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TEMA 3: El proceso de
comunicación. Funciones del
lenguaje. La lengua en uso. La
negociación del significado.
SUBRAYADO

ESTUDIO

REPASO 1

REPASO 2

REPASO 3

REPASO 4

REPASO 5

1. INTRODUCTION

2.THE DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

2.1. The Cooperative Principle
2.2. Communicative Steps for Language Learners.
3.FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE. THEORIES.
3.1. Malinowski
3.2. Schumann
3.2.1. The Communicative Function
3.2.2. The Integrative Function
3.2.3. The Expressive Function
3.3. Bühler
3.4. Jakobson

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 3.5. Riffaterre

1. LANGUAGE IN USE

4.1. The Comprehensible Output Hypothesis

4.2. Input Generation and Language Learning

1. THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING

5.1. Strategies
5.2. Tactics
5.3. The Role of The Learner

1. THEORETICAL JUSTIFICATION AND LEGISLATION

2. CONCLUSION

3. BIBLIOGRAPHY

0. INTRODUCTION

William Butler Yeats

Communication has many purposes, including the exchange of information, the

creation and maintenance of social relationships such as friendship, the negotiation
of status and social roles, as well as deciding on and carrying out joint actions.
Throughout all of these functions though, we can say that the primary purpose of
communication in our own language is probably social.

In this unit we are going to define communication, look at the functions of language,
language in use and the negotiation of meaning.
Let us begin with a brief definition of communication.

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 1. THE DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION.

Communication as a term can be used to describe any encounter or interaction

between two or more people, either through spoken or written language. It’s the
exchange and negotiation of information through the use of verbal and non-verbal
symbols, oral or written. In this way a writer communicates his ideas to the reader
and the speaker to the listener.

Following Harmer (1983) we can say that when one person speaks: a) he wants to
speak, it is his decision to address someone. b)he has a communicative purpose, ie,
he wants something to happen as a result of what he says. c) he selects from his
language store, he uses the language he feels appropriate for his purpose.

Communication involves the presence of extralinguistic elements, such as the

context where the communication takes place, or any piece of information already
known by any of the individuals taking part in that exchange. This will certainly add or
modify the information being transferred between the members of the communicative
process. We can also find, as we mentioned above, verbal symbols, which, put
together, form the words that we use to communicate. Finally, in oral language
prosodic features like intonation add extra meaning to those other elements
mentioned before, and clearly differentiate between written and oral language since
intonation can significantly alter the meaning conveyed by words.
It’s important to remember that any communicative process will only be successful if
it is conceptually relevant. Information must be constantly changed and qualified by
further information, the context of communication and by continuous evaluation and
negotiation of meaning by the participants.
The basic unit of conversation is an exchange. This consists of two moves (an
initiating move and a response). Each move can also be called a turn, and a turn can
be taken without using words, i.e. by the nod of the head. Basically, the idea of taking
a turn is to continue the conversation, and to give the recipient the idea that you are
interested in what is being said. Not taking your turn is an effective way of bringing
an unwanted conversation to a close, although it must be noted that this would
generally be considered to be rude. However, there are other factors that should be
considered if we wish to conduct what may be termed as a normal conversation.

When we look at normal conversation, we notice that:

usually only one person speaks at a time.

the speakers change.

the length of any contribution varies.

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 there are techniques for allowing the other party or parties to speak.

neither the content nor the amount we say is specified in advance.

These points are those which distinguish spoken communication from written
communication. In the latter all the communication is preset, the receiver has no
power to immediately alter the meaning of the message.

The success of the message relies on both the sender and the receiver using the
same code. The job of the language teacher is to teach the code to the students, in
this way, when a speaker or writer encodes a message, the receiver (reader or
listener) is able to decode it. Only when all parties are able to do this can a
successful conversation take place. We will try to make this a little clearer through
the use of the following diagram: It should be pointed out that this diagram was
designed by Jakobson, who we shall be looking at in greater detail later in this unit.
Addresser:

This is the one who is seen as the source of the communication. His or her job is to
encode the message.
Addressee:

This is the recipient of the intended message. The job of this participant is to decode
the message.
Context:

This is the situation that the addresser and addressee are in at the moment of
speaking and is also referred to as the referent. This situation will help them to code
and decode the message. The addressee should have some notion of the context for
the message to be successful.

Message:
This refers to the intended communication from the addresser to the addressee.

Channel:

This is the method used to transmit the message. It can be physical, such as through
the air, or via a telephone line, and there should also be a psychological connection
between the two parties to enable them to stay in communication.

Code:

This refers to the system of signs used to transmit the message. This must be at
least partially common to both the addresser and the addressee in order for the
message to be understood.

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 Let us see an example so that we may determine how this chart works in practice.

Addresser:

Husband
Addressee:

Wife

Context:

Dinner time
Message:

I’ll be home late tonight.

Channel:

Telephone

Code:
English

Now that we have seen some of the ways that we can define language, we will look
at some of the factors that have to be taken into consideration in order that the
conversation performs its function.

2.1. The Cooperative Principle.

Normal conversations proceed so smoothly because we cooperate in them, in other

words, we generally don’t just have a conversation for our own sake, but also for the
sake of the person with whom we are conversing. This means that we try to help the
person that we are addressing understand us.

Grice (1975) has described four maxims or principles which develop cooperative
behaviour. These are:

The Maxim of Quality:

Make your contribution one that is true, specifically:

1. Do not say what you believe to be false.

2. Do not say anything for which you lack adequate evidence.

The Maxim of Quantity:

Make your contribution just as informative as required, and no more. Too much
information could easily confuse or bore the listener.

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 The Maxim of Relation:

Make your contribution relevant and timely. This means that you should try to avoid
saying anything that has no apparent relation to the rest of the conversation or is
said too late to have any relevance.

The Maxim of Manner:

Avoid obscurity and ambiguity. Language can sometimes be confusing if the words
are not carefully chosen.

This can be summarised as:

BE TRUE, BE BRIEF, BE RELEVANT, BE CLEAR.

Native speakers of any language will realise that these rules are often broken, but
we should encourage our students to follow them as closely as possible. At least
then they will reduce the chances of someone accusing them of being hard to
understand.

This then, is another area that we all, not just learners, need to consider when
studying either the native language or a foreign one. However, there are other areas
that need to be thought about and examined. One of these areas is that of the steps
that are taken by learners on their way to full communication. It is important that
these steps are looked at because they can help both the learner and the teacher to
understand the level of the student, and the work that remains to be done.

2.2 Communicative Steps for Language Learners.

There are three recognised steps for the language learner on the way to
communicative competence.

one- way communication

restricted two-way communication

full two-way communication

One-way Communication is totally receptive. The learner does not have the
capacity to participate in a conversation. This means that, as is the case with most
language learners, the student is able to understand some of what is said to him but
is not able to actually reply with confidence. It must be remembered that even in the
acquisition of the native language, the listening skill comes before the speaking one.
Restricted two-way communication occurs when the learner does not respond in
the target language. Responses may include gestures or using the L1. This is when

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 the student wishes to participate in the conversation, but simply lacks the vocabulary
necessary to do so.
Full two-way communication involves the speaker both encoding and decoding
messages in the target language. This is the aim of every language learner and
teacher. However, this stage cannot be reached immediately, and a lot of time and
patience must be invested by both the learner and the teacher.

This theory can be applied to language teaching in such a way as to allow the
student time to develop the productive skills, in much the same way that a child
learns its native language. The teacher will allow the student time to become
confident with the ability to receive, before pushing him to produce language.

Of course, it is not just sufficient to know how to use language, the student must
have some idea of what the language should be used for. This will form the next part
of this unit.

1. FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

In this section we are going to look at some of the various functions of language. We
have already mentioned some in the introduction. Now we are going to go into
greater detail.

There are many theories connected with the functions of language. Let us begin by
looking at some of the theories propounded by Malinowski.

3.1. Malinowski
Malinowski was an anthropologist, and through his work in this area he decided, in
1923, that the functions of language could be divided into two broad categories,
these two being pragmatic and magical.

Pragmatic language was, Malinowski declared, the practical use of language. This
was either done through active means, in other words speech, or through the
narrative, which clearly refers to texts.

Magical or Ritual language was seen as the language that we normally associate
with ceremonies, particularly the religious ones such as weddings or funerals.
Schumann on the other hand was able to identify a much wider spectrum of
functions for language.
3.2. Schumann
Here we can find distinguished three broad functions of language:

3.2.1 The Communicative Function.

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 This concerns the transmission of purely referential, denotative information. Here the
speaker is using the language in order to interact with the listener. This may be done
either as an act of friendship, or to try to impart information. In this category we may
find functions such as:

Informing: The sender has a point that he feels is important for the receiver to
know.

Arguing/debating: The sender wishes to change the opinions of the receiver

about a certain subject.

Instructing: The sender wishes to advise the receiver on how to perform a

certain action.

Ordering: The sender uses the language to make the receiver comply with an
order.

3.2.2. The Integrative Function.

This involves the use of language to mark the speaker as a member of a particular
social group. This can be seen on a number of different levels:

The Class Distinction: Let’s take the example of Received Pronunciation. This,
although only spoken by a minority of the population, is what separates the elite
of the society from the rest. The speakers of this accent can immediately identify
with each other, in much the same way that speakers of a local dialect such as
the London accent of cockney are able to recognise people from the same city.

Professional Language: The use of technical terms, such as those utilised by

doctors or engineers, (otherwise know as “jargon”) identifies people as
belonging to a social group connected by profession.

3.2.3. The Expressive Function.

This consists of the use of language to display linguistic virtuosity, i.e. literary uses.
This function has been more developed by later commentators, one of whom we will
look at now, Karl Bühler.

3.3. Karl Bühler

In 1934, Buhler was concerned with the functions of language from a standpoint not
so much of the culture, but of the individual. Bühler made the distinction into the
following:
Expressive language: orientated towards the addresser.

Conative language: orientated towards the addressee.

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 Representational language: orientated towards the rest of reality, i.e. anything
other than the addressee or addressee.
Buhler’s scheme was adopted by the Prague School and later extended by Roman
Jakobson, who we will look at next.
3.4. Jakobson
As language is a system of communication used in different situations of our social
life, Jakobson understood that every utterance has at least 1 function. The term
function is basic for him and he builds his whole theory using it as the foundation. He
distinguishes 6 different functions, as can be seen in the following diagram:

Functions

1 referential (= contextual information)

2 poetic
3 emotive (= self-expression)

4 conative (= vocative or imperative addressing of receiver)

5 phatic (= checking channel working)
6 metalingual (= checking code working)

Let us begin with the referential function. Otherwise known as context, this is an
important consideration in any language exchange. Both the speaker and the listener
must ensure that the language they are using is appropriate to the situation that they
find themselves in. For example, it would be inappropriate for an employee to talk to
his boss in the same tone that he uses with his friends in the pub. Likewise, the boss

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 would be ill-advised to talk to his wife in the same manner as he talks to his
employees.
It must also be remembered that the same message can be interpreted in different
ways according to the context. For example, the sports headline: Manchester United
beaten by Barcelona would have a different meaning for a Barcelona fan, who would
see it as positive, then for a fan of Manchester United who would have a different
reaction.
The focus on the message for its own sake is called the poetic function of language.
The speaker is more interested in the way of communicating, rather than the actual
communication itself. The aim is to use stress, intonation, rhythm and the correct
choice of language in order to make the message sound as attractive as possible to
the listener. Examples of this may be collocation:
King and Queen.

Not: Queen and King.

Or, as in this line from a poem by Thomas Hardy, repetition:

Woman much loved how you call to me, call to me.

Next, we can see the sender. He provides the so-called emotive or expressive
function, as it is a direct expression of the speaker’s attitude towards the message.

Often the speaker would wish to alter the thought process or the attitudes of the
listener, or receiver. This orientation towards the listener is known as the conative
function and is often expressed in the vocative or imperative. In developing this
function, the role of the teacher is crucial. This is because it is the teacher who
selects who is to speak, and controls the turns in the classroom; e.g.
Sit down!

Open your books!

The contact or phatic function is related to the prolonging of the conversation by
means of keeping the channel open. This may be done by checking whether or not
the channel is working, by asking questions such as:

Do you see what I mean?

The metalinguistic function involves the act of passing on information about the
code used in the linguistic act. Basically, language is used to refer to language, in a
classroom this may take the form of the teacher informing the class that:
The past of is is was.

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 Eat is an irregular verb.
All these functions are ever-present in the L2 classroom, so we can always find ways
to show the learner how they work and how they are used in different types of
communicative exchanges, in order to enhance communication and make it as
successful as possible. Finally, we will refer to Riffaterre, as, in a way, he implements
the other two theories that we have just mentioned. We will also show the way that
he disagrees with Jakobson.

INTERACTIVE LINK

Roman Jakobson
3.5. Riffaterre
One of the most striking points of his work states the fact that he bases his theory on
the distinction between linguistic and stylistic phenomena. Therefore, he makes a
complete distinction between mere communication and literary communication,
expressing that the complexities of expressive and affective connotations must be
regarded to ensure understanding. This means that he felt that literary language had
a different meaning to the language that we use in speech, an assumption that may
seem obvious, but one that is important for the learner, as any student of the
language who tries to speak like characters in a book would sound very strange and
unnatural.

Riffaterre focuses on the subjectivity of reception and what he called the

perceptual faculties of the receiver. This is to say, that the receiver was capable of
placing his own interpretations on the message that is said, so that the message
received may be completely different from that which was intended. The receiver’s
perceptual faculties refers to the way that the receiver is able to perceive the world
around him, as well as applying these perceptions to the messages that are sent.

For Riffaterre, the process of decoding a message by the receiver is more important
than encoding it on the part of the speaker. It doesn’t matter what message is being
sent, it is how it is received that is important.

He also believed that the message was a subjective reality apart from any scientific
or linguistic analysis, therefore stating a criticism in relation to those who insisted on
studying the language in a scientific way, such as Jakobson. This means that
language was only as important as the intentions of those who received and sent
messages. Riffaterre felt that Jakobson, by approaching language from a scientific
viewpoint, was ignoring the possibility to use words creatively.

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 In relation to all of these functions of language that we have just studied we have to
say that initially L2 learners will use the language for the communicative function.
Pidgins and interlanguages which fossilise, or reach a dead-end, in the early stages
of development remain restricted to the communicative function. Native speakers of
the language use it for both the communicative and integrative functions, as will
those L2 learners who do not fossilise early on.

1. LANGUAGE IN USE

The first thing that we have to do is to make a distinction between the linguistic
knowledge that the student has, and how he actually uses this knowledge in a
communicative situation.

First of all, it is important to clarify that the Communicative Approach is based on

the linguistic knowledge of the language rules and the when, to whom and how to
use them. It focuses on the learner performance in real-life situations. It understands
language as a tool to communicate a message, therefore paying special attention to
the communicative competence of the learner.
The role of the teacher is to impart the knowledge of how to use language to his
students. He must also make sure that they have regular practise in the output
section as well as input. In the past, language teaching was centred on learning the
rules, with there being very little chance to practise those rules in a communicative
situation. Today, the Communicative Approach to language learning is widely
accepted as the best way for the students to learn how to speak and understand a
foreign language.
It’s important to mention at this point that there is a difference between language
usage and language use.
Language usage implies the consideration of general and specific rules of the
language code in order to understand and be understood. It includes phonology,
morphology, syntax and semantics.
Language use considers other parameters and it mainly concentrates on how to use
sentences appropriately. It points to the importance of being brief, true, relevant and
clear, as we mentioned at the beginning of the unit, and the so-called cooperative
principles. Using the correct meaning and form for each speech event is known as
register. These two aspects fall under the category of coherence, whereas
cohesion basically refers to the way we use the different grammatical structures.
There have been many studies conducted on how students learn the L2. These have
resulted in three hypotheses:

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 4.1. The Comprehensible Output Hypothesis.

Here the theory is that students acquire the skill through its comprehensive use, in
much the same way that we acquire our native tongue. This suggests that there is an
element of imitation involved in the learning of a language.
4.2. Input Generation and Language Learning
In this theory the learners generate their own input by means of classroom
participation. As they ask questions and don’t only do the work that is set for them,
they increase the knowledge that they receive. They have to take some responsibility
for their own learning. This means that the students who sit quietly and don’t
participate tend to learn slower.
The third hypothesis is the negotiation of meaning, which we will deal with as a
separate section.

1. THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING

A major feature of conversations involving L2 is that the learner and native speaker
work together in order to overcome the communicative difficulties that arise as a
result of the learner’s limited knowledge of the language. This has come to be known
as the negotiation of meaning. In order to facilitate this, the native speaker will make
use of strategies and tactics.
5.1. Strategies
These involve conversational devices in order to avoid trouble. This may include
devices such as:

Relinquishing topic control. This means that the native speaker will allow the
learner to control the topic of conversation, thus allowing him to stay within the
boundaries of his knowledge. There is nothing more frustrating for a learner of a
language than to be engaged in conversation with a native speaker who
continuously raises the level.

Checking Understanding. The native speaker will ask the learner if he can
understand and will grade his language accordingly. This way the native can
keep a track on whether or not the learner is following the conversation.

5.2. Tactics
These are devices for repairing trouble. They include:

Topic switching. When the native speaker sees that the learner is not
understanding he can change the topic under discussion.

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 Speed reduction. The native speaker can slow down his speech until he
reaches a velocity that the learner can follow.

Repetition and synonyms: The native speaker can repeat sentences, or, if the
learner is still showing trouble understanding, he can use synonyms,

5.3. The Role of The Learner.

The learner also has a role to play in the negotiation of meaning. He can do so by
use of the following:

Signalling lack of comprehension. This can include a request for clarification,

clarification checks and confirmation checks. The learner can tell the native
speaker as soon as he fails to understand something, thus avoiding problems
later in the conversation that may arise from the learner missing a vital point.

Extra Linguistic Resources may be used. These would include items such as
gestures, expressions and so on, intended to convey the meaning.

Persistence. The learner should not surrender as soon as problems arise.

Instead he must realise that his problems are normal and are not something to
cause discouragement.

In the classroom, these tactics can help the students to interact and communicate
through the process of negotiation of meaning.
The result of negotiation of meaning is that particular types of input and interaction
result. In particular it has been hypothesised that negotiation makes input
comprehensible and, in this way, promotes second language acquisition. The one
thing that neither the teacher, nor any native speaker that the learner comes into
contact with should do, is to speak so fast, or in such a complicated way that the
student finds it impossible to follow. This will only result in a lack of confidence. As far
as the learner is concerned, he must never give up.

1. THEORETICAL JUSTIFICATION AND LEGISLATION

In this unit we have seen the importance of language as communication. We can say
that as language teachers, this is our primary aim. If we follow the current legislation
(INSERT LAW OF COMMUNITY HERE) we can see how this point is to be adapted
to the teaching of the foreign language. We are told through the objectives for the
stage that the ability to learn a foreign language is paramount in today’s society. As
teachers it is our duty to ensure that our methodology achieves this objective.
In addition, we can see how this unit follows ECD 65 /2015 which establishes the
acquisition of the Key Competences. Through communicative language we are able

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 to help our students not only acquire the Linguistic Competence, but also the
competence of learning to Learn, an essential element in the modern classroom, and
one that will hopefully encourage our students to continue with their programme of
lifelong learning.

1. CONCLUSION

In this unit we have seen how language can be used in a wide variety of
communicative functions. The teacher must ensure that the input the students
receive is matched by the output, and that the students are encouraged to take
responsibility for their own studies. However, factors such as age, social context,
cultural factors, etc. are clearly related to the degree of learner’s initiation of
interaction and therefore his chances of acquiring the L2 and becoming competent in
it. The teacher must always be aware of these variables and prepare the classes
according to his judgement of his students’ needs, needs that should include not only
the learning of a language, but also the acquisition of communicative ability.

1. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gibson, J. W. and Hanna, M. S. (1992). Introduction to Human Communication.

Gardens, A. (1986). The Constitution of Society:
Innis, Harold A. (1950). Empire and Communications.
Lasswell, H. (1948). The structure and function of communication in society.
A VERY USEFUL WEBSITE

http://foulger.info/davis/research/unifiedModelOfCommunication.htm
This site is complicated to follow, but it has some great diagrams that you may
wish to cut and paste into the unit, and which will impress a tribunal.

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