JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA

COASTAL DISASTER
MANAGEMENT

SUBMITTED TO – SUBHRADIPTA SARKAR

SUBMITTED BY – SHAHBAZ KHAN MEHAR
BA. LLB. (Hons.)
SEM. – X
SEC – B
ROLL NO. - 26
TABLE OF CONTENT
• ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
• INTRODUCTION
• CAUSES OF COASTAL HAZARDS
• ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS IN USA
• COASTAL HAZARDS IN INDIA
• MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING
• NATIONAL LEVEL INSTITUTIONS
• STATE LEVEL INSTITUTIONS
• NATIOANAL INSTITUTE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
• MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING TO AVOID COASTAL
DISASTERS
• CONCLUSION
• BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my profound sense of gratitude towards the almighty for
providing me with the authentic circumstances which were mandatory for the
completion of my project.
I am highly indebted to Dr. Subhradipta Sarkar at Faculty of Law, Jamia Millia
Islamia University, New Delhi for providing me with constant encouragement
and guidance through the preparation of this project.
My cardinal thanks are also to my parents, friends and all teachers of law
department in our college who have always been the source of my inspiration
and motivation without which I would have never been able to unabridged my
project.
INTRODUCTION
Coastal hazards are physical phenomena that expose a coastal area to risk of
property damage, loss of life and environmental degradation. Rapid-onset
hazards last over periods of minutes to several days and examples include major
cyclones accompanied by high winds, waves and surges or tsunamis created by
submarine earthquakes and landslides. Slow-onset hazards develop
incrementally over longer time periods and examples include erosion and
gradual inundation.
Since early civilisation, coastal areas have been attractive settling grounds for
human population as they provided abundant marine resources, fertile
agricultural land and possibilities for trade and transport. This has led to high
population densities and high levels of development in many coastal areas and
this trend is continuing into the 21st century. At present, about 1.2 billion
people live in coastal areas globally, and this number is predicted to increase to
1.8–5.2 billion by the 2080s due to a combination of population growth and
coastal migration.1 Along with this increase follows major investments in
infrastructure and the build environment.
The characteristics of coastal environments, however, pose some great
challenges to human habitation. Coastlines are highly dynamic natural systems
that interact with terrestrial, marine and atmospheric processes and undergo
continuous change in response to these processes. Over the years, human
society has often failed to recognize the hazards related to these dynamics2 and
this has led to major disasters and societal disruption to various degrees. Even
today, coastal development is often taking place with little regard to the hazards
present in these environments, although climate change is likely to increase the
general hazard levels.3 Societal activities in coastal areas can also pose a hazard
to the natural balance of coastal systems, thereby disrupting e.g. sensitive
ecosystems and subsequently human livelihood.
Coastal hazard management has become an increasingly important aspect of
coastal planning in order to improve the resilience of society to coastal hazards.
Possible management options include hard engineering structures, soft
protection measures, various accommodation approaches as well as a managed
retreat from the coastline. For addressing coastal hazards, it is also important to
have early warning systems and emergency management plans in place to be
able to address sudden and potential disastrous hazards i.e. major flooding

1
IPCC, 2007.
2
Masselink & Hughes, Coastal processes & geomorphology, Arnold, 2003.
3
IPCC, 2014.
events. Events as the Hurricane Katrina affecting the southern USA in 2005 and
the cyclone Nargis affecting Myanmar in 2008 provides clear examples of the
importance of timely coastal hazard management.

CAUSES OF COASTAL HAZARDS

Natural vs. Human disasters
The population that lives along or near our coastlines are an extremely
vulnerable population. There are numerous issues facing our coastlines and
there are two main categories that these hazards can be placed under, Natural
disasters and Human disasters. Both of these issues cause great damage to our
coastlines and discussion is still ongoing regarding what standards or responses
need to be met to help both the individuals who want to continue living along
the coastline, while keeping them safe and not eroding more coastline away.
Natural disasters are disasters that are out of human control and are usually
caused by the weather. Disasters that include but are not limited to; storms,
tsunamis, typhoons, flooding, tides, waterspouts, nor'easters, and storm surge.
Human disasters occur when humans are the main culprit behind why the
disaster happened. Some human disasters are but are not limited to; pollution,
trawling, and human development. Natural and human disasters continue to
harm the coastlines severely and they need to be researched in order to
prepare/stop the hazards if possible.4
The populations that live near or along the coast experience many hazards and it
affects millions of people. Around ten million people globally feel the effects of
coastal problems yearly and most are due to certain natural hazards like coastal
flooding with storm surges and typhoons.5 A major problem related to coastal
regions deals with how the entire global environment is changing and in
response, the coastal regions are easily affected.

Storms, Flooding and Erosion

Storms are one of the major hazards that are associated to coastal regions.
Storms, flooding, and erosion are closely associated and can happen
simultaneously. Tropical storms or Hurricanes especially can devastate coastal
regions. For example, Florida during Hurricane Andrew occurred in 1992 that
caused extreme damage. It was a category five hurricane that caused $26.5
4
"Coastal hazards- natural," 2009.
5
Adger, N., & Hughes, T.2005.
billion in damages and even 23 individuals lost their lives from the storm.6
Hurricane Katrina also caused havoc along the coast to show the extreme force
a hurricane can do in a certain region.7 The Chennai Floods of 2015, which
affected many people, is an example of flooding due to cyclones. People across
the whole state of Tamil Nadu felt its impact and even parts of Andhra Pradesh
got affected. There was a loss of Rs.900 crore and 280 people died. Many
cyclones like this happen across Asia but the media reports only minor
hurricanes which hit the United States.
Almost all storms with high wind and water cause erosion along the coast.
Erosion occurs when but not limited to; along shore currents, tides, sea level
rise and fall, and high winds. Larger amounts of erosion cause the coastline to
erode away at a faster rate and can leave people homeless and leave less land to
develop or keep for environmental reasons. Coastal erosion has been increasing
over the past few years and it is still on the rise which makes it a major coastline
hazard. In the United States, 45 percent of its coast line is along the Atlantic or
Gulf coast and the erosion rate per year along the Gulf coast is at six feet a year.
The average rate of erosion along the Atlantic is around two to three feet a year.
Even with these findings, erosion rates in specific locations vary because of
various environmental factors such as major storms that can cause major
erosion upwards to 100 feet or more in only one day.8

Pollution, Trawling and Human Development

Pollution, trawling, and human development are major human disasters that
affect coastal regions. There are two main categories related to pollution, point
source pollution, and nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution is when
there is an exact location such as a pipeline or a body of water that leads into the
rivers and oceans. Known dumping into the ocean is also another point source
of pollution. Nonpoint source pollution would pertain more to fertilizer runoff,
and industrial waste. Examples of pollution that affect the coastal regions are
but are not limited to; fertilizer runoff, oil spills, and dumping of hazardous
materials into the oceans. More human acts that hurt the coastline are as
follows; waste discharge, fishing, dredging, mining, and drilling.9 Oil spills are
one of the most hazardous dangers towards coastal communities. They are hard
to contain, difficult to clean up, and devastate everything. The fish, animals
6
Adger, N., & Hughes, T.2005.
7
Burby, R. (n.d.). Hurricane katrina, Sage journals.
8
U.S. Department of Homeland Security, FEMA or Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2000). Significant
losses from coastal erosion anticipated along u.s. coastlines.
9
Inman, D. (n.d.). Types of coastal zones: similarities and differences.
such as birds, the water, and especially the coastline near the spill. The most
recent oil spill that had everybody concerned with oil spill was the BP oil spill.
Trawling hurts the normal ecosystems in the water around the coastline. It
depletes all ecosystems on the ocean floor such as, flounder, shellfish, marsh
etc. It is simply a giant net that is drug across the ocean floor and destroys and
catches anything in its path. Human development is one of the major problems
when facing coastal hazards. The overall construction of buildings and houses
on the coast line takes away the natural occurrences to handle the fluctuation in
water and sea level rise. Building houses in pre-flood areas or high-risk areas
that are extremely vulnerable to flooding are major concerns towards human
development in coastal regions. Having houses and buildings in areas that are
known to have powerful storms that will create people to be in risk by living
there. Also pertaining to barrier islands, where land is at risk for erosion but
they still continue to build there anyway. More and more houses today are being
taken by the ocean.
Coastal hazards & climate change
The predicted climate change is adding an extra risk factor to human settlement
in coastal areas. Whereas the natural dynamics that shape our coastlines have
been relatively stable and predictable over the last centuries, much more rapid
change is now expected in processes as sea level rise, ocean temperature and
acidity, tropical storm intensity and precipitation/runoff patterns.10 The world's
coastlines will respond to these changes in different ways and at different pace
depending on their bio-geophysical characteristics, but generally society will
have to recognize that past coastal trends cannot be directly projected into the
future. Instead, it is necessary to consider how different coastal environments
will respond to the predicted climate change and take the expected future
hazards into account in the coastal planning processes.

10
IPCC, 2013.
Coastal environments of the USA
There are many different types of environments along the coasts of the United
States with very diverse features that affect, influence, and mold the near-shore
processes that are involved. Understanding these ecosystems and environments
can further advance the mitigating techniques and policy-making efforts against
natural and man-made coastal hazards in these vulnerable areas. The five most
common types of coastal zones range from the northern ice-pushing,
mountainous coastline of Alaska and Maine, the barrier island coasts facing the
Atlantic, the steep, cliff-back headlands along the pacific coast, the marginal-
sea type coastline of the Gulf region, and the coral reef coasts bordering
Southern Florida and Hawaii.11

Ice-pushing/mountainous coastline
These coastal regions along the northernmost part of the nation were affected
predominantly by, along with the rest of the Pacific Coast, continuous tectonic
activity, forming a very long, irregular, ridged, steep and mostly mountainous
coastline. These environments are heavily occupied with permafrost and
glaciers, which are the two major conditions affecting Alaska's Coastal
Development.12
Barrier island coastline
Barrier islands are a land form system that consists of fairly narrow strips of
sand running parallel to the mainland and play a significant role in mitigating
storm surges and oceans swells as natural storm events occur. The morphology
of the various types and sizes of barrier islands depend on the wave energy,
tidal range, basement controls, and sea level trends. The islands create multiple
unique environments of wetland systems including marshes, estuaries, and
lagoons.13
Steep, cliff-backing abrasion coastline
The coastline along the western part of the nation consists of very steep, cliffed
rock formations generally with vegetative slopes descending down and a
fringing beach below. The various sedimentary, metamorphic, and volcanic
rock formations assembled along a tectonically disturbed environment, all with

11
Inman, Douglas L. "ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE IN THE COASTAL ZONE." Environmental Science in the Coastal
Zone: Issues for Further Research. The National Academic Press. Web. 09 Apr. 2012.
12
Bird, Eric C. "Chapter 1.1 Alaska". Encyclopedia of the World's Coastal Landforms. Dordrecht: Springer, 2010.
13
"BarrierIslnd." Smithsonian Marine Station (SMS) at Fort Pierce. Web. 30 April 2012.
altering resistances running perpendicular, cause the ridged, extensive stretch of
uplifted cliffs that form the peninsulas, lagoons, and valleys.14
Marginal-sea type coastline
The southern banks of the United States border the Gulf of Mexico, intersecting
numerous rivers, forming many inlets bays, and lagoons along its coast,
consisting of vast areas of marsh and wetlands. This region of landform is prone
to natural disasters yet highly and continuously developed, with man-made
structures attaining to water flow and control.15
Coral reef coastline
Coral reefs are located off the shores of the southern Florida and Hawaii
consisting of rough and complex natural structures along the bottom of the
ocean floor with extremely diverse ecosystems, absorbing up to ninety percent
of the energy dissipated from wind-generated waves. This process is a
significant buffer for the inner-lying coastlines, naturally protecting and
minimizing the impact of storm surge and direct wave damage. Because of the
highly diverse ecosystems, these coral reefs not only provide for the shoreline
protection, but also deliver an abundant amount of services to fisheries and
tourism, increasing its economic value.16

14
Collins, B., and N. Sitar. "Processes of Coastal Bluff Erosion in Weakly Lithified Sands, Pacifica, California,
USA." Geomorphology 97.3–4 (2008): 483–501.
15
Bird, Eric C. "Chapter 1.1 Alaska". Encyclopedia of the World's Coastal Landforms. Dordrecht: Springer, 2010
16
Murray, John. "Coral Reefs". Nature 40.1030 (1889): 294.
COASTAL DISASTERS IN INDIA
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami (also known as the Boxing Day
Tsunami and, by the scientific community, the Sumatra–Andaman earthquake)
occurred at 07:58:53 in local time (UTC+7) on 26 December, with an epicentre
off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia. It was an undersea
megathrust earthquake that registered a magnitude of 9.1–9.3 Mw, reaching a
Mercalli intensity up to IX in certain areas. The earthquake was caused by a
rupture along the fault between the Burma Plate and the Indian Plate.

A series of massive tsunami waves grew up to 30 m (100 ft) high once heading
inland, after being created by the underwater seismic activity offshore.
Communities along the surrounding coasts of the Indian Ocean were severely
affected, and the tsunamis killed an estimated 227,898 people in 14 countries,
making it one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. The direct
results caused major disruptions to living conditions and commerce in coastal
provinces of surrounded countries, including Aceh, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Tamil
Nadu, India and Khao Lak, Thailand. Banda Aceh reported the largest number
of deaths.

The earthquake was the third-largest ever recorded and had the longest duration
of faulting ever observed; between eight and ten minutes. It caused the planet to
vibrate as much as 10 mm (0.4 in), and it remotely triggered earthquakes as far
away as Alaska. Its epicentre was between Simeulue and mainland Sumatra.
The plight of the affected people and countries prompted a worldwide
humanitarian response, with donations totalling more than US$14 billion.

2015 South India floods

The 2015 South India floods resulted from heavy rainfall generated by the
annual northeast monsoon in November–December 2015. They affected the
Coromandel Coast region of the South Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh. More than 500 people were killed and over 1.8 million (18 lakh)
people were displaced. With estimates of damages and losses ranging from
nearly ₹200 billion (US$3 billion) to over ₹1 trillion (US$14 billion), the floods
were the costliest to have occurred in 2015, and were among the costliest
natural disasters of the year.

Though the unusually heavy rainfall in southern India during the winter of 2015
has been attributed to the 2014–16 El Niño event, in July 2018 the Comptroller
and Auditor General of India (CAG) categorised the flooding across Tamil
Nadu as a "man-made disaster," and held the Government of Tamil Nadu
responsible for the scale of the catastrophe, which the latter had termed a natural
disaster
Maharashtra floods of 2005
The 2005 Maharashtra floods refers to the flooding of many parts of the Indian
state of Maharashtra including large areas of the metropolis Mumbai, a city
located on the coast of the Arabian Sea, on the Western coast of India, in which
approximately 1,094 people died. It occurred just one month after the June 2005
Gujarat floods. The term 26 July, is now always used to refer to the day when
the city of Mumbai came to a standstill due to flooding.

Many people were stranded on the roads, lost their homes while many walked
long distances back home from work that evening. The floods were caused by
the eighth heaviest-ever recorded 24-hour rainfall figure of 944 mm (37.17
inches) which lashed the metropolis on 26 July 2005, and intermittently
continued for the next day. 644mm (25.35 inches) was received within the 12-
hour period between 8 am and 8 pm. Torrential rainfall continued for the next
week. The highest 24-hour period in India was 1,168 mm (46.0 inches) in
Aminidivi in the Union Territory of Lakshadweep on 6 May 2004 although
some reports suggest that it was a new Indian record. The previous record high
rainfall in a 24-hour period for Mumbai was 575 mm (22.6 inches) in 1974.
Cyclone Hudhud
Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm Hudhud[nb1] was a strong tropical cyclone
that caused extensive damage and loss of life in eastern India and Nepal during
October 2014. Hudhud originated from a low- pressure system that formed
under the influence of an upper-air cyclonic circulation in the Andaman Sea on
October 6. Hudhud intensified into a cyclonic storm on October 8 and as a
Severe Cyclonic Storm on October 9. Hudhud underwent rapid deepening in the
following days and was classified as a Very Severe Cyclonic Storm by the IMD.
Shortly before landfall near Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, on October 12,
Hudhud reached its peak strength with three-minute wind speeds of 185 km/h
(115 mph) and a minimum central pressure of 960 mbar (28.35 inHg). The
system then drifted northwards towards Uttar Pradesh and Nepal, causing
widespread rains in both areas and heavy snowfall in the latter.

Hudhud caused extensive damage to the city of Visakhapatnam and the

neighbouring districts of Vizianagaram and Srikakulam of Andhra Pradesh.
Damages were estimated to be ₹219 billion (US$3.58 billion) by the Andhra
state government. At least 124 deaths have been confirmed, a majority of them
from Andhra Pradesh and Nepal, with the latter experiencing an avalanche due
to the cyclone.
MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING
Evolution of Disaster Management in India
Disaster management in India has evolved from an activity-based reactive setup
to a proactive institutionalized structure; from single faculty domain to a multi-
stakeholder setup; and from a relief-based approach to a ‘multi-dimensional
pro-active holistic approach for reducing risk’. The beginnings of an
institutional structure for disaster management can be traced to the British
period following the series of disasters such as famines of 1900, 1905, 1907 &
1943, and the Bihar-Nepal earthquake of 1937. Over the past century, the
disaster management in India has undergone substantive changes in its
composition, nature and policy.
Disaster Management during British Administration and Post
Independence
During the British administration, relief departments were set up for
emergencies during disasters. Such an activity-based setup with a reactive
approach was functional only in the post disaster scenarios. The policy was
relief-oriented and activities included designing the relief codes and initialising
food for work programmes. Post-Independence, the task for managing disasters
continued to rest with the Relief Commissioners in each state, who functioned
under the Central Relief Commissioner, with their role limited to delegation of
relief material and money in the affected areas. Every five-year plan addressed
flood disasters under “Irrigation, Command Area Development and Flood
Control”. Until this stage, the disaster management structure was activity-based,
functioning under the Relief Departments.

Emergence of Institutional Arrangement in India

A permanent and institutionalised setup began in the decade of 1990s with set
up of a disaster management cell under the Ministry of Agriculture, following
the declaration of the decade of 1990 as the ‘International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction’ (IDNDR) by the UN General Assembly. Following series
of disasters such as Latur Earthquake (1993), Malpa Landslide (1994), Orissa
Super Cyclone (1999) and Bhuj Earthquake (2001), a high-powered Committee
under the Chairmanship of Mr. J.C. Pant, Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture was
constituted for drawing up a systematic, comprehensive and holistic approach
towards disasters. There was a shift in policy from an approach of relief through
financial aid to a holistic one for addressing disaster management.
Consequently, the disaster management division was shifted under the Ministry
of Home Affairs in 2002 vide Cabinet Secretariat’s Notification No. DOC.CD-
108/2002 dated 27/02/2002 and a hierarchical structure for disaster management
evolved in India.
Disaster Management Framework
Shifting from relief and response mode, disaster management in India started to
address the issues of early warning systems, forecasting and monitoring setup
for various weather- related hazards. A structure for flow of information, in the
form of warnings, alerts and updates about the oncoming hazard, also emerged
within this framework. A multi-stakeholder High powered group was setup by
involving representatives from different ministries and departments. Some of
these ministries were also designated as the nodal authorities for specific
disasters.
Following a High-Powered Committee Report on Disaster Management for
establishment of a separate institutional structure for addressing disasters and
enactment of a suitable law for institutionalizing disaster management in the
country, a multi-level links between these ministries and the disaster
management framework have emerged.

Disaster Management Act, 2005

This Act provides for the effective management of disaster and for matters
connected therewith or incidental thereto. It provides institutional mechanisms
for drawing up and monitoring the implementation of the disaster management.
The Act also ensures measures by the various wings of the Government for
prevention and mitigation of disasters and prompt response to any disaster
situation.
The Act provides for setting up of a National Disaster Management Authority
(NDMA) under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister, State Disaster
Management Authorities (SDMAs) under the Chairmanship of the Chief
Ministers, District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs) under the
Chairmanship of Collectors/District Magistrates/Deputy Commissioners. The
Act further provides for the constitution of different Executive Committee at
national and state levels. Under its aegis, the National Institute of Disaster
Management (NIDM) for capacity building and National Disaster Response
Force (NDRF) for response purpose have been set up. It also mandates the
concerned Ministries and Departments to draw up their own plans in accordance
with the National Plan. The Act further contains the provisions for financial
mechanisms such as creation of funds for response, National Disaster
Mitigation Fund and similar funds at the state and district levels for the purpose
of disaster management. The Act also provides specific roles to local bodies in
disaster management.
Further the enactment of 73rd and 74th Amendments to the constitution and
emergence of local self- government, both rural and urban, as important tiers of
governance, the role of local authorities becomes very important. The DM Act,
2005 also envisages specific roles to be played by the local bodies in disaster
management.

NATIONAL LEVEL INSTITUTIONS

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) was initially constituted
on May 30, 2005 under the Chairmanship of Prime Minister vide an executive
order. Following enactment of the Disaster Management Act, 2005, the NDMA
was formally constituted in accordance with Section-3(1) of the Act on 27th
September, 2006 with Prime Minister as its Chairperson and nine other
members, and one such member to be designated as Vice-Chairperson.
Mandate of NDMA: The NDMA has been mandated with laying down policies
on disaster management and guidelines which would be followed by different
Ministries, Departments of the Government of India and State Government in
taking measures for disaster risk reduction. It has also to laid down guidelines to
be followed by the State Authorities in drawing up the State Plans and to take
such measures for the management of disasters, Details of these responsibilities
are given as under :-
• Lay down policies on disaster management;
• Approve the National Plan;
• Approve plans prepared by the Ministries or Departments of the
Government of India in accordance with the National Plan;
• Lay down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in drawing
up the State Plan;
• Lay down guidelines to be followed by the different Ministries or
Departments of the Government of India for the purpose of integrating
the measures for prevention of disaster or the mitigation of its effects in
their development plans and projects;
 • Coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policy and plan
for disaster management;
• Recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation;
• Provide such support to other countries affected by major disasters as
may be determined by the Central Government;
• Take such other measures for the prevention of disaster, or the mitigation,
or preparedness and capacity building for dealing with the threatening
disaster situation or disaster as it may consider necessary;
• Lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of the
National Institute of Disaster Management.

Composition of NDMA:
Besides the nine members nominated by the Prime Minister, Chairperson of the
Authority, the Organisational structure consists of a Secretary and five Joint
Secretaries including one Financial Advisor. There are 10 posts of Joint
Advisors and Directors, 14 Assistant Advisors, Under Secretaries and Assistant
Financial Advisor and Duty Officer along with supporting staff.
Further, Recruitment Rules have been notified as
a) National Disaster Management Authority, Group-‘C’ posts Recruitment
Rules, 2009.
b) National Disaster Management Authority (Group ‘A’) Recruitment Rules,
2009.
Under Section 7 (1) of DM Act an Advisory Committee with 12 Members has
been constituted during 2007.

National Executive Committee (NEC)

A National Executive Committee is constituted under Section 8 of DM Act,
2005 to assist the National Authority in the performance of its functions. NEC
consists of Home Secretary as its Chairperson, ex-officio, with other Secretaries
to the Government of India in the Ministries or Departments having
administrative control of the agriculture, atomic energy, defence, drinking water
supply, environment and forest, finance (expenditure), health, power, rural
development science and technology, space, telecommunication, urban
development, water resources. The Chief of Integrated Defence Staff of the
Chiefs of Staff Committee, ex-officio, is also its Members.
NEC may as and when it considers necessary constitute one or more sub-
committees for the efficient discharge of its functions. For the conduct of NEC,
Disaster Management National Executive Committee (Procedure and
Allowances) Rules, 2006 has been issued. NEC has been given the
responsibility to act as the coordinating and monitoring body for disaster
management, to prepare a National Plan, monitor the implementation of
National Policy etc. vide section 10 of the DM Act.

STATE LEVEL INSTITUTIONS

State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)
The DM Act, 2005 provides for constitution of SDMAs and DDMAs in all the
states and UTs. As per the information received from the states and UTs, except
Gujarat and Daman & Diu, all the rest have constituted SDMAs under the DM
Act, 2005. Gujarat has constituted its SDMA under its Gujarat State Disaster
Management Act, 2003. Daman & Diu have also established SDMAs prior to
enactment of DM Act 2005.
State Executive Committee (SEC)
The Act envisages establishment of State Executive Committee under Section
20 of the Act, to be headed by Chief Secretary of the state Government with
four other Secretaries of such departments as the state Government may think
fit. It has the responsibility for coordinating and monitoring the implementation
of the National Policy, the National Plan and the State Plan as provided under
section 22 of the Act.
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
1. Background: In the backdrop of the International decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction (IDNDR), a National Centre for Disaster
Management was established at the Indian Institute for Public
Administration (IIPA) in 1995. The Centre was upgraded and designated
as the National Institute of Disaster management (NIDM) on 16th
October 2003. It has now achieved the status of a statutory organisation
under the Disaster Management Act, 2005. Section 42 of Chapter VII of
the Disaster Management Act, 2005 entrusts the institute with numerous
responsibilities, namely to develop training modules, undertake research
and documentation in disaster management, organise training
programmes, undertake and organise study courses, conferences, lectures
and seminars to promote and institutionalize disaster management,
undertake and provide for publication of journals, research papers and
books.
2. Management Structure: The Union Home Minister is the President of
the Institute, It was constituted on 23rd February, 2007 and has a general
body of forty two members comprising of secretaries of various
ministries, departments of the Union Government and heads of national
level scientific, research and technical organizations.
In terms of Section 42(4) of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 vide order
dated 3rd May, 2007, the Government also constituted a 14-member Governing
Body.
3. The Institute has four academic divisions
• Geo-Hazard Division
• Hydro-met Hazard Division
• Policy Planning and Cross Cutting Issues Division
• Response Division

4. Location and Facilities: Located centrally at the Indraprastha Estate on

the Mahatma Gandhi Road, within the campus of the IIPA, the institute is
equipped with state-of-the-art facilities of training and research on
disaster management. It has fully air conditioned training and conference
halls, a well stocked library, GIS laboratory, computer centre, and a video
conference hall. The institute also provides Boarding and lodging
facilities for participants of its programmes.
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
Constitution and role of NDRF: The National Disaster Response Force
(NDRF) has been constituted under Section 44 of the DM Act, 2005 by up-
gradation/conversion of eight standard battalions of Central Para Military
Forces i.e. two battalions each from Border Security Force (BSF), Indo-Tibetan
Border Police (ITBP), Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) and Central
Reserve Police Force (CRPF) to build them up as a specialist force to respond to
disaster or disaster like situations.
The eight battalions (1 battalion comprised of nearly 1000 person) of NDRF
consist of 144 specialised teams trained in various types of natural, man made
and non-natural disasters. 72 of such teams are designed to cater to the
Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) calamities besides
natural calamities. Each NDRF battalion consists of 1149 personnel organised
in 18 teams comprising of 45 personnel, who are being equipped and trained for
rendering effective response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster,
both natural and man made. All these eight battalions are being trained in
natural disasters while four of them are being additionally trained for handling
CBRN disasters.
MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING TO AVOID COASTAL
DISASTERS
Due to the increasing urbanization along the coastlines, planning and
management are essential to protecting the ecosystems and environment from
depleting. Coastal management is becoming implemented more because of the
movement of people to the shore and the hazards that come with the territory.
Some of the hazards include movement of barrier islands, sea level rise,
hurricanes, nor'easters, earthquakes, flooding, erosion, pollution and human
development along the coast. The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) was
created in 1972 because of the continued growth along the coast, this act
introduced better management practices such as integrated coastal zone
management, adaptive management and the use mitigation strategies when
planning. According to the Coastal Zone Management Act, the objectives are to
remain balanced to "preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, to restore or
enhance the resources of the nation's coastal zone". The development of the land
can strongly affect the sea, for example the engineering of structures versus
non-structures and the effects of erosion along the shore.

Integrated coastal zone management

Integrated coastal zone management means the integration of all aspects of the
coastal zone; this includes environmentally, socially, culturally politically and
economically to meet a sustainable balance all around. Sustainability is the goal
to allow development yet protect the environment in which we develop. Coastal
zones are fragile and do not do well with change so it is important to acquire
sustainable development. The integration from all views will entitle a holistic
view for the best implementation and management of that country, region and
local scales. The five types of integration include integration among sectors,
integration between land and water elements of the coastal zone, integration
amount levels of government, integration between nations and integration
among disciplines are all essential to meet the needs for implementation.
Management practices include
1. maintaining the functional integrity of the coastal resource systems,
without disrupting the environment
2. reducing resource-use conflicts, by making sure resources are used
adequately and sustainably,
3. maintaining the health of the environment, which means to protect the
ecosystems and natural cycle,
 4. facilitating the progress of multisectoral development, which means
allowing developers to develop within standards.
These four management practices should be based on a bottom-up approach,
meaning the approach starts from a local level which is more intimate to the
specific environment of that area. After assessment from the local level, the
state and federal input can be implemented. The bottom-up approach is key for
protecting the local environments because there is a diversity of environments
that have specific needs all over the world.

Adaptive management
Adaptive management is another practice of development adaptation with the
environment. Resources are the major factor when managing adaptively to a
certain environment to accommodate all the needs of development and
ecosystems. Strategies used must be flexible by either passive or active adaptive
management include these key features:
• AIterative decision-making (evaluating results and adjusting actions on
the basis of what has been learned)
• Feedback between monitoring and decisions (learning process)
• Explicit characterization of system uncertainty through multi-model
inference (experimentation)
• Embracing risk and uncertainty as a way of building understanding (trial
and error)
To achieve adaptive management is testing the assumptions to achieve a desired
outcome, such as trial and error, find the best known strategy then monitoring it
to adapt to the environment, and learning the outcomes of success and failures
of a project.
Mitigation
The purpose of mitigation is not only to minimize the loss of property damage,
but minimize environmental damages due to development. To avoid impacts by
not taking or limiting actions, to reduce or rectify impacts by rehabilitation or
restoring the affected environments or instituting long-term maintenance
operations and compensating for impacts by replacing or providing substitute
environments for resources. Structural mitigation is the current solution to
eroding beaches and movement of sand is the use of engineered structures along
the coast have been short lived and are only an illusion of safety to the public
that result in long term damage of the coastline. Structural management deals
with the use of the following: groins which are man-made solution to longshore
current movements up and down the coast. The use of groins are efficient to
some extent yet cause erosion and sand build up further down the beaches.
Bulkheads are man-made structures that help protect the homes built along the
coast and other bodies of water that actually induce erosion in the long run.
Jetties are structures built to protect sand movement into the inlets where boats
for fishing and recreation move through. The use of non-structural mitigation is
the practice of using organic and soft structures for solutions to protect against
coastal hazards. These include: artificial dunes, which are used to create dunes
that have been either developed on or eroded. There needs to be at least two
lines of dunes before any development can occur. Beach Nourishment is a
major source of non-structural mitigation to ensure that beaches are present for
the communities and for the protection of the coastline. Vegetation is a key
factor when protecting from erosion, specifically for to help stabilize dune
erosion.
CONCLUSION
Disaster management requires trained human resources to deal with complex
situation effectively to mitigate the impact of disaster on human life and
property. Capacity Development is an integral process of knowledge and skill
building. Capacity may include physical, institutional, social or economic
means as well as skilled personal or collective attributes such as leadership and
management. Capacity Development is much more then training and it includes
human resource development, equipping individual with understanding, skills
and access to information, knowledge and training that enables him to perform
effectively.
2 National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM) describes its approach to
capacity development. NPDM further elaborates on National priorities,
institutional capacity development, training communities, professional technical
education, DM education in school, training to artisan and training to other
group. Capacity development has focused on training of the DM officials,
functionaries, trainers, elected representatives and community representatives.
Various institutions like, NDMA, NIDM, NCDC, NFSC and ministries have
developed the capacity development programme for disaster management.
The details included in this chapter are only illustrative and not exhaustive.
Capacity Development strategies are now being mainstreamed in most of the
ministries and Government department at National, State and District level to
equip the DM personal and community with advance knowledge and skill in
disaster management. It is expected that once the National Human Resource and
Capacity Development Plan is adopted, it will help in mainstreaming the
capacity development in different activities of the ministries of Government of
India concerned, state government and other stakeholders.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
STATUTES
• Disaster Management Act, 2005.
BOOKS
• Dammon, Copola; Introduction to International Disaster Management; 2 nd
edn., Butterworth Heinnemann Publications.
REPORTS
• UNDP Report on Disaster Management in India 2009 – 2012.