new developments through its
power to allocate funds. It takes the advice of the University Grants Committee, a body which is
mainly composed of academics.”

“The first postgraduate degree is normally that of Master, conferred for a thesis based on at least
one year’s full-time work; the time actually taken is usually more than a year. Recently there
has been an increase in Masters’ degrees based mainly on course work and examinations. In
most universities it is only in the science faculties that any large numbers of students stay to do
postgraduate work. Oxford and Cambridge are peculiar in that they give the Master of Arts
degree automatically to any Bachelor who pays the necessary fees at any time after the seventh
year from his first admission to the university, and in Scotland the degree of Master of Arts is
given as a first degree, being equivalent to an English Bachelor’s degree.”

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Following Bromhead (1962:163), “each university decides each year how many students it
proposes to admit to each of its courses, and chooses the right number of applicants on the basis
of merit. People who wish to enter a university fill up a long form which they obtain from the
Universities Central Council for Admissions, and name up to five universitites at which they
would like to study particular courses, in their order of preference. For each course at a
unversity, applicants are placed in order of apparent merit –and merit is judged by a
combination of examinations marks, school teachers’ confidential reports and (in some cases)
special written and/or oral tests.”

Following wikipedia (2004), “British universities tend to have a strong reputation

internationally, although this is limited to a small number of internationally known universities
(notably Oxford, Cambridge and a few of the London colleges). Within Britain a university’s
reputation is sometimes proportional to its age. However this distinction is becoming blurred
with the top red brick universities challenging Oxbridge, a development accelerated by the
introduction of league tables ranking university teaching and research in which Oxford and
Cambridge are sometimes matched or beaten by other universities. Despite this, there is still a
clear two-tier system in operation, with less well-considered universities often struggling to
attract able students, staff and funding. Many of the less highly regarded universities have had
to expand into new areas (such as media studies and sports science) in order to compete3 .” Let
us examine the different types of universities and see why they have a special eminence.

• Among the most ancient universities founded before the nineteenth century in the
United Kingdom, it is important to mention in order of formation (date of foundation):
the University of Oxford (1249), University of Cambridge (1284), University of St
Andrews (1411), University of Glasgow (1451), University of Aberdeen (1494), and the
University of Edinburgh (1583). Out of the United Kingdom it is relevant to mention
the University of Dublin, founded in 1592 by the Queen Elizabeth I.

Thus, Oxford is regarded as the oldest university in the English-speaking world and
Cambridge, as the second oldest academic institution. According to legend, the latter

3
Hence, “recent academic analysis of published statistics has pointed to the existence of 4 groupings of
universities in terms of academic performance: the elites, the top old universities, the other old
universities, and the new universities (ex-polytechnics and others that have achieved university status
since 1992). The elite group consists of Oxford, Cambridge, UCL and Imperial. The other members of the
Russell Group lie in the second tier of 22 universities, along with Bath, Durham, Leicester, Queen’s
University Belfast, St Andrews, UMIST and York (wikipedia, 2004).”

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 was founded in 1209 by scholars escaping Oxford after a fight with locals. Both of them
are often referred to as ‘Oxbridge’, a portmanteau which makes reference to its old age.
They are peculiar in that they give the Master of Arts degree automatically to any
Bachelor who pays the necessary fees at any time after the seventh year from his first
admission to the university; and also in that they are referred to together as Oxbridge,
vie for the position of best overall university in the UK.

Also, unlike the most selective American universities, Oxford and Cambridge are public
institutions seeking only the best students, and do not practise “legacy preference”, that
is, in the case of children of affluent parents who attended Harvard these are far more
likely to be successful in the applications process than those who have no previous link
with the university.

Regarding the University of St Andrews, it was founded in 1413 and is regarded as the
oldest university in Scotland; the university of Glasgow was founded in 1451 as a
School of Divinity, and was part of the city’s cathedral. It is said to be the largest of the
three universities in Scotland; these two, together with the University of Aberdeen
(1494) are ecclesiastical foundations, while the University of Edinburgh (1583) is a city
foundation.

• With respect to red brick universities, these were founded in the nineteenth and early
twentieth century, and are called like that because of the material with which the outside
was covered (red brick) and because of the industrial period in which they were
founded. They represent those institutions of higher education founded in most of the
biggest industrial towns and in a few other centres. They were also called ‘university
colleges’, because they were not universities in their own right among which we include
the universities of London, Durham, Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds,
Sheffield, Bristol, Reading, Nottingham, Leicester, Southampton, Exeter, Hull and
Newcastle upon Tyne. 4

• glass plate universities were founded in the years after WWII, each in a campus near a
not-too-large, not-too-industrial town. We refer to the universities of Staffordshire,
York and Lancaster, Sussex, Kent, Warwick, Essex and East Anglia. According to
Bromhead (1962:162), “taking the name from the county seems to reflect American
ideas. Each of these new universities, like Keele, has its own approach to teaching.”

4
“In Wales there are four similar institutions, dating from the same period, united rather uncomfortably
as the University of Wales” (Bromhead, 1962:161).

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 • Other new universities were formed in the middle 1960s when five hundred local
technical colleges maintained by local authorities gained special prestige under a
further new development in education. Thus, following Bromhead (1962:162), “by
1967 then of these had been given charters as new universities, though still
concentrating mostly on science and technology, with languages and social sciences on
a smaller scale. Most of these are in the biggest cities where there are already
established universities, and now some cities have two universit ies each” when the
distinction in status between polytechnic colleges and universities was abandoned in
1992).

Among this type of universities we include the University of Aston (Birmingham),

Salford (close to Manchester), Strathclyde (Glasgow), Heriot-Watt University
(Edinburgh), Brunel (London) and the City University of London; also universities at
Bradford (Yorkshire) and Loughborough (near Nottingham). “A few others among
these newest foundations are being developed in completely new sites; thus the Bristol
College of Technology has become the University of Bath, in completely new buildings
30 kilometres from its original home. Also, the old Battersea Technical College (South
London) has become the new University of Surrey, at Guildford, 50 kilometres away.”

• and finally, the open university or distance-learning university which was founded in
1968 and is considered as an independent type of University, though still linked to
formal education.

3.2.1.5. Extracurricular education.

Yet, although the technical and commercial colleges are doing so much in the field of education
for adolescents and adults, “there are still other types of adult education which are flourishing in
a different way. The Workers’ Educational Association is a voluntary organisation, which now
works in collaboration with university extra-mural boards which get funds, ultimately, from the
state. Their main function is the provision of weekly meetings of classes for adults, during the
winter months, for discussion of subjects of the type which are studied in universities, but
without leading to diplomas or certificates” (wikipedia, 2004). Also, other extracurricular ways
of education are the Academic Decathlon, the University Interscholastic League (UIL), and the
International Science Olympiad.

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3.2.2. The Educational System in Northern Ireland.

As stated above, the Educational System in the United Kingdom is approached from two
perspectives: one system covers England, Wales and Northern Ireland and one covers Scotland,
where the two education systems have different emphases. Hence the Educational System in
Northern Ireland may differ from the system used elsewhere in the United Kingdom namely in
two aspects: first, that traditionally the English, Welsh and Northern Irish system has
emphasised depth of education whereas the Scottish system has emphasised breadth. Secondly,
English, Welsh and Northern Irish students tend to sit a small number of more advanced
examinations and Scottish students tend to sit a larger number of less advanced examinations.

In general, the cut-off point for ages is the end of August, so all children must be of a particular
age on the 1st of September in order to begin class that month. The school years are divided as
follows: (1) Primary Education, which is divided into (a) Infant School or Primary School and
(b) Junior School or Primary School. The former being subdivided into the reception stage (age
4 to 5), Year 1 (age 5 to 6), Year 2 (age 6 to 7; KS1 National Curriculum Tests, but for England
only); and the latter into Year 3 (age 7 to 8), Year 4 (age 8 to 9), Year 5 (age 9 to 10), Year 6
(age 10 to 11), when students take the Eleven Plus exams in some areas of England; and KS2
National Curriculum Tests).

On the other hand, we find (2) Secondary Education, which is again divided into (a) Middle
School, High School or Secondary School, (b) Upper School or Secondary School, and (c)
Upper School, Secondary School, or Sixth Form College. Regarding the former one, this is
subdivided into Year 7 (old First Form, age 11 to 12), Year 8 (old Second Form, age 12 to 13),
Year 9 (old Third Form, age 13 to 14; KS3 National Curriculum Tests, known as SATs
(Standard Assessment Tests). Regarding the second type, the Upper School, this is subdivided
into Year 10 (old Fourth Form, age 14 to 15), Year 11 (old Fifth Form, age 15 to 16), when
students take the old O-Level examinations, that is, modern GCSE examinations. Finally,
regarding the latter type, that is, Upper School, Secondary School, or Sixth Form College, we
find the following subdivision: Year 12 (or Lower Sixth, age 16 to 17) when students take AS-
level examinations; and Year 13 (or Upper Sixth, age 17 to 18) when students take A2-level
examinations. Note that both AS-levels and A2-levels count towards A-level examinations.

3.2.3. The Educational System in Wales.

Similarly, Wales follow the same educational parameters as England and Northern Ireland.
Following wikipedia (2004), “the system of statutory national key stage tests in Wales was,

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until 2000, the same as in England and was managed by the School Curriculum and Assessment
Authority (SCAA). In 2000, the National Assembly for Wales took responsibility for these tests
in Wales, at which point they were developed by test agencies on behalf on ACCAC, whilst the
tests in England were developed for QCA. In 2002, the Welsh Assembly decided to cease the
tests at Key Stage One. Instead, optional teacher assessment materials were provided to schools
in 2003 for use in English, mathematics and Welsh.”

“These had been adapted from materials that had originally been developed by NFER and the
other test agencies to be used as statutory assessment materials for 2003. At the end of 2003, the
Daugherty Report as commissioned by the Welsh Assembly to undertake a review of the
country's assessment procedures. The interim report by the committee was perceived by the
media as supporting a complete abolishment of the assessments at key stages two and three.”

Within the school year organisation the only difference with the previous systems is in
terminology, so it is established as follows: (1) Primary Education, which is divided into (a)
Infant School or Primary School and (b) Junior School or Primary School. The former being
subdivided into the reception stage (age 4 to 5), Year 1 (age 5 to 6), Year 2 (age 6 to 7; but
instead of KS1 National Curriculum Tests as in England, we find the end of Key Stage One
Teacher Assessments); and the latter into Year 3 (age 7 to 8), Year 4 (age 8 to 9), Year 5 (age 9
to 10), Year 6 (age 10 to 11), when students, instead of taking the Eleven Plus exams and KS2
National Curriculum Tests as in England and Northern Ireland, coincide with the End of Key
Stage Two Tests and Tasks).

On the other hand, we find (2) Secondary Education, which is again divided into (a) Middle
School, High School or Secondary School, (b) Upper School or Secondary School and (c)
Upper School, Secondary School, or Sixth Form College. Regarding the former one, this is
subdivided into Year 7 (old First Form, age 11 to 12), Year 8 (old Second Form, age 12 to 13),
Year 9 (old Third Form, age 13 to 14; but instead of taking KS3 National Curriculum Tests,
known as SATs (Standard Assessment Tests), students take the End of Key Stage Three Tests
and Tasks).

Regarding the second type, the Upper School, this is subdivided into Year 10 (old Fourth Form,
age 14 to 15), Year 11 (old Fifth Form, age 15 to 16), when students take the old O-Level
examinations, that is, modern GCSE examinations as in England and Northern Ireland. Finally,
regarding the latter type, that is, Upper School, Secondary School, or Sixth Form College, we
find the following subdivision: Year 12 (or Lower Sixth, age 16 to 17) when students take AS-
level examinations; and Year 13 (or Upper Sixth, age 17 to 18) when students take A2-level
examinations. Note that both AS-levels and A2-levels count towards A-level examinations.

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3.2.4. The Educational System in Scotland.

Finally, regarding Scotland, it namely differs from England, Northern Ireland and Wales in that
instead of emphasizing depth of education and sitting a small number of more advanced
examinations, it emphasizes breadth of education and sitting larger number of less advanced
examinations. Note that, in general, the cut-off point for ages is still the end of August, so all
children must be of a particular age on the 1st of September in order to begin class that month.

However, there is a great difference in the organisation and terminology of school years. For
instance, in Scotland, we namely find three main stages: (1) Nursery School, which comprises
Year 1 (age 3-5), (2) Primary School, which is subdivided into Primary 1 (age range 4-6),
Primary 2 (age range 5-7), Primary 3 (age range 6-8), Primary 4 (age range 7-9), Primary 5 (age
range 8-10), Primary 6 (age range 9-11), and Primary 7 (age range 10-12); and the third and
final stage, (3) Secondary School, which is subdivided into First Year (age range 11-13),
Second Year (age range 12-14), Third Year (age range 13-15), Fourth Year (age range 14-16),
Fifth Year (age range 15-17), Sixth Year (age range 16-18).

It is worth noting that “the age ranges specify the youngest age for a child entering that year and
the oldest age for a child leaving that year. Also note that children may leave school at the end
of any school year after they reach 16 years of age and that they may attend Scottish universities
when they are 17. Therefore two sets of national examinations are held. The first set, the
Standard Grade examinations, take place in the Fourth year of secondary school and show basic
education level. The second set, the Higher examinations take place in the Fifth and Sixth years.
A third level, Advanced Higher, is sometimes taken by students intending to study at an English
university and covers the gap between the Scottish “Higher” level and the English “Advanced”
level courses” (wikipedia, 2004).

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

As we have seen, since ancient times British education has suffered from the class-based nature
of British society, and even recently, it has been proved that there are three main factors that
affect class educational achievement in British children: class, gender and ethnicity, the former
affecting more than the other two factors. Hence achievement in British Education has been led
by a branch of British Sociology which examines and discusses influencing the achievement of

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pupils who are taught by the British education system from the perspective that British
education is Meritocratic .

Hence, how is this issue linked to our Spanish students? Basically, through the educational
activity, both in and out the classroom, the former being developed in terms of tutorial or
classroom activities and the latter by promoting the right moral attitudes on our students.
Moreover, the issue of the organisation of the Educational System in the United Kingdom is not
unfamiliar for Spanish students, who are taking a similar organisation in terms of types of
schools, years, stages and examinations. Hence it makes sense to examine the historical
background of education within the Anglo-Saxon scope so as to understand why class
distinction in English education is so important.

Currently, educational authorities are bringing about relevant changes for the school reality and,
therefore, students feel how the Spanish educational system is changing. The integration of
Spain into the European Union makes relevant for students to become aware of other
educational system within the European panorama so as to be able to compare and appreciate
the main similarities and differences within each system. It must be borne in mind that the
European Union offers students the possibility of taking a school-year (primary, secondary,
tertiary) in a foreign country so as to improve their personal and professional development.

So, the issue of educational systems may be easily approached to students by the increasing
number of European programs (Comenius, Erasmus, school trips) and technologies (the
Internet, mobile phones, mail) which provide students the opportunity of exchanging
information with other European teenagers and know other cultures. Actually, among the stage
objectives for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato students (stated respectively in RD 112 and RD
113/2002, 13 September) there is a clear reference to the fact of getting acquainted with other
cultures so as to promote respect and, for our purposes, an attitude of critical awareness of other
educational systems.
Thus, E.S.O. objectives (number nine, eleven and fourteen) make reference to first, analyse the
mechanisms and values that govern the functioning of societies, especially those related to the
rights and duties of citizens, adopting open and democratic attitudes and judgements (objective
9); secondly, to know the traditions and cultural patrimony of other countries, value them
critically, and respect the cultural and linguistic diversity as a people’s and countries’ right
(objective 11); and finally, to develop habits or study and discipline, learning how to make a lot
of effort and act responsibly, as a necessary condition for an efficient achievement of
educational and social tasks, both individually and collectively (objective 14).

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On the other hand, Bachillerato students are expected to first, analyse and value critically the
reality of the current world and of the antecedents and factors that influence upon it (objective
5) and secondly, to use the information and communication technologies to acquire types of
knowledge and transmit information, solve problems and facilitate interpersonal relations,
valuing its use critically (objective 7). So, as we can see Spanish students are expected to know
about the history of education in the United Kingdom and its influence in the world by a wide
range of means (technology, trips, educational programs, classroom, friendship).

The success partly lies in the way this issue becomes real to the users. Some of this motivational
force is brought about by comparing both systems through another European student’s life at
school. Otherwise, we have to recreate as much as possible the whole cultural environment in
the classroom by means of documentaries, history books, or films. This is to be achieved within
the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular, the Spanish Educational
System which establishes a common reference framework for the teaching of foreign languages
where students are intended to carry out several communication tasks with specific
communicative goals. Broadly speaking, the main aims that our currently educational system
focuses on are mostly sociocultural, to facilitate the study of cultural themes, as our students
must be aware of their current social reality within the European framework.

5. CONCLUSION.

The present unit, Unit 65 has aimed to provide a useful introduction to the Education System in
the United Kingdom as an attempt to offer a general overview of education in each country in
terms of differences and similarities. In doing so, the unit has been divided into two main
chapters: first, a history of the modern system of education in the United Kingdom so as to better
understand the current educational system in England, Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland
from ancient times to modern times. Secondly, we have provided a more current and general
overview of the Education System in the United Kingdom by offering first a definition of term
‘education’ and, secondly, an analysis of the Education System in the United Kingdom, in
which we include an approach to the Educational Systems in England, Northern Ireland, Wales,
and Scotland. Finally, Chapter 4 has stated the relevance of this issue within the curricular basis
of E.S.O. and Bachillerato. Now Chapter 5 offers a conclusion to broadly overview our present
study, and finally, in Chapter 6 we will include all the bibliography for further references.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejería de Educación y Cultura. Decreto N.º 116/2004, de 23 de enero.

Currículo de la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de
Murcia.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejería de Educación y Cultura. Decreto N.º 117/2004, de 23 de enero.

Currículo de Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia.

Bromhead, Peter. 1962. Life in Modern Britain . Longman.

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