Nuclear Force

What keeps the nucleus whole ?

H atom: Coulomb, EM force

Nucleus: protons have q > 0
neutrons have q = 0
so it can’t be EM.
Nuclear Force Gravitational ? Far too weak !!

Fg − 36
≈ 10
Fe

1 2

Nuclear Force Strength of nuclear force

• The nuclear force is very strong (the Imagine a nucleon moving inside a cubic
nuclear potential is deep) potential box of side length 5 fm.

• Short-range: proton scattering – if

distance from nucleus is ≥ 2-3 fm, the
proton only ‘sees’ the Coulomb (EM)
force.
L
• The range of the nuclear force is < 2 fm

• The strong nuclear force between λ = 2 L

n
nucleons is ~ independent of charge
h nh
n – n, n – p, p – p p = =
λ 2 L
• The strong nuclear force is spin- p 2 n 2h 2
E = =
dependent (see deuteron). 2 m 8 mL 2
• Known as “The Strong Force”
E 3 D =
(n x2 + n 2y + n z2 ) h 2
• Not all particles experience the Strong 8 mL 2
3 4

Force e.g. electrons

• The ground state has Potential
nx = n y = nz = 1 • Spherical, square-well potential

V(r)

r
E = 3h 2
8 mL 2
≈ 25 MeV

cf electron in H atom –13.6 eV

Very strong repulsion

5 6

Nuclear forces Nuclear forces

• Deuteron shows there is a strong, spin- • Proton-proton scattering

dependent force between the proton and
the neutron
Coulomb repulsion

V(r) 2 fm V(r) 2 fm

r r

35 MeV 35 MeV

Neutron scattering off protons (or neutrons)

Very short-range force
7
Same as for n-n and n-p scattering 8
Charge-independent
 The Deuteron (d)
Deuteron
• Simplest nucleus with more
than one nucleon • Binding Energy = ?

• 1 proton + 1 neutron ∆m = 2.015941 − 2.013553 u

• Charge = +1, Mass ~ 2 u = 0.002388 u
• mp = 1.007276 u = 0.002388 × 1.66 × 10 −27 kg

• mn = 1.008665 u (
= 0.002388 × 1.66 × 10 −27 × 3.0 × 108 J ) 2

• mp + mn = 2.015941 u = 3.57 × 10 −13 J = 2.23MeV

• md = 2.013553 u
Large energy indicates a strong attractive
md < m p + mn force between the proton and the neutron

The system is BOUND 9 10

Deuteron Deuteron

• Magnetic moment = +0.8574 µN • Nuclear spin (expt): I π = 1+

• Proton = +2.7928 µN
• Neutron = –1.9130 µN r r r r
I = s p + sn + l ln = 0

Spin
Options
l = 0 & ↑↑

l = 1 & ↑↑ l = 1 & ↑↓
Magnetic moment
p n
l = 2 & ↓↓

µ d = µ p − µ n = +0.8798 µ N Parity = +1 π = ( −1)l = +1

11
∴ l = 0, 2 12
 Spin-dependence Deuteron

• Magnetic moment
• d=p+n
l = 0 → µorb = 0
1 1 r r r
Sp = Sn =
2 2 µ d = µ p + µ n = 0.8798 µ N
r r r
Sd = S p + Sn µexpt = 0.8574 µ N

• possibilities are ψ = asψ s + adψ d

Sd = 0 (↑↓ ) Sd = 1 (↑↑ )
l = 0 state l = 2 state
• Experimentally, the deuteron
has only 1 bound state with S d = 1 as2 ≈ 0.96
• Therefore, the strong interaction ad2 ≈ 0.04
is spin-dependent ! 13 14

Deuteron Deuteron

• Electric Quadrupole moment

Q p = Qn = 0

Qd ≠ 0 (0.00288 b)

• Further evidence for admixture

of the l = 0 and l = 2 states.

• Shows that the interaction

potential must have a non-
central (tensor) component.

15 16

Krane 4.1 & 4.2

 Interaction potential
Nucleon-nucleon scattering
First term
Deuteron – only one bound configuration
Central potential i.e. no θ, φ dependence

l = 0 & ↑↑ VC (r )

2 fm

n-n, n-p and p-p scattering shows Second term

that the interaction potential is Add a term to account for the fact that
“Charge symmetric” once you
correct for p-p Coulomb interaction E ( ↑↑ ) ≠ E ( ↑↓ )

NOT electric charge ------ nucleon p or n

17 18

Interaction potential Interaction potential

The interaction between nucleons is Triplet state: S = 1 ↑↑ (2S+1) = 3
invariant under parity and time-reversal
r r r r h2 h2
r → −r & t → −t s1 ⋅ s2 = [1(1+1) − 2 ( 2 +1) − 2 ( 2 +1)] =
1 1 1 1
2 4

Spin-dependent terms cannot be linear Singlet state: S = 0 ↑↓ (2S+1) = 1

in spin
r r r r r h2 −3h2
S = s1 + s2 s1 ⋅s2 = [0(0+1) − 2 (2 +1) − 2 (2 +1)]=
1 1 1 1
r r r r r r
S ⋅ S = ( s1 + s 2 ) ⋅ ( s1 + s 2 )
2 4
r r r r r r
= s1 ⋅ s1 + s 2 ⋅ s 2 + 2 s1 ⋅ s 2
r r r r r r r r
∴ s1 ⋅ s 2 = 12 [ S ⋅ S − s1 ⋅ s1 − s2 ⋅ s 2 ] E ( ↑↑ ) ≠ E ( ↑↓ )
= [ S ( S + 1) − s1 ( s1 + 1) − s 2 ( s 2 + 1)]
1
2

r r h2
s1 ⋅ s2 = [ S ( S + 1) − s1 ( s1 + 1) − s 2 ( s 2 + 1)]
2 19 20
 Interaction potential Interaction potential
Third term: deuteron has a Quadrupole Write Tensor term as:
Moment r r r r
NOT a pure l = 0 state – a small 3 (s1 ⋅ r )(s2 ⋅ r ) r r 
admixture of the l = 2 state C (r) S12 = C (r)  2
− s1 ⋅ s2 
So, there is a non-central, ‘Tensor’  r 
component Vanishes for Singlet state
Take the spin as the reference direction r r
s1 = −s2
r r r r
s ⋅ r or s × r
Therefore, the interaction potential can
r r r r r r r r be written as:
(s1 ⋅ r )(s2 ⋅ r ) or (s1 × r ) ⋅ (s2 × r )
r r
A(r) + B(r) s1 ⋅ s2
r r r r
3 (s1 ⋅ r )(s2 ⋅ r ) r r 
Can be written in terms of + C (r)  − s1 ⋅ s2 
r r r r r r  r 2

(s1 ⋅ r )(s2 ⋅ r ) & s1 ⋅ s2
21 22

Nuclear STRONG force Nuclear STRONG force

Particle exchange Particle exchange
• Yukawa (1935, Nobel 1949) • EM : 2 charges swap virtual photons
• Analogy with EM and covalent • Range of interaction:
bonding (e.g. H2 molecule).
r r r R = c∆t = λ
• EM
q1 → E F2 = q2 E 2π
• t-dependent changes in q1
distribution → t-dep changes in E
• m = 0 so no restriction on λ
field i.e EM radiation – light –
photons • R→∞
• Yukawa – the nuclear strong force
∆E ∆t > h has a finite range ≤ 2 fm
• Assume nucleons exchange a
∆E = hf ∴ ∆t > 1
2π f particle with m ≠ 0

c∆t = λ
2π 23 24
 Nuclear STRONG force Nuclear STRONG force
Particle exchange Particle exchange
Estimate the mass of the exchange particle A nucleon continually emits and absorbs
virtual mesons

∆E ≥ mc 2 Estimate the lifetime

R < c∆t
h ∆t ≈
h
∴R <
mc mc 2
h 1.05 × 10 −34 mc 2 = 140 MeV = 140 × 10 6 × 1.6 × 10 −19 J
∴m < = 1.05 × 10 −34
Rc 2 × 10 −15 × 3 × 108 ∴ ∆t ≈
140 × 10 6 × 1.6 × 10 −19
= 1.75 × 10 −28 kg
≈ 5 × 10 − 24 s
∴ mc 2 = 1.6 × 10 −11 J = 100 MeV

hence VIRTUAL
25 26

Nuclear STRONG force Nuclear STRONG force

Particle exchange Particle exchange

• Yukawa calculated the lifetime of

this exchange particle whose mass is
of order 100 MeV/c2
• lifetime ~ 1 µs
• Particle referred to as a “meson”
(‘middle’ – mass is intermediate
between electron and proton)
• 1936 Anderson & Neddermeyer
discovered the Muon (cosmic rays)
• Yukawa’s meson lifetime calculation
had an error – factor of 100 too big !
• lifetime ~ 10 ns
• Muons are not attracted strongly to
nucleus !
• Muon can spend time inside nucleus
without being absorbed

m( µ + ) = m( µ − ) = 106 MeV / c 2 ( 207 me ) • Muon has s = 12 so muon

exchange between nucleons won’t
conserve angular momentum
τ µ ~ 2.2 µs
• We now know that the muon is
• “Mu-meson” (wrong !) elementary – it’s NOT a Meson
(later).
27 28
 Nuclear STRONG force Nuclear STRONG force
Particle exchange Particle exchange

• 1947 – Powell et al. discovery of • Pion exchange mechanisms

Pions (pi-mesons)
+ −
n → n +π o ⇔ πo + p → p
m(π ) = m(π ) = 140 MeV / c 2
( 274me )
n → p +π − ⇔ π− + p →n
τ π ~ 26 ns p → n +π + ⇔ π+ +n→ p
• 1950 – Moyer et al.
• Nucleons swap identities in about
m(π o ) = 135 MeV / c 2 ( 264me ) 50% of the events

• Pion exchange could also provide an

• Pions have s = 0 so pion
exchange between nucleons will
conserve angular momentum
‘explanation’ for the magnetic
moment of the uncharged neutron
n → p +π −

29 30
Both charged

Yukawa potential Yukawa potential

• Consider the electrostatic potential • Particles with mass

around a point charge • Klein-Gordan equation (1926)

•
∇ 2φ = 0
Laplace E 2 = ( pc ) 2 + ( mc 2 ) 2
∂
E → ih p → − ih ∇
• Solution is
∂t
e
φ= 1 ∂ 2ψ ( r , t )  mc 
2
4πε 0 r ∇ ψ (r , t ) − 2
2
=  ψ (r , t )
c ∂t 2  h 
• Important in QED – photons m = 0
• This describes a force mediated by
massless particles - photons
1 ∂ 2ψ ( r , t )
∇ ψ (r , t ) = 2
2

c ∂t 2

• Classical wave equation

31 32
 Yukawa potential Yukawa potential

• Now consider pions in a ‘static’, e− r / R

time-independent case: Φ (r ) = g
mπ ≠ 0 r
• g is a constant (“coupling strength”)
 2  mc 2 
 ∇ −    Φ(r ) = 0
  h   • R is the range of the force

• Spherical symmetry h
R= = 1.4 fm
mc
1 d  2 dΦ ( r )  1 d 2 [ rΦ ( r )]
∇ Φ (r ) = 2
2
r =
r dr  dr  r dr 2
2
d 2 [ rΦ ( r )]  mc 
=   [ rΦ ( r )]
dr 2  h 

e− r / R
Φ (r ) = g
r 33 34

Summary

• Very strong, short-range force

between nucleons
• Strongly repulsive at very short
separations
• Strong force is spin-dependent
and ‘charge symmetric’
• Interaction potential between
nucleons comprises central and
non-central (tensor) components
• Yukawa model views the inter-
nucleon force in terms of the
exchange of pions (π-mesons)
• (Later we’ll revisit this idea in
The Standard Model, quarks and
gluons).
35