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A review on quality control in additive manufacturing

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 Rapid Prototyping Journal
A review on quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin, Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng,
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 A review on quality control in
additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, USA

Abstract
Purpose – The usage of additive manufacturing (AM) technology in industries has reached up to 50 per cent as prototype or end-product. However,
for AM products to be directly used as final products, AM product should be produced through advanced quality control process, which has a
capability to be able to prove and reach their desire repeatability, reproducibility, reliability and preciseness. Therefore, there is a need to review
quality-related research in terms of AM technology and guide AM industry in the future direction of AM development.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper overviews research progress regarding the QC in AM technology. The focus of the study is on
manufacturing quality issues and needs that are to be developed and optimized, and further suggests ideas and directions toward the quality
improvement for future AM technology. This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 starts by conducting a comprehensive review of the literature
studies on progress of quality control, issues and challenges regarding quality improvement in seven different AM techniques. Next, Section 3
provides classification of the research findings, and lastly, Section 4 discusses the challenges and future trends.
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Findings – This paper presents a review on quality control in seven different techniques in AM technology and provides detailed discussions in each
quality process stage. Most of the AM techniques have a trend using in-situ sensors and cameras to acquire process data for real-time monitoring
and quality analysis. Procedures such as extrusion-based processes (EBP) have further advanced in data analytics and predictive algorithms-based
research regarding mechanical properties and optimal printing parameters. Moreover, compared to others, the material jetting progresses technique
has advanced in a system integrated with closed-feedback loop, machine vision and image processing to minimize quality issues during printing
process.
Research limitations/implications – This paper is limited to reviewing of only seven techniques of AM technology, which includes photopolymer
vat processes, material jetting processes, binder jetting processes, extrusion-based processes, powder bed fusion processes, directed energy
deposition processes and sheet lamination processes. This paper would impact on the improvement of quality control in AM industries such as
industrial, automotive, medical, aerospace and military production.
Originality/value – Additive manufacturing technology, in terms of quality control has yet to be reviewed.
Keywords Additive manufacturing, Systematic review, Quality control, Data analytic and algorithm, In-situ correction,
Real time closed-feedback loop
Paper type General review

1. Introduction medical, aerospace and military, which require high precision

Additive manufacturing (AM) technology is a process of making
a three-dimensional (3D) object-based on layer-by-layer or drop-
by-drop deposition of materials under a computer controlled
system. It is composed of various types of printing methods such
as binder jetting, material extrusion, material jetting and sheet
lamination. AM industries have grown rapidly since 2000, and
have shown almost six times the growth during the 2000s as
compared with the growth during the 1990s (Wong and
Hernandez, 2012). AM technology has a high potential to exploit
ideas and applications on various areas. In 2013, Wohlers
Associates reported that AM system sales revenue of each sector
are industrial products (19 per cent), consumer products (18
per cent), automotive (17 per cent), medical (14 per cent),
aerospace (12 per cent), military (5 per cent). Automotive,
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and reliability, lead 48 per cent in total. The global AM market
sales reached up to $2.2bn in 2012 and is forecasted for growth of
the market size by $10.8bn in 2020 (Wong and Hernandez,
2012). Therefore, final and functional part productions and
relevant researches are growing faster than the general market.
Most of AM applications were purposed for prototyping and
tooling; however, nowadays, industries invest 10 times more on
end-part production than on prototyping (Cotteleer and Joyce,
2014).
Likewise, this new paradigm of AM technology is being
dramatically developed and brings high feasible applications
into real industry. However, before AM product is directly used
for real-functional part fabrication, certified quality control
(QC) is of vital importance to address specific requirements,
especially quality and reliability. For high-quality products that
are used in aerospace and automobile industries, AM is
required to certify high precision and mechanical properties to
be used and functioned as real part (Wong and Hernandez,
2012). As a variety of materials are being used in the AM

Rapid Prototyping Journal

24/3 (2018) 645–669 Received 19 March 2017
© Emerald Publishing Limited [ISSN 1355-2546] Revised 9 June 2017
[DOI 10.1108/RPJ-03-2017-0048] Accepted 15 June 2017

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 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
technology, such as ceramic, steel, alloy, composites and living
tissue, compared with traditional manufacturing, the current
AM technology around part quality and performance needs to
be constantly improved. Therefore, more the variety of
advanced materials being used with AM technology, the more
quality processes that will be necessary.
For quality control improvement, there have been studies
that focus on quality-approached researches. For example,
Kaveh et al. (2015) studied the effect of printing parameters on
precision and internal cavity of fabricated parts using fused
deposition modeling 3D printer (Kaveh et al., 2015). Another
research, Farzadi et al. (2015) investigated the effects of layer
printing delay on physical and mechanical properties (Farzadi
et al., 2015). If these types of quality-related researches on AM
technology keep happening and produce improved quality
compared with the traditional manufacturing, AM products
will eventually substitute current technologies and expand to
areas that require super-advanced technology in the near
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future.
This paper provides an overview of the research progress
regarding the QC in AM technology and the future direction of
AM development in the QC aspect, and especially discusses
quality issues and the needs to be developed and optimized;
further, it suggests ideas and directions toward quality
improvement for future AM technology. This paper is organized
as follows. Section 2 starts by conducting a comprehensive review
of the literature studies on progress of quality control, issues and
challenges regarding quality improvement in seven different
techniques of AM. Next, Section 3 provides classification of the
research findings, and lastly, Section 4 discusses challenges and
future trends.
2. Overview of quality control in additive
manufacturing
2.1 Photopolymer vat processes
Photopolymer vat processes (PVP) are based on the selective
solidification of a liquid photopolymer using light sources (e.g.
ultraviolet; Vaezi et al., 2013). Stereolithography (SL or SLA)
is the main technique that is widely used especially in
biomedical engineering field such as implant and tissue
engineering (Gauvin et al., 2012; Cohen et al., 2009). Melchels
et al. (2010) reviewed two different SL techniques: scanning SL
and projection SL. The scanning SL builds a structure from
bottom with scanning laser, while the projection SL builds from
top to bottom with digital light projection (Melchels et al.,
2010). The latter technique not only provides better surface
finish and dimensional accuracy but also saves materials and
fabrication time (Vaezi et al., 2013).
Some researchers (Huang and Jiang, 2003; Adolf et al., 1998)
have documented significant heat release owing to thermal
reaction between laser source and resin solution during photo-
polymerization, which causes residual stress development
associated with thermal shrinkage. Likewise, temperature profile
has an important role on quality. Corcione et al. (2006) found
that temperature increase on vat surface is dependent on energy
dose during SL process. Lower scan speed leads to higher
temperatures and reaction rates, which involve shrinkage and
curl distortion (Corcione et al., 2006). Lee et al. (2007) studied
the effects of laser energy with respect to thickness of building
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Volume 24 · Number 3 · 2018 · 645–669
part and laser speed. Critical exposure (Ec) and penetration depth
(Dp) are two primary parameters of resin determined by
windowpane analysis. In addition, molecular weight of polymers
(i.e. viscosity) plays an important role to determine final
mechanical properties (Lee et al., 2007).
Specific design tools used in the biomedical engineering for
patient such as computed-tomography (CT) and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) enable the SL technique to remove
elaborate design process and provide accurate custom-design
data. In addition, these design tools allow evaluating the
dimensional accuracy by comparing the scanned data with
designed model. Cohen et al. (2009) used a commercial 3D
workstation (EBW 4.0, Philips medical) which has capabilities
of both MRI and CT, and can significantly enhance scanning
time from 2 hours to 5 minutes for mandibular reconstruction
(Cohen et al., 2009).
Cooke et al. (2003) incorporated the SL technique in
manufacturing biodegradable polymeric scaffold for use in
ingrowth repairs of human bone defects. In biodegradable resin
(mixtures of Diethyl fumarate and poly pylene fumarate), it was
observed that approximately 10 per cent of supports did not
attach to the build table, which caused problems of
dimensional/geometric inaccuracy and rough surface finish
built parts. By customizing build tables and hole patterns that
control the resin flow rate, the initial layer of cross-linked
biodegradable resin mixtures can be securely adhered to the
surface of the build table so that it can prevent the part from
floating freely in the resin. It was found that the viscosity and
density of vat solution influence the lack of adherence as well as
design of build table and convex-surface effect (Cooke et al.,
2003). Many efforts to fabricate complex tissue scaffold has
been attempted to improve part quality with different types of
solutions (Gauvin et al., 2012; Dhariwala et al., 2004). These
attempts are increasing usage area and better quality control as
variety of materials are being used (e.g. epoxy or acrylate or
additional additives (PPF/DEF–HA, PDLLA/HA) as based
resins with photo-initiators, support material such mix of
propylene/polyethylene glycols, glycerin and/or acrylate).
Developing materials to be used in the SL technique must take
into consideration variety, composition, strength and finishing
procedures to increase the fabrication versatility and quality
(Gross et al., 2014; Bose et al., 2013).
Kim et al. (2010) decreased contamination when fabricating
multi-materials using SL technique. When draining and
cleaning the previous material before switching another vat, it
was difficult to remove materials entirely owing to high viscosity
of the previous resin. By using low viscosity polymer resin and
improving a process-planning algorithm, contamination was
reduced (Kim et al., 2010). Han et al. (2010) developed an
automatic material switching method by cleaning out the
current solution in the vat using solvent purging after UV-
exposure so that it was able to fabricate high-quality
heterogeneous 3D hybrid scaffolds (Han et al., 2010). For high
quality fabrication process, Zhou et al. (2011) proposed to
remove the previous material sticking on part surface using a
soft brush for rough cleaning and then ultrasonic removal for
final cleansing before introducing a different material (Zhou
et al., 2011).
Orientation in which a design is fabricated can influence the
SL performance. Lan et al. (1997) investigated that deposition
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
orientation mostly influences on three significant parameters:
surface quality, build time and support structures. On the basis
of the parameter consideration, decision criteria and algorithms
were established and developed to identify the desirable
fabrication orientations (Lan et al., 1997). Pham et al. (1999)
developed feature-based system using an object-oriented
programming language and solid modeling CAD environment
to obtain the best tradeoff by considering factors based on build
time, cost and accuracy while having optimal part orientation
(Pham et al., 1999).
The SL technique has also been used in micro/nano scale
fabrication (Maruo, 2015). Ha and Yang (2014) studied that
surface friction factor taken into consideration when fabricating
closed structures does not affect open complex structure.
Therefore, a micro-scaled open structure was erected securely
on the substrate from the mentioned process, as shown in
Figure 1. This nanostructure fabrication is capable of having
high quality structures with higher efficiency than closed
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structures. In this study, 10
10
10 m m open structures
were fabricated, CCD camera were used to monitor the
nanoscale structure during fabrication (Ha and Yang, 2014).
West et al. (2001) developed a new adaptive slicing algorithm
in the design process for improving build performance. This
algorithm assists SL operators in developing a process plan by
quantifying tradeoffs among surface finish, geometry tolerances
and build time. By adjusting process variables within algorithm,
it can predict geometric and dimensional properties, and can
compare the desired and actual values so that SL operators can
approach the specific design requirements (West et al., 2001).
In summary, PVP has advanced in providing accurate data
acquisition during design applications that use CT and MRI,
which makes this technique particularly useful in biomedical
applications. In addition, these procedures allow part
evaluation by comparing design and 3D printed model.
Finding optimal build orientation to improve the quality and
build time was mostly studied by incorporating a new type of
solid modeling and slicing algorithm. This indicates that build
orientation mostly affects the quality. For printing process,
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of nano-stereolithography apparatus (left) and SEM images of fabricated open structure (right)
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there are still many quality and process problems that occur
owing to vat contamination, wasting materials, long process
time, material limitation and detachment of build table. Living
biological cells can be incorporated using this technique so that
human artificial organ or skin can be fabricated. In the near
future, more materials will be incorporated which will, in effect,
demand more quality related studies on the variety of materials
needed.
2.2 Material jetting processes
Material jetting processes (MJP) are based on the use of inkjet
printing technique to deposit droplets selectively through a
nozzle or orifice to build up a 3D structure. This droplet is a
liquid that is jetted out of the nozzle and becomes solid after
deposit through cooling or UV curing. There are two methods
for creating appropriate material droplets: drop on demand
(DoD) and continuous inkjet (CIJ). The latter uses fluids of
low viscosity and high drop velocity for fast printing speed; in
contrast, the former uses smaller droplets and velocity for high
dimensional accuracy; therefore, DoD has a higher potential
for microfabrication (Vaezi et al., 2013). In the DoD system,
two main kinds of pressure pulse methods in the manner of
ejecting droplet from ink vat are divided: thermal and
piezoelectric actuators. Thermal DoD has a limitation on ink
material used, which is volatile, while the piezoelectric DoD has
no such limitations, but is required to have droplet generation
rates in the range of 3-10 kHz to allow the meniscus to reach
capillary equilibrium (Sachs and Vezzetti, 2005).
Vaezi et al. (2013) reviewed the several significant
phenomena affecting the quality of the material jetting
processes. The shape of deposited droplet influences critically
on resolution, precision and accuracy (Vaezi et al., 2013).
Beaman et al. (2004) demonstrated through fluid mechanics
theory that there is an important relationship between the
Reynolds number Re = r gvd/ m , denoted as a ratio between
inertial and viscous forces, and Weber number We = r 1v2d/s ,
denoted as a ratio between kinetic and surface energy, where r g
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
and r 1 represent the densities of the process gas and liquid
drop, respectively. The variables v, d, m and s are droplet
velocity, droplet diameter, liquid dynamic viscosity and liquid
surface tension, respectively. It was found that Re and We
p
should satisfy 1 < Re= We < 10 to maintain the overall
printing quality of DoD system (Beaman et al., 2004). This
author reported that droplets should not exceed more than 10
m m in diameter owing to problems with air resistance. Ko et al.
(2010) reported that fundamentally considerable and
interconnected conditions for high desired quality control on
MJP are the following:
 ink properties (viscosity and surface tension);
 jetting parameters (signal width, voltage magnitude and
jetting frequency); and
 environment (pressure, environment and substrate
temperature and humidity).
Research on metal nanoparticle inkjet printing investigated
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thoroughly that proper substrate temperature and sufficient
drying of nanoparticle inks in each layer guarantee high quality
(Ko et al., 2010).
Jiang et al. (2010) studied on the accurate micro scale-
droplet creations. As shown in Figure 2, droplets merge with
each other to form bigger droplets owing to different droplet
velocities. These merged droplets degrade the droplet’s
diameter accuracy, which significantly affects surface
roughness and total geometry. It was observed that uniform
spherical droplets can be developed at optimal frequency of
2.842 kHz and at low oxygen concentration environment (Jiang
et al., 2010). Kullmann et al. (2012) contributed on building
3D microstructures of gold nanofluids with high aspect ratio
and low-cost basis using DoD technique. It was discussed that
Figure 2 Water droplet stream using orifice diameter of 150 m m
at a gas pressure of 8 kPa
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Volume 24 · Number 3 · 2018 · 645–669
not only are accurate and optimal printing temperatures and
voltages essential factors in nanofluids’ control for micro scaled
structures, but also that thermal optimization such as substrate
temperature and laser annealing are to be taken into
consideration (Kullmann et al., 2012).
Inkjet printing technique is used widely in biological tissue
engineering and electric circuit design due mainly to its multi-
material capability (Nakamura and Henmi, 2008; Mei et al.,
2005; Xu et al., 2006; Cui and Boland, 2009; Czy_zewski et al.,
2009). However, Rengier et al. (2010) rated MJP technique on
medical applications as inferior in accuracy and strength in
comparison with other techniques (SLA, SLS and FDM;
Rengier et al., 2010). Ebert et al. (2009) found the process-
related defects as a result of single clogged nozzles owing to
either dried up or blocked by agglomerates while printing
dental prostheses made of zirconia-based ceramics (Ebert et al.,
2009). To resolve this issue, sintering was adopted as post
processing to enhance the strength and accuracy, and
preheating substrate was implemented to avoid internal stress
and bending of layers during drying. In addition, aqueous
solution of 10 wt. per cent ethanol was found to be sufficient for
nozzle cleaning to prevent clogging.
Wüst et al. (2011) mentioned that protein and biological cells
are more likely to be denaturant depending on temperature;
therefore, temperature of ink bubbles in thermal-based printing
should not exceed more than 41°C (Wüst et al., 2011). Owing
to this reason, Wilson and Boland (2003) modified commercial
inkjet printers by implementing temperature controller to avoid
denaturation of proteins and cells (Wilson and Boland, 2003).
Henmi et al. (2007) developed a gelation technique to align
printed cell on the substrate without drying and distributed
randomly so that living cells and biomaterials can be easily
patterned to create sophisticated 3D printed tissue (Henmi
et al., 2007). Cui et al. (2010) noted the frequency of
piezoelectric inkjet printers to be within a frequency range that
causes cell damage and lysis after sonication at 15-25 kHz (Cui
and Boland, 2009). For a thermal inkjet printer, its heating
temperature at the ejected nozzle increases up to 300°C for a
couple of microseconds during the printing. Therefore, there
are significant concerns in printing processes that cause cell
damage and death (Cui et al., 2010). In 2012, authors
comprehensively evaluated cell viability and damage on
thermal inkjet cells and found 4-10°C above ambient for only
2 m s avoids cell damage up to an average cell viability of 90 per
cent. Therefore, thermal inkjet printing technology is becoming
more biocompatible to the living system compared to
piezoelectric printing (Cui et al., 2012).
Derby (2010) and Yeong et al. (2006) discussed the
importance of fluid properties for quality and investigated the
main factors of quality in the MJP technique to be:
 generation of droplet;
 position and interaction of droplet on a substrate; and
 solidification mechanism.
In terms of interaction between droplets and substrates, part
quality is significantly determined by properties such as
gravitational forces, fluid density, surface energy, drop
velocity, droplet size, surface tension, capillarity forces,
contact angle, drop spacing and print head traverse speed.
In addition, during droplet transition from liquid to solid,
 Quality control in additive manufacturing Rapid Prototyping Journal
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng Volume 24 · Number 3 · 2018 · 645–669

which may occur, volume change is important and can be
controlled by these considerations such as solvent
distribution, fluid flow rate and evaporation rate. Proposed
nano/micro-scale patterning and structuring of substrate
can overcome this resolution issue limited by drop size and
can achieve higher resolution more than drop size (Derby,
2010; Yeong et al., 2006).
Tourloukis et al. (2015) identified factors that affect quality
issues and printing performance and studied the potential of
computational intelligence algorithms particularly in neural
networks to assess and forecast quality of 3D inkjet-printed
electronic products. Results validated that one-step ahead
predicting model using nonlinear autoregressive neural
network with external input brought up better overall
prediction behavior compared with multi-step ahead one.
However, more investigation is needed with larger data set to
be trained with respect to a wider range of values and trends for
enhancing predictive performance (Tourloukis et al., 2015).
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issues aim to control the droplet mechanism, which
significantly affects resolution and dimensional accuracy. The
main issue during printing process is nozzle clogging occurring
owing to dry and agglomerates, which are detrimental to
medical application. Using thermal inkjet printing technique,
sophisticated tissue structures such as biomaterials and living
cells can be easily fabricated without cell damage caused by
piezoelectric inkjet frequency and high temperature. Positive
early stage research was made on data-driven approach using
neural networks to predict the quality. A great achievement of
MJP is a real-time closed-feedback loop system incorporated
with machine vision. This can correct the design and printing
parameters in real-time and eventually open up real-time
processing during printing process.
2.3 Binder jetting processes
Binder jetting processes (BJP) have similar principals to
material inkjet process, but based on nozzles depositing

Recently, Sitthi-Amorn et al. (2015) developed a material
jetting systems allowing for self-calibration of print heads, 3D
scanning and a closed-feedback loop to enable print
corrections. Real-time printing control technique of machine
vision built in enables to correct overall platform design and
printing parameter in real-time through closed-feedback loop.
The image processing algorithm computes depth difference
between droplets and adjusts amount of jet droplet. This
technique opens up the real-time quality control during
printing process. In addition, 3D scanning (i.e. optical
coherence tomography, OCT and scanner) provides high
resolution (less than 1 m m) to scan the depth map and overlay
the model to be printed over the 3D scanned auxiliary
component on the build platform. Furthermore, users can
interactively translate and rotate the model over the image to
facilitate the alignment (Sitthi-Amorn et al., 2015). (Figure 3)
In summary, MJP have significantly advanced in micro-scale
fabrication. Most of the studies implemented for quality related
droplets of a water-based binder material over surface of a
powder bed (Wong and Hernandez, 2012; Stucker, 2012). The
powder particles are held together by bonding with deposited
binder material and eventually shape 3D structures. This
process is followed by lowering the powder bed through a
piston and a fresh layer of powder spread over the previous
layer and deposited by binder again over the new layer. The
possible materials used as powder includes ceramics, metals,
shape-memory alloys and polymers (Vaezi et al., 2013). Gibson
et al. (2014) found that BJP technique provides better quality
control ability for ceramic and metal fabrications to be
produced compared with MJP technique. However, a BJP
printed part tends to have lower accuracy and surface finish
than the part made by MJP. In addition, infiltration processes
are typically needed to fabricate dense parts or to ensure good
mechanical properties (Gibson et al., 2014).
Deposition ways of the binder are the same as the MJP
technique. The CIJ system of BJP technique is designed to

Figure 3 (A) Optical coherence tomography 3D scanner: the optical components are arranged in a Michelson configuration. The light source is a
collimated, red LED. Polarizers are placed in the LED and camera paths to control the light density. The points in the sample that are at the same distance
as the reference mirror cause constructive interference patterns. The platform is moved along the Z axis while the interference patterns are detected by
the camera. The scanner features a circular scanning area with a diameter of 15 mm; (B) the machine vision feedback loop proceeds in the stages and
image processing pipeline for 3D scanner: We compute the 3
3 standard deviation. Next, we choose the depth in which the standard deviation is the
highest. We also keep the maximum standard deviation as the confidence map. We perform the depth correction on the depth map from previous stage.
Finally, we stitch the depth maps from all the location weighted by the confidence. We assume that the area where the confidence is below certain
threshold is a hole, and fill those holes at the end

649
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
print in either uni or bidirectional mode. Bidirectional printing
mode is faster than unidirectional one, but causes dynamic shift
errors. A part requiring higher quality surface finish should be
printed in unidirectional mode. Critical point on quality in this
system is a catcher, which helps to achieve a selective printing
stratagem in the presence of a continuous stream as shown in
Figure 4(A). Figure 4(B) display how the catcher is operating.
Deflected plates are guiding droplets to catchers when
unwanted droplet and drained for reuse. However, owing to
some disadvantages such as binder accumulation, pump
clogging and low cross-section of individual catchers, Sachs
and Vezzetti (2005) proposed a single catcher system that is
shared by all the nozzles, proportional deflection reducing the
nozzle gap and 45 degree print head rotation improving
dynamic shift and enabling the droplets to land on exact
powder bed at certain time to improve surface finish and
dimensional accuracy, as shown in Figure 4(C) (Sachs and
Vezzetti, 2005). By comparison, the DoD method provides
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better quality (e.g. resolution and minimum feature width) but
is slower in regard to printing process (Cima et al., 2001).
The BJP is capable of achieving accurate geometries in nano-
biomaterial fields (Liu et al., 2013). Factors that determine the
final part dimensions are accumulative accuracy of deposited
layer thickness, accuracy of droplet placement, reproducibility
of droplet spread and of dimensional change during curing
process. In addition, the dimensional accuracy is strongly
influenced by interaction performance between powders and
binders such as powder’s surface treatment, size, shape,
packing density, distribution, binder’s viscosity, surface
tension, droplet size, velocity and temperature.
Chumnanklang et al. (2007) studied the effects of binder
concentration in pre-coated particle on part strength. It was
found that part strength can be increased by increasing the
binder concentration and pre-coated particle size. The
hydroxyapatite particle used was coated with maltodextrin and
water. Coated powders have easier-to-flow characteristic than
raw powders so that it could lead to high flow-ability and
uniform distribution. These higher binder concentration and
pre-coated particle enables better densification of intra-
Figure 4 (A) Components of the continuous printing system; (B) flight path of a droplet during printing; (C) binary deflection and proportional one
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particles during sintering process (Chumnanklang et al., 2007).
For better powder distribution, Snelling et al. (2013) used a
sieve test to determine particle size distribution, which is of
critical importance to mechanical properties and dimensional
accuracy (Snelling et al., 2013).
Lu and Reynolds (2008) analyzed printing variables mainly
influenced on integrity, dimensional accuracy and minimal
feature sizes that can be printed for less than 500 m m 3D mesh
structures (TiNiHf shape memory alloy). This author classified
three groups in terms of the variables: 3D printer-, powder- and
binder-related variables. Two major 3D printing variables (i.e.
printing layer thickness and binder saturation) are evaluated. It
was found that breaking strength increases with the binder
saturation level up to 170 per cent at the same printing layer
thickness, and 35 m m printing layer yields 3D mesh structure
with the highest integrity and the lowest dimensional deviation
(Lu and Reynolds, 2008).
In bone tissue engineering area, Farzadi et al. (2014)
investigated the effects of layer thickness and printing
orientation (parallel to X, Y and Z) on dimensional accuracy
and mechanical properties of printed porous scaffolds. It was
found that concurrence between model’s orientation (i.e.
longitudinal direction) and printing head movement results in
better dimensional accuracy and mechanical properties, and
layer thickness as well as printing direction, which has a
significant effect on the compressive strength of scaffolds
(Farzadi et al., 2014).
Some of researchers have used mathematical analyses to
improve the quality for BJP technique. Asadi-Eydivand et al.
(2016) found that the delay time of applying the new layer
and printing orientation significantly influences the
dimensional accuracy, compressive strength and porosity. A
full factorial design of experiment (DOE), signal to noise (S/
N) ratio and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to
investigate optimal process parameters (Asadi-Eydivand et
al., 2016). Another research used statistical analysis
(ANOVA) to determine significant factors affecting product
quality. Parameters of binder saturation, layer thickness,
building orientation were optimized through statistical
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
analysis (Uma Maheshwaraa et al., 2008). In addition, BJP
technique has been studied for quality in metal casting area
(Meisel et al., 2012; Snelling et al., 2013), foundry
engineering (Budzik, 2007) and pharmaceutics (Yu et al.,
2009).
In summary, BJP have highly advanced in ceramic and metal
fabrications compared with other techniques because BJP can
fabricate high melting point materials at low temperature using
binder and post-treatment. The impressive achievement in BJP
was a study on DoD to develop a single catcher system on each
nozzle to control individual droplet and pre-coating particle to
enhance part strength by solving drawback of BJP such as low
density and porosity. In addition, mathematical analyses were
conducted to find optimal printing parameters. The main
issues during printing process were the interaction performance
between binder and powder, accumulative accuracy of
deposited layer thickness, droplet placement, the delay time of
applying a new layer and dimensional change during post-
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treatment. These issues significantly influence dimensional
accuracy and challenges to investigate for better quality.
2.4 Extrusion-based processes
Extrusion-based processes (EBP) deposit material in form of a
continuous flow layer-by-layer to build a 3D structure. These
processes have diverse technique concepts but are classified
into two main groups: melting-based extrusion and non-
melting-based extrusion (Vaezi et al., 2013). 3D-bioplotting is
the most representative of non-melting-based extrusion
techniques and fused deposition modeling in melting based
extrusion techniques. In here, fused deposition modeling
(FDM) will be the main point of discussion.
2.4.1 Researches on general quality control
In the FDM technique, there are two kinds of deposition methods
mainly used: contour and raster. In contour method, extrusion
path is following outside contour and offset in until it fills the entire
domain. This technique’s, main disadvantage is slow printing
operation owing to multiple paths creation. In a raster method, the
material is deposited in zig–zag fashion. Raster method is a faster
process but less accurate and gives rise to voids in deposition
process in comparison with the contour one. This can lead to
deterioration in the in-plane properties of the structure. Kulkarni
and Dutta (1999) proposed spiral geometric path, which can
eliminate multiple paths and inaccuracy to provide faster process
and reduce voids. In result, in-plane stiffness spiral method was
improved up to 18,000 lb/in2 compared with 10,300 lb/in2 of
contour paths (Kulkarni and Dutta, 1999).
Sun et al. (2008) evaluated the effects of processing
conditions in the bonding quality of FDM technique. It was
found that the neck growth between adjacent filaments of the
same layer is expected to be larger in the bottom layers than in
the top layers because bottom layer remains longer period than
upper layers, indicating voids size in the lower region is clearly
smaller than in the upper region. It is the fact that convective
heat from adjacent extruded molten layers during process
allows neck growth between filaments, which occurs above
glass transition temperature. This neck growth can be increased
by proposed lateral geometric path to have slow cooling rate.
Therefore, bonding strength and voids were improved and
minimized, respectively (Sun et al., 2008). (Figure 5)
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Figure 5 Microphotograph of the cross-sectional area of a 38
38

30 layer part
Boschetto and Bottini (2016) used a design for manufacturing
(DFM) method to overcome inconsistent geometrical
deviations that cause poor surface quality and depend on layer
thickness, deposition angle, etc. Proposed DFM permits a
redesign of the components during preprocessing to predict the
obtainable dimensional deviations. Modifications carried out in
design stage can compensate for the deviations generated in the
next manufacturing stage, thus, providing improved part
accuracy, as shown in Figure 6 (Boschetto and Bottini, 2016).
Reducing in build time and increasing part surface quality
contradict each other and there have been a number of
attempts to solve these issues. Pandey et al. (2003a, 2003b)
proposed a method of real-time adaptive slicing procedures.
This method predicts surface quality expressed by standard Ra
value using direct slicing and tessellated model (STL) so that in
the design stage, build time and surface quality can be
maximized based on the predicted Ra value (Pandey et al.,
2003b). Huang et al. (2009) proposed a robust algorithm to
generate the support slice data that enable part’s self-support
ability and reduce redundant support volume at maximum
extent. This slice data based algorithm has the same efficiency
as the STL based algorithm, however, it is more stable and
robust to generate support slicing process. The advantage of
this algorithm provides necessary support for hanging not only
structure surface but also vertexes and edges, which can
guarantee dimensional accuracy (Huang et al., 2009).
In the area of casting, Kaveh et al. (2015) used high impact
polystyrene (HIPS) materials to fabricate wax patterns for
casting technology that requires accuracy without nay internal
cavity. They designed proper benchmarks regarding printing
parameters and statistical equations that can calculate
calibration factors (precision and internal cavity) to prevent
errors between designed and actual dimensions; eventually,
these can be used to determine optimal printing parameters
(Kaveh et al., 2015).
2.4.2 Researches on surface quality and post-processing
FDM technique presents limitations in surface quality.
Staircase effect influences surface quality of 3D printed part
using thick filament approximately 0.24 mm, which is the most
used thickness and 0.127 mm at the most. This is lower
resolution than other techniques such as SL (0.05 mm), SLS
(0.02 mm), BJP (0.05 mm) and MJP (0.016 mm). Other
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
Figure 6 (A) Modeled (left) and fabricated (right) air fan blade; (B) 3D maps of the thickness deviation measurements for original (left) and modified
(right) blade
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problems are related to thermal distortion and stress resulting
from shrinkage (Boschetto and Bottini, 2015).
Armillotta (2006) assessed textured surface quality printed
by FDM technique. Critical issues on surface quality are
dependent on the rate of material deposition, shrinkage and
residual stresses during solidification. It was found that
sufficient resolution of surface without stair-stepping, as shown
in Figure 7(A), can be obtained under the conditions provided
which feature in-plane size  1 mm on surfaces parallel to the
build direction can be fabricated without excessive stair-
stepping. Moreover, sinking effects made by contour offsetting,
as shown in Figure 7(B), can be avoided when adjacent features
are spaced out at least 1 mm away from one another
(Armillotta, 2006). Campbell et al. (2002) implemented a
visualization algorithm (AutoLisp language within AutoCAD
14) that represents varying surface roughness of 3D designed
model as color shading within a CAD image. Using this
algorithm, the designer is given clear visual image of the overall
surface roughness of a model and any potential problem areas
(Campbell et al., 2002).
Figure 7 (A) Graphical simulation of the stair-stepping effect on textured surfaces and (B) resolution limits (right): (a) spacing of layer contours; (b),
(c) feature sinking
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Galantucci et al. (2009) proved significant improvements on
surface finish of FDM 3D printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS) part using the chemical post-processing method.
Dimethyl ketone (acetone) was used with 10 per cent of water as
chemical because ABS has weak interaction with polar solvents
such as dimethyl ketone, ester and chloride solvents. Therefore,
chemical reaction is controlled by the soaking and exposure time
to ABS parts (Galantucci et al., 2009). In biomedical micro-
devices, McCullough and Yadavalli (2013) also used the same
chemical as dimethyl ketone-based sealing method to modify and
seal the surfaces of ABS to render the surface of 3D printed
micro-structured features to be impervious to water and increase
hydrophilicity and biocompatibility, as shown in Figure 8
(McCullough and Yadavalli, 2013). With this chemical method,
Galantucci et al. (2010) studied how this chemical reaction
affects mechanical properties as well as surface finish. It was
observed that mechanical properties such as ductility, flexural
and compressive strength were improved as treated chemicals but
tensile strength was slightly reduced because of a different action
of the solution on different surface pattern or different reaction of
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
Figure 8 (A) Permeability of micro-channels fabricated using FDM before and after treatment; (B and C) FDM ABS feature fidelity before and after
treatment; (B) channel and (C) ridge shape fidelity; (D), percentage change in ridge radius of curvature (E) and channel wall incline angle with varying
acetone solution concentration, treatment length constant at 4h
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treated filaments (Galantucci et al., 2010). In addition, Percoco
et al. (2012) studied compressive strength and surface roughness
of FDM 3D printed ABS part using chemicals, 90 per cent
dimethyl ketone solution and 10 per cent water. Results showed
an increase in compressive strength and reducing roughness up to
90 per cent when the immersion time is at 300 s, as compared
with non-treated part (Percoco et al., 2012).
Addanki Sambasiva Rao et al. (2012) used design of
experiment, ANOVA, to find significant factors affecting
surface finish by analyzing various parameters in chemical
treatment process, such as different levels of solution
concentration, exposure time, temperature and initial
roughness. Two different chemicals, dimethyl ketone and
methyl ethyl ketone, were used. In the case of dimethyl ketone,
solution concentration, temperature and initial roughness were
significant factors that mostly affect surface roughness. For
Methyl ethyl ketone, solution concentration, temperature and
exposure time were the most important factors to be surface
quality (Addanki Sambasiva Rao et al., 2012). Moreover,
vapors treatment was introduced by Sratasys. Vapors of
tetrahydrofuran created by applied heat interact with surface of
3D part, which settles in the side of the closed vessel with a non-
air tight lid (Stratasys, 2016). However, this chemical
treatment can dramatically improve surface finish but has been
only applied to ABS polymer and drawback limits using to
chemical sensitive materials. In addition, it provides poor
repeatability, small variations in geometry of the part and
unpredictable dimensional accuracy.
Another method used was hot cutter machining, as shown in
Figure 9(A). Pandey et al. (2003a, 2003b) addressed a problem
of surplus stock material, necessary tooling phase and path
planning despite improved surface at low time (Pandey et al.,
2003b). A method mostly used for surface finish is a barrel
finishing reproducing better surface finish using abrasive or
lubricative polishing agents with 3D printed parts put in
rotating closed chamber creating friction against each other, as
shown in Figures 9(B) and 9(C). This method provides high
repeatability and surface finish. Boschetto and Bottini (2015)
studied the quality control for predicting surface roughness
after barrel finishing by using theoretical models developed
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through statistical analysis validated in comparison with
experimental results (Boschetto and Bottini, 2015).
Many researchers have found that build orientation affects
surface quality on FDM parts. Vijay et al. (2011) investigated
that surface roughness is proportional to the layer thickness for
20° and 45° build orientation; however, roughness is an inverse
proportion to layer thickness when 70° is used for building
orientation (Vijay et al., 2011). Sreeram (1995) developed an
auto-compute method to decide optimal orientation direction
based on variable slicing thickness for a polyhedral part
(Sreeram PN, 1995). Frank and Fadel (1995) proposed a user-
friendly decision-making tool that recommends the optimal
orientation direction before printing (Frank and Fadel, 1995).
Chakraborty et al. (2008) developed a new method for
curved layer 3D structure. This curved layer FDM (CLFDM)
method has an advantage in fabricating thin and curved part
with improved surface finish owing to reduction of stair–step
effect as well as the reduction of layers. The method also
increased mechanical strength, reduced material waste and
build time, as shown in Figure 10(A). In regular FDM, table
and head movement do not deviate from vertical (z-axis) when
x- and y-axes are being controlled, as shown in Figure 10(B).
However, the proposed method uses x- and y-axes with
contouring control and z-axis with linear interpolation control.
Therefore, the table and head movement can have a 3D linear
interpolator for the deposition of curved layers. In addition,
they worked on determining adjacent filament paths for proper
reproduction of part shape (Chakraborty et al., 2008).
Ahn et al. (2009) proposed a theoretical model to express
surface roughness with respect to surface angle u . As
the surface angle is closer proportionally to fabrication
direction, surface roughness improves quality. The validity of
this proposed model was further proved by comparing
empirical data with computed values (Ahn et al., 2009).
2.4.3 Data analytic and algorithm researches
Many researchers used statistical analyses to optimize both
processes and product design for quality control. Anitha et al.
(2001) performed experiments to assess the effects of the
parameters on quality characteristics using the Taguchi
 Quality control in additive manufacturing Rapid Prototyping Journal
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng Volume 24 · Number 3 · 2018 · 645–669

Figure 9 (A) Different directions of machining using hot cutter; (B) scheme of barrel finishing; (C) 3D map of surface before machining and after 960
min barrel finishing working time

Figure 10 (A) Model development of different complex geometries using CLFDM – (a) a hemispherical surface with a straight trim on one side
(b) trimmed surface of a part in the interior, discontinuous filament deposition method (c) trimmed surface of a part in the interior, continuous filament
deposition method (d) surface made of two patches, continuous filament method; (B) (a) sectional view of a part produced by FDM. The overlapped
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section of two adjacent layers in FDM is shown by shaded lines. (b) Adjacent filaments of CLFDM

method. Analysis of the Taguchi results using methods of signal
to noise (S/N) ratio, ANOVA, correlation and regression
analyses indicated that without pooling only one layer thickness
is effective to 49.37 at 95 per cent level of significance. But on
pooling, the layer thickness is mostly effective to 51.57 at 99 per
cent level of significance. This result was further strengthened
by afore mentioned analyses which indicate a strong
relationships with surface roughness. Moreover, based on the
S/N analysis, the layer thickness was mostly effective at 0.3556
mm, road width at 0.537 mm and deposition speed at 200 mm/s
(Anitha et al., 2001). Similarly, Lee et al. (2005) used the
Taguchi method and orthogonal array, main effect, S/N and
ANOVA analyses to investigate the optimal printing parameters
needed to achieve maximum flexibility of ABS material. Through
this statistical analysis, it was concluded that layer thickness,
raster angle and air gap has significant impact on the elastic
performance of ABS printed structure (Lee et al., 2005). Pandey
et al. (2003a, 2003b) studied the improvement of surface finish
by staircase machining using the FDM technique. They
proposed hot cutter machining method to improve the surface of
a staircase structure on 3D printed parts and used ANOVA and
fractional factorial design of experiment to analyze the effects of
three important machining parameters (i.e. cutting speed and
direction) and for developing statistical model, respectively
(Pandey et al., 2003a). Sood et al. (2009) adopted the Grey–
Taguchi method to obtain optimum level of printing parameters
by finding the significant factors and their interactions and to
minimize the percentage change in length, width and thickness
into a single objective known as the Grey relation grade. This
Grey–Taguchi method provided good results on overall
improvement in part dimension. In addition, artificial neural
networks (ANN) was used to predict overall dimensional
accuracy and provide errors between predicted data and
observed value varying between 0 and 3.5 per cent. Smaller error
percentages mean better suitability of present model (Sood et al.,
2009).
Sood et al. (2010) conducted central composite design for
design of experiment and ANOVA for validity to investigate the
important impact of printing parameters related to mechanical
properties such as tensile, flexural and impact strength. It was

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Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
concluded that the increase in layer thickness, which means
decreased number of layers required, leads to minimizing
distortion effects within the structure so that total mechanical
strength will be increasing (Sood et al., 2010). Sood et al.
(2012) studied that compressive strength of 3D structure
exhibits high dependence on five important printing
parameters (i.e. layer thickness, part orientation, raster angle/
width and air gap). This research not only provides an insight
into the complex dependency of compressive stress on process
parameters but also created a statistically validated predictive
equation to find optimum parameters for maximum
compressive stress using a quantum-behaved particle swarm
optimization (QPSO). However, to solve involved large
number of conflicting factors and complex phenomena for part
building to predict output characteristics accurately. ANN with
back propagation algorithm was adapted to predict the final
structure’s compressive stress as shown in Figure 11. In result,
this optimized statistically predictive equations that gave a
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maximum compressive stress of 17.4751 MPa at optimum
values of layer thickness, orientation, raster angle, raster width
and air gap as 0.254 mm, 0.036°, 59.44°, 0.422 mm and
0.00026 mm, respectively (Sood et al., 2012). Li et al. (2010)
also used particle swarm optimization algorithm to obtain
appropriate fabrication orientation by optimizing support area,
fabrication time and surface roughness so that it was proved to
enhance processing efficiency and reduce the costs significantly
(Li et al., 2010). Rao and Rai (2016) used the teaching–
learning-based optimization algorithm (TLBO) and non-
dominated sorting TLBO (NSTLBO) to solve optimization
problems on FDM. When it comes to objective function value
with a higher convergence rate, it was proved that TLBO shows
better performance as compared to QPSO and generic
algorithm (GA) in terms of solving single-objective
optimization aspect and that NSTLBO demonstrated better
performance as compared with non-dominated sorting genetic
algorithm (NSGA-II) in terms of solving multi-objective
optimization aspect (Rao and Rai, 2016).
Ahn et al. (2002) used design of experiments to study the
relationship among the printing parameters of ABS material
Figure 11 The ANN architecture
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such as raster orientation, air gap, bead width, color and model
temperatures. It was found that the air gap and raster
orientation significantly influence the tensile strength of printed
part a lot more than bead width, model temperature and color
(Ahn et al., 2002). Thrimurthulu et al. (2004) used real coded
genetic algorithm to obtain optimum parameters of part
deposition orientation, which significantly affects the surface
roughness and build time. Also, this optimized parameter
considers minimization of support structures estimated by
genetic algorithm. This genetic algorithm helped predicting
surface quality and build time (Thrimurthulu et al., 2004).
Patel et al. (2012) emphasized that the Taguchi method is a
versatile tool for process and product design optimizations and
to solving current quality control issues on 3D printing
technology (Patel et al., 2012), based on the references (Sood
et al., 2009, 2010; Shaji and Radhakrishnan, 2003; Çaydas  and
Hasçalik, 2008; Gopal and Chakradhar, 2012).
2.4.4 Researches on composites
Mostafa et al. (2009) investigated the behavior of melt flow of
ABS–iron based composite materials deposited by FDM
technique. 2D and 3D numerical analysis (i.e. CFD, FEA and
ANSYS FLOTRAN/CFX software program) were used to
analyze melt flow parameters: mainly temperature, velocity and
pressure drop at extrusion. These analyses help prevent
clogging and allow smooth flow out of the extrusion and
enhance quality of composite based 3D structure by predicting
the flow behavior (Mostafa et al., 2009). Bellini and Güçeri
(2003) developed a novel FDM technique mounted a mini-
extruder on deposition of FDM machine for agile fabrication. It
streamlined filament preparation for continuous process of
fabrication ECG9/PZT ceramic composites. This high-
precision-based extruder was designed for a wide range of
materials as well as ceramic based composites. The author
studied flow behaviors influencing quality in terms of granules
size, nozzle temperature and nozzle size during extrusion and
deposition. Two thermocouples were used at both the entrance
and exit of the extruder qualifier to determine the influence of
temperature in upper and lower parts of the qualifier (Bellini
and Güçeri, 2003).
In summary, EBP has been studied in various research
approaches as they are the most popular processes
commercialized in public. The general quality issues currently
identified in FDM technique are the surface quality arose from
staircase effect, limited layer thickness, thermal distortion
shrinkage causing low resolution and dimensional inaccuracy.
Many kinds of post-processing and build orientation methods
have been investigated to alleviate the surface and mechanical
property issues. This EBP has advanced especially in data
analytics and algorithms, which signify that other fabrication
techniques can possibly adopt to predict their optimal design
and printing parameters. Research in these fields can be the
next step to understand the effects of various parameters on the
quality of fabricated parts.
2.5 Powder bed fusion processes
Most of the processes in powder bed fusion (PBF) system use a
high source of thermal energy to melt powder-based materials
(i.e. polymer, metal and ceramic) into desired structures and
shapes (Stucker, 2012). In the PBF processes, three different
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
techniques have been developed: selective laser sintering (SLS)
technique, which uses partial melting to fuse powders together,
selective laser melting (SLM), which uses full melting on
powders transferring into homogenous parts, as well as fusing
and electron beam melting (EBM), which uses an electron
beam to design to fuse only metal powders in vacuum
environment. For medical applications, SLS technique is
widely used for human skeleton or organ reconstruction owing
to its high accuracy and repeatability when compared to FDM,
LOM and inkjet printing techniques (Silva et al., 2008; Rengier
et al., 2010).
Edwards et al. (2013) studied mechanical property
improvement of Ti-6Al-4V alloy part printed by EBM. By
elevating certain bed temperature, residual stresses were
minimized; therefore, post heat treatment could be eliminated.
In addition, fatigue performance is highly dependent on rough
surface and porosity, which means that the technique highly
requires post-process (e.g. peening). However, this approach is
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not agile and smart enough to enhance part quality. Ideally, the
printing parameters need to be quickly and dynamically tuned
up by optimized input variables. Accordingly, research
attempts have been put into practice to monitor process to
control process input variables (Edwards et al., 2013). Melvin
et al. (1994) used a video microscopy system to observe
sintering and flow behavior in real-time, which can evaluate
different sintering characteristics of the materials (Melvin et al.,
1994). Benda (1994) developed an infrared light thermal
sensor to control laser power for better uniform sintering
performance (Benda, 1994). Zeng et al. (2012) reviewed
literatures on the thermal modeling method in SLS and SLM
techniques. It was summarized that uniform temperature
distribution of fields during printing processes leads to better
quality; there is a need to provide information from monitoring
temperature of the melt pool to be able to control process
parameters for part quality. As a temperature monitoring
system, pyrometers and thermocouples were used for
monitoring its temperature (Zeng et al., 2012).
Pyrometer is defined as the noncontact measurement of body
temperature based on emitted thermal radiation. There are two
types of pyrometer used depending on the application:
photodiodes and digital cameras [e.g. charged-coupled device
(CCD), complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)].
Both detects radiation and light, respectively, and convert them
into electric signal. Bi et al. (2007) developed a novel laser
cladding head with photodiodes and digital camera (CCD) to
enable real time monitoring to monitor the status of machine
parts, thus, improve part quality (Bi et al., 2007). Kleszczynski et
al. (2012) used a high resolution CCD camera for surface error
detection through image processing, as shown in Figure 12
(Kleszczynski et al., 2012). Lott et al. (2011) analyzed images of
melt pool size to adjust laser output power by using a CMOS
camera with an additional illumination source required for high
scanning velocities, resolution, as well as photodiodes (Lott et
al., 2011). Kolossov et al. (2004) developed a thermal model
that the temperature evolution and sintering formation can be
simulated by a 3D FEA to predict thermal properties (i.e.
thermal conductivity and specific heat; Kolossov et al., 2004).
Thermocouples, in contrast with pyrometers, are defined as
contact measurement of temperature which can reduce the
freedom of process. Therefore, pyrometer has been used
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dominantly more than thermocouples for temperature
monitoring in PBF processes. Shishkovsky et al. (2008) used
thermocouples to monitor the build of six different
intermetallic powders and measure the temperature on the
powder bed (Shishkovsky et al., 2008). In addition, Van Belle
et al. (2013) used thermocouple attached to the bottom of the
base plate with a strain gauge to record residual stresses (Van
Belle et al., 2013), and Taylor and Childs (2001) also used
thermocouples positioned under the bed’s surface to monitor
energy absorption and powder effective conductivity for better
understanding of heat transfer in metal powder during laser
processing of the powder bed (Taylor and Childs, 2001). Low
and Ake (2004) invented a thermocouple control system to
improve uniform distribution of temperature on powder bed
during part build. The thermocouple was attached inside of the
powder bed along with IR sensor and communicates with
temperature transmitter through circuitry in real-time (Low
and Ake, 2004).
Besides, research was focused on the IR thermography-
based monitoring and control system incorporated in the
EBM system. Price et al. (2012) demonstrated the feasibility
of using a near IR thermal camera for temperature
measurement in hatch melting, preheating and contour
melting events during the EBS process (Price et al., 2012).
Yadroitsev et al. (2014) used a galvanometric scanner
system for temperature distribution monitoring of melt pool
of Ti6Al4V alloy in the SLM system (Yadroitsev et al.,
2014). Dinwiddie et al. (2013) developed continuous data
capturing method using the IR camera to demonstrate
feasible work to detect porosities inside materials and
understand thermal phenomena such as it happens when
beam and powder interact with each other (Dinwiddie et al.,
2013). Kruth et al. (2007) developed temperature feedback
control system by positioning photodiodes and CMOS
digital camera on laser beam to stabilize melt pool
temperature distribution in SLM system (Kruth et al.,
2007). In 2013, Mireles developed automatic feedback
control system using IR camera for defect detection, and
notification tool to stop printing process when porosity level
reaches to certain level. In addition, achieved data can help
process parameters to be optimized and stabilize
temperature automatically through image processing and
auto-decision-making (Mireles et al., 2013). In 2015,
Mireles developed in-situ defect monitoring methods using
IR thermography inside an EBM machine. This captured IR
images provided a good indication of measured defects
geometry presence, which can be used to re-melt defect (i.e.
porosity) for the purpose of in-situ correction, as shown in
Figure 13 (Mireles et al., 2015). This method saved total
manufacturing time and decreased altering microstructure
compared with HIPing (hot isostatic pressing) process, and
eventually increased the mechanical properties throughout
the fabricated part.
In summary, the PBF processes, as compared with other
processes, have mostly advanced in temperature monitoring
system using sensors. Currently, the main quality issues
identified was the heterogeneous distribution of powder bed
temperature and laser output power. Non-contact method,
which is more adaptable owing to the freedom of process, was
used to solve these quality issues. In addition, thermal
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
Figure 12 Setup of the CCD camera system in front of machine window (left) and setup of CMOS camera system with illumination source and
photodiode for high scanning velocities and resolution (right)
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Figure 13 Correction of un-melted powder through layer re-melt
shown by the build file with the re-melt area shown by the red arrow
(top), showing the defect present in the IR image by the black arrow
(middle) and showing the defect not shown on the left column owing to
the re-melt (bottom)
modeling techniques such as 3D FEA were implemented to
predict thermal properties. Post processes (e.g. heat treatment,
peening, etc.) are necessary after the 3D printing process to
alleviate residual stress, rough surface and porosity. Research
efforts were made to develop feedback control system for
temperature distribution, defect detection and in-situ
correction.
2.6 Directed energy deposition processes
Directed energy deposition (DED) processes use a laser beam
to fuse materials (e.g. metal powder and wire feedstock)
delivered from a material deposition head and substrate where
materials are deposited (Tapia and Elwany, 2014; Vaezi et al.,
2013). PBF process feeds a powder layer using a blade or roller
onto the powder bed and selectively melts sections to build 3D
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structures, while in DED metal powders are fed from the
deposition head and melt onto a substrate by energy source
coming out from middle of the head. There are different types
of techniques such as laser engineering net shape (LENS), laser
cladding (LC) and direct metal deposition (DMD). Major
considerable processing parameters in DED are melt pool
temperature, material delivery rate and nozzle tip-substrate
distance.
The process monitoring and control focused on aforementioned
major printing parameters have been of increasing interests to
improve quality and reproducibility. Bi et al. (2013) developed
closed-loop controller that sends monitored temperature feedback
and adjust laser power density in real-time to improve dimensional
accuracy by using the IR pyrometer that measures melt pool
temperature. This closed-loop controller can eliminate the heat
accumulation and achieve oxidation-free clad surface with feeding
argon gas shielding to avoid disturbance from IR temperature
signals, as shown in Figure 14 (Bi et al., 2013). Fathi et al. (2008)
used similar closed-loop laser cladding process that can reduce
stair–step effects as well as production time (Fathi et al., 2008).
In addition, Bi et al. (2006) investigated printing parameters
relationships by looking at microstructure, hardness and
dimensional accuracy. It was proved that variations of melt
pool temperature and size influencing cooling rate and
solidification conditions result in heterogeneous dimensional
accuracy and microstructure (Bi et al., 2006). In a similar
manner, Hu and Kovacevic (2003) implemented a system to
monitor and control the powder delivery rate through a real-
time sensing and control using IR high-speed camera
positioned with laser beam. Captured images of melt pool by
this camera were also used for analysis to adjust laser power for
uniform temperature distribution. The reflected data from the
sensor helped improve the 3D printed part quality (Hu and
Kovacevic, 2003). Similarly, Hofmeister et al. (1999) used a
CCD camera mounted with laser beams to capture melt pool
images and analyze the melt pool cooling rate. Some
researchers studied process monitoring with DOE method
(Hofmeister et al., 1999). Ermurat et al. (2013) and Lee (2008)
used a high-speed camera and CCD camera to monitor nozzle
and powder delivery rate. With its extracted data, DOE is used
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
Figure 14 Front view of the deposited sample, the laser power and IR-temperature signals after (left) and before (right) stabilizing IR–temperature
signals
to analyze the behavior of the nozzle dimension and powder
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size along with changes of standoff distance and gas flow
(Ermurat et al., 2013; Lee, 2008).
Some researchers adopted analytical models to analyze the
thermal behavior of the process. Ye et al. (2006) and Wang et al.
(2009) reported that DED fabrication requires an in-depth
understanding of the entire thermal behavior of the process. In
these papers, the finite element method (FEM) was used to
obtain the thermal distribution and numerical simulation,
known as Thermaviz. Two-wavelength imaging pyrometer was
used to provide temperature data such as temperature
mapping, cooling and heating rate, modeling and simulation,
etc. The numerical simulation and FEM results provide the
user further predicting models and parameters (Ye et al., 2006;
Wang et al., 2009). Alimardani et al. (2007) also used a 3D
numerical method for predicting transient geometrical and
thermal characteristics of multilayer laser solid freeform
fabrication. Thermal and geometrical properties can be
numerically obtained and predicted even with variation of
parameters such as the powder feed rate, elapsed time, melt
pool temperature, substrate roughness, etc. so that the quality
can be more precisely optimized (Alimardani et al., 2007).
(Figure 15).
For the studies on material delivery rate, Hu et al. (2011)
developed a monitoring and control system using IR diodes and
low-power laser. This system is designed for sensing the
powder flow rate out of nozzle to ensure consistent powder feed
Figure 15 Finite element mesh and geometry to simulate the LENS process for ten layer wall (left) and molten pool size distribution for each layer at
P = 600 W and V = 2.5 mm/s (right)
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rate (Hu et al., 2011). In addition, Smurov et al. (2012) used
high-speed cameras for calculating the powder speed and flux
by positioning the cameras next to the nozzle head (Smurov
et al., 2012).
Some of the researchers conducted studies on the monitoring
layer height through the use of CCD cameras and neural
network algorithm. Iravani-Tabrizipour and Toyserkani (2007)
used three CCD cameras-based optical detectors positioned at
120 degree of each other around the nozzle head used in LC
technique. A novel algorithm composed of an image-based
tracking protocol and a recurrent neural network were
developed to measure the clad height in real-time. These
features tracking and trained network showed a promising
results in detecting the clad height in various trajectory angles
in real-time, which measured the clad height with 10 Hz and
60.15 mm average precision independent from clad path with
about 12 per cent maximum error (Iravani-Tabrizipour and
Toyserkani, 2007). In a different approach, Toyserkani and
Khajepour (2006) used a CCD camera-based optical detector
in close-loop control to be able to effectively measure not only
clad height but also angle of liquid/solid interface in real-time.
Using the recorded different images of each layer, it estimates
its roughness and product quality (Toyserkani and Khajepour,
2006).
In summary, DED processes have dealt with advanced
researches such as process monitoring, real-time closed loop
feedback system, thermal behavior and data analytic algorithm.
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
The main quality issues identified were related to
heterogeneous melt pool temperature, laser power density and
material delivery rate. These heterogeneities can be solved by a
closed-loop controller with data acquisition equipment such as
CCD and IR high speed cameras, which can sense printing
process data in real time and adjust them to optimal values.
Researches such as FEM simulation and data analytic
algorithm were also executed to predict the quality.
2.7 Sheet lamination processes
Sheet lamination processes (SLP) are one of the additive
manufacturing techniques to build a 3D structure by
sequentially laminating, bonding and cutting 2D cross-section
sheets of such polymer, ceramic coated paper or composite
paper by either a laser or a knife, and layers bonded by glue or
adhesive coating. This technique is also called laminated object
manufacturing (LOM). The bonding process is accomplished
by heat or pressure applied from a heated cylinder rolling along
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the sheet. While there is another technique called ultrasonic
consolidation (UC), which has the capability of ultrasonic
welding of metal sheets, it will be not covered in this paper as
this technique is a hybrid fabrication method combining the
additive manufacturing with subtractive process (Vaezi et al.,
2013; Kechagias, 2007a).
Although LOM process provides faster processes with sufficient
quality characteristics on large physical prototypes than other
techniques (Kruth, 1991), this technique has many difficulties and
drawbacks in manufacturing process, which are poor surface finish
before post-processing, difficult disengagement and only good
tensile strength properties in laminates direction compared with
other techniques (Chryssolouris et al., 2003; Upcraft and Fletcher,
2003).
The LOM process is separated into two methods when it
comes to the way of laminating a sheet of material: cut-then-
bond and bond-then-cut. The cut-then-bond method, which
cuts first and then re-position on workpiece to bond, is effective
for de-cubing, however, causes a loss in positioning precision
and accumulated error. The bond-then-cut, which bonds a
sheet on workpiece and then cuts it by laser, is not able to
perform complicated parts (e.g. hollow and vase) owing to
difficulty in de-cubing inner waste material so that it consumes
high laser power for de-cubing and crosshatching. In addition,
it is time-consuming and labor-dependent.
Liao et al. (2003) proposed an online de-cubing process in
the bond-then-cut method and with a developed bridge-
supporting algorithm. Shielding paper laminated on a sheet was
torn for laser cutting a sheet material and then used to remove
waste materials online by using adhesion force between
shielding paper and waste material, as shown in Figure 16 (Liao
et al., 2003). For easy de-cubing process, an algorithm for
building bridges from 2D drawing was developed to support
and position islands part while de-cubing process (Chiu et al.,
2003). This proposed process enabled the fabricating process
to perform various geometric shapes with significantly reduced
processing time up to 20-50 per cent. Chiu and Liao (2003)
proposed a novel laser path planning strategy to improve de-
cubing process problem. Burn-out rule proposed in this study
was applied in laser path planning to reduce damaging part and
bonding strength between the part and waste, eventually saving
68 per cent of de-cubing time. Overlap zone between fabricated
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part and waste is determined for the burn-out rule with
calculated optimal laser energy levels, velocity and burn-out
distance to predict better de-cubing process. It is suggested that
optimal laser paths can be obtained by ordinary laser power
with the burn-out rule and low cutting velocity (Chiu and Liao,
2003).
The most important quality characteristic of LOM part is the
vertical surface roughness (Ra). Kechagias (2007a, 2007b)
worked on experimental investigation of the surface roughness
on LOM part. Improving vertical surface quality leads to
reducing post-processing time, easier disengagement, easier de-
cubing, process optimization and less finishing (Kechagias,
2007a). Using statistical models, Chryssolouris et al. (1999)
found that vertical surface roughness (Ra) is mainly influenced
by process parameters such as heater temperature, layer
thickness and laser speed when measured on ZX plane,
whereas pressure and heater speed have more effects on surface
roughness when on ZY plane according to ANOVA analysis
(Chryssolouris et al., 1999).
Another critical issue is a delamination between bonded
layers owing to weak bonding or process malfunctioning (Vaezi
et al., 2013; Kechagias and Iakovakis, 2009). Some researchers
proposed mathematical models to enhance the bonding of
laminates. Pak (1994) developed a mathematical equation
containing a relation between temperature at arbitrary depth of
the part (Z-axis) and critical parameters in terms of bonding of
lamination such as temperature (Th), speed (), and pressure
(d ) of heater roller. Reeves and Cobb (1995) presented an
analytical model to predict optimal heater temperature needed
for good laminate bonding. Sonmez and Hahn (1998) analyzed
heat transfer and stress using FEA simulation and found the
following:
 surface temperature of heater should not be higher than
glass transition temperature of the used paper;
 surface stresses of laminate increase with the decrease in
layer thickness or roller diameter; and
 higher rolling speed is more likely to cause delamination or
malfunctioning on sheet bonding (Sonmez and Hahn,
1998).
Flach et al. (1998) developed a thermal analytical model with
various process parameters for fabrication of functional ceramic
and composite parts and founded the following:
 chamber air temperature affects temperature of part being
built;
 roller speed significantly affects surface layer in direct
contact; and
 delay time of the process affects the temperature of the
part being built (Flach et al., 1998).
Some researchers studied on predicting surface roughness.
Reeves and Cobb (1995) developed a general model for
predicting roughness on sloped surface. The surface angle (u )
and the layer thickness (Lt) are critical parameters in predicting
sloped surface roughness. Paul (2001) reported that the
orientation angle and sheet thickness are statistically significant
effects on surface roughness and proposed a mechanistic model
for sloped surfaces considering the two critical parameters
(Reeves and Cobb, 1995). Chryssolouris et al. (1999)
developed a semi-empirical model in consideration with
parameters such as changes of layer thickness, heater speed,
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
Figure 16 (A) The mechanism of the proposed online de-cubing process; (B) the original sliced 2D contour drawing; (C) the altered 2D drawing
developed by bridge-supporting algorithm
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heater temperature and platform retraction, based on matrix
experiments with different surface angles and cross of laminates
direction (Chryssolouris et al., 1999). Ahn et al. (2012)
proposed theoretical expressions to quantify average surface
roughness according to surface angle variation. In case of
upward or downward facing surface (0° < u < 90°, 90° < u <
180°), theoretical model was expressed by RðaÞu ¼ 1l A,
where R(a) denoted the surface roughness, l the base length of
unit profile, which is distance between edge point of sheets and
A the total surface area; therefore, R(a) is affected by the base
length. On the other hand, in case of vertical surface, roughness
layer thickness (t) affected R(a) expressed by RðaÞ90 ¼ 1t A.
These expressions were verified by comparing with empirical
data (Ahn et al., 2012).
Kechagias (2007a, 2007b) used a design of experiment to
investigate dimensional accuracy of the LOM part. It was
found that parameters such as heater, speed, temperature and
nominal layer thickness mainly affect dimensional accuracy in
X and Y directions (Kechagias, 2007b). In 2008, he proposed a
simple model to predict and optimize LOM process
performance using a feed-forward back propagation neural
network (FFBP–NN). It was concluded that this model is a
quick prediction of each performance measurements and can
be used to select optimal process parameters values (Kechagias
and Iakovakis, 2009). Vaezi et al. (2013) reported that quality
of the LOM also requires well-prepared material sheets to
reduce variations in layer thickness and materials content.
Depth of cuts varied with variations of layer thicknesses and
material content so that these variations lead to more damage to
a bonded layer below. In addition, the LOM part can be post-
processed to reaction bonding process during a pyrolysis cycle
to enhance surface quality and laminates bonding (Vaezi et al.,
2013). Chryssolouris et al. (2003) investigated the influence of
different process parameters of LOM on the tensile strength of
LOM part. It was found that the most significant process
parameter affecting the tensile strength of part was layer
thickness. Therefore, it can be concluded that layer thickness can
provide a prediction on tensile strength of part (Chryssolouris
et al., 2003).
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In summary, there have been issues on de-cubing process,
vertical surface roughness and delamination. Development of
online de-cubing process and bridge-supporting algorithm has
solved several issues such as saving energy, post-process time
and complicated structure arose by de-cubing. Research in
mathematical models and neural network were implemented to
enhance bonding of laminates and predict optimal process
parameters. Vertical surface roughness and delamination are
the future challenges to be solved to improve quality. Seven
techniques in AM technology was summarized and compared
in quality point of view, as shown in Table I.
3. Classification of research findings
Researches of QC in AM are being rapidly investigated recently
owing to high feasibility, reliability and growth of mechanical
and material aspects applied to various areas. The first
consideration on AM technology when it comes to QC is that
several steps are classified to achieve design requirement, as
described by Hollister et al. (2015) who studied a splint used in
medical area. This paper designed five steps of the design
control process, as shown in Figure 17. The first step is a design
input considering all parameters on designing and modeling a
part to meet mechanical and specific requirements such as laser
power, speed and particle size. Design output as the second
step comprises tests performed to measure the design input
based on the standard operating procedures by determining the
compressive, bending and opening stiffness of the splint by
using the method of destructive evaluation. The first two steps
are to test sample parts to generate the design variables for
optimized final part being considered in design implementation
as third step. Design verification as fourth step is to ensure the
final manufactured part meets design input via geometric and
mechanical evaluation (e.g. calipers, Micro-CT, etc.). The last
design validation is to test pre-clinical model and human
clinical implantations of final part.
This outline suggested as a good framework for providing
steps of QC in medical-related research. However, there are
drawbacks when figuring out the design variables. It is time-
consuming and wastes materials in making samples for
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Table I Summary and comparison of seven AM techniques in quality point of view

Category Important quality parameters Advantages Disadvantages Advanced skills Challenges

Photopolymer vat Resin viscosity, density and temperature Excellent dimensional accuracy Only UV curable polymer resin Projection SL technique Development of variety vat solution
processes (PVP) Build orientation Good surface finish Material contamination and wastes Accurate custom-design and evaluation Expensive scanning equipment such as
Laser scan speed Biocompatible process Mechanical property limited by resin- processes through MRI and CT MRI and CT
Exposure energy Microscale fabrication based polymer Data analytic and algorithm Resolution
Penetration depth (10 m m) Thermal shrinkage Biomaterial fabrication
Nano/micro scale fabrication
Material jetting Droplet shape, velocity, diameter, viscosity Excellent resolution Nozzle clogging DoD technique Exposure energy
processes (MJP) and surface tension Fast process Cell damage in certain temperature Micro-scale fabrication Nozzle clogging
Jetting frequency, signal width and Excellent dimensional accuracy or frequency Biomaterial fabrication More fabrication freedom on biomaterials
voltage magnitude Multiple material printing capability Nano particles agglomerates causes Real-time close-feedback loop for printing
Substrate temperature and evaporation Microscale fabrication clogging correction through image processing on
rate (100 m m) Low viscosity droplet and depth map
Humidity Self-calibration of print head
Quality control in additive manufacturing

Quality prediction
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng

Binder jetting Powder surface treatment, size, shape, Excellent quality control ability for ceramic Poorer accuracy and surface finish DoD technique Interaction performance between binder
processes (BJP) packing density and distribution and metal fabrication compared to MJP compared with MJP technique Ceramic and metal fabrication and powder
Binder viscosity, surface tension, droplet technique Infiltration process needed for post- Accumulative accuracy of deposited layer
size, velocity and temperature DoD treatment thickness
Printing layer thickness, orientation, Droplet placement
binder saturation and delay time Delay time of applying new layer
Dimensional change during post-process
Extrusion-based Layer thickness, build orientation, raster Fast process Fair resolution FDM technique Resolution

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processes (EBP) width and angle and extrusion Good material properties Staircase effect Data analytic and algorithm Dimensional accuracy
temperature Thermal distortion Post-processing Shape change
Post-processing (exposure time and Thermal shrinkage Optimal build orientation Clogging issues on composites materials
chemical temperature) Low dimensional accuracy
Delamination
Powder bed fusion Powder bed temperature Wide range of materials Fair resolution limited by particle size SLS technique Resolution
processes (PBF) Laser/beam output powder Excellent dimensional accuracy Residual stress Temperature monitoring system Laser output feedback control system in
Powder size Excellent repeatability Porosity Thermal modeling and image processing real time
Atmosphere Good material property Temperature feedback control system Atmosphere control
Real-time defect detection and in-situ
correction
Directed energy Melt pool temperature Wide range of materials Fair resolution Closed-loop controller system for real-time Resolution
deposition Material delivery rate Good material property Thermal stress feedback of temperature, laser output, Surface post-process
processes (DED) Distance between nozzle tip and substrate clad height and delivery rate Atmosphere control
Laser power density
Sheet lamination Heater temperature Fast process Poor resolution LOM technique Resolution
processes (SLP) Layer thickness Sufficient quality on large prototype De-cubing or crosshatching process Burn-out rule Consistent sheet thickness
Laser speed/power Good tensile strength in laminated Delamination Data analytic and algorithm Repositioning precision and accumulation
Rolling speed/pressure direction Shrinkage Online de-cubing process error (cut-then-bond process)
Chamber air temperature Poor tensile strength in Z direction Vertical surface roughness
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Delay time Waste Material damage by laser cut

Orientation Tensile strength in Z direction
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Delamination
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Figure 17 Schematic outline of the splint design control process by reference
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mechanical test and generating optimal design variables. If the
design variables are adjustable during the design and printing
process, the entire process of QC can be more agile and
reliable. Figure 18 shows proposed classification of four main
processes to take account of QC during AM cycle and describes
detail works recently studied and also included in Section 2.
On the basis of the four steps, modeling, printing, post-
treatment, and part evaluation during the entire 3D printing
process, the following four categories are described briefly and
issues are discussed.
3.1 Design process
This is so-called pre-QC considering from raw material’s
quality to model design. Material selection is important
because it may be contaminated or may have air porosities,
which affects directly to the part property. Good design ability
by setting up optimized values of design parameters (e.g. layer
thickness, infill pattern, printing speed and delay, mesh, etc.) is
directly correlated to part’s good quality. Recently, Hollister
et al. (2015) studied on designing splint structure meeting
quantitative clinical requirement by finding optimized design
Figure 18 The proposed classification of the four main processes during AM cycle
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variables and printing parameters generated from mechanical
tests. This approach finally brings the optimized splint part
individually customized for patients who needs perfect clinical
recovery (Hollister et al., 2015). However, it requires a long
time-consuming procedure to fabricate and iterations of
mechanical testing depending on patients to generate optimal
design variables. Recently, one research (Sitthi-Amorn et al.,
2015) investigated on developing real-time printing control
technique to correct design and printing factors in real-time
through closed-feedback loop. This technique analyzes each
printed layer in real-time through the machine vision,
computing depth difference between the layers, and sends
feedback to central computer to control amount of jet droplet
injection. This technique opens up the real-time design process
during printing process, but is limited to MJP. Some
researchers have studied optimizing design parameters by
developing analytical modeling and data-mining based on
quality prediction algorithms as mentioned in Section 2.
However, this research is limited to BJP, FDM and SLP
techniques. There are needs to launch this research in other
printing techniques.
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
3.2 Printing process
This is the so-called in process-QC considering from printing
setup to process finish of part. Agarwala et al. (1996) reported
that internal and surface defects of fabricated wax pattern could
be eliminated by the optimization of FDM parameters
(Agarwala et al., 1996). Likewise, optimized set-up of printing
parameters (e.g. extruder temperature, calibration, pattern,
feed and flow rate, etc.) is critical for the quality. In recently,
researchers have studied the optimization of printing
parameters through real-time monitoring and printing control
as mentioned in Section 2. To date, more research has been
conducted in terms of the printing process compared to other
processes. Farzadi et al. (2015) studied the effects of the layer
printing delay on 3D printed part’s physical and mechanical
properties for better selections of printing parameters and the
best printing conditions (Farzadi et al., 2015). In addition,
Kaveh et al. (2015) designed proper benchmarks (e.g. extruded
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temperature, etc.) and statistical equations calculating
calibration factors (precision and internal cavity) used to
determine or to optimize the value of printing parameters
(Kaveh et al., 2015). Similarly, Hollister et al. (2015) created
standard test coupons with consistent geometry and known
mechanical properties included in every build providing a
standard with which to compare builds at different performing
times because printing parameter should be changed according
to custom devices for different patients (Hollister et al., 2015).
These studies aim to optimize printing process for quality along
with different printing parameters in different 3D printing
techniques such as PBF, EBP, BJP and MJP techniques. As
mentioned above, a research by Sitthi-Amorn et al. (2015) and
Mireles et al. (2015) studied real-time optimization of printing
parameters by closed-feedback loop control in MJP (Sitthi-
Amorn et al., 2015) and in-situ defects correction in EBM
technique (Mireles et al., 2015). These techniques might not be
limited to other 3D printing techniques when it comes to its
application. However, PVP and BJP techniques could not be
applied owing to the inaccessibility of the machine vision
system and IR thermography. Therefore, there is a need for
alternatives for real-time monitoring, closed-feedback loop
printing control, and in-situ defect correction processes to be
applied in these techniques.
3.3 Post process
This is so-called post-QC considering finished part’s quality
after printing process and before part evaluation. Some of the
techniques such as PBF heavily rely on this process for
improving better surface and mechanical property of printed
part through sintering and peening processes. Edwards et al.
(2013) attempted to remove post process on EBM printed alloy
parts by using the elevating bad temperature to minimize
residual stresses (Edwards et al., 2013). In the EBP and SLP
techniques, post processing was used in chemical, thermal and
hot cutter processes for surface quality improvement. However,
this research is limited to certain materials such as ABS
polymer. Therefore, there is a need to launch research on other
materials. In the MJP technique, sintering was adopted as post
process for 3D printed Zr-based ceramic dental prostheses.
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3.4 Evaluation process
This process is to evaluate part’s reliability. This includes all
activities measuring external and internal characteristics of
printed parts whether it meets specific design and mechanical
requirements. The external characteristics are measured by
such a calipers, machine vision, roughness tester, etc., while the
internal characteristics are measured by destructive or non-
destructive evaluations. Some studies have been attempted on
optimizing evaluation process. Muller and De Jean (2015)
developed a novel stereo microscope adapter, called SweptVue,
for cost-effective microfabrication quality control, as shown in
Figure 19. Using this optical technique, surface elevation and
accuracy were examined over multiple regions on plateaus and
hemispherical surfaces, and building errors such as decreased
heights were discovered when approaching the edges of
plateaus, inaccurate height steps and poor tolerances on
channel width (Muller and De Jean, 2015). In addition to
external evaluation, Hollister et al. (2015) used a Micro-CT
method, which non-destructively builds an image of internal
structures allowing quantitative and qualitative measures
(Hollister et al., 2015). These two approaches used traditional
evaluation methods (e.g. calipers and SweptVue) and high tech
evaluation methods (e.g. Micro-CT) for the evaluation of
geometry accuracy and internal structure characteristics.
However, the latter evaluation method requires high cost and
big volumetric facility.
4. Challenges and future trends
As a consequence of what has been discussed above, it is
evident that vast researches and variety approaches have been
studied to improve the quality of AM processes. However, it
has been seen that there are still many issues that occur from
research reviews. To achieve agile and streamlined AM
processes, from design to part evaluation and enhanced quality
AM product, novel AM processes for QC could have the
potential to address these issues:
 Prediction of optimal printing parameter: Iterations works by
external and internal evaluation to find optimal printing
parameters; these evaluations are tedious and not agile. If
it can predict printing parameter based on data analytic
analyses (e.g. data mining) at design process, final part can
be expected with better dimensional accuracy and surface
quality.
 Prediction of mechanical property: As mentioned above,
iterative mechanical testing to meet the requirements
eventually will waste materials. If a designing tool
(software) before printing process has simulation
capability or mechanical prediction module, better design
process can be performed by users based on the predicted
data.
 Robust real-time monitoring and process control in build
process: In MJP, PBF and DED, real-time monitoring and
close-feedback loop control and defect correction during
build process has been recently developed. These
techniques are advanced technology that integrates
machine vision, data collection, image processing and
closed-feedback loop (Sitthi-Amorn et al., 2015). In PVP,
real-time monitoring systems have been used to monitor
temperature, layer height, etc. for data collection but
 Quality control in additive manufacturing
Hoejin Kim, Yirong Lin and Tzu-Liang Bill Tseng
Figure 19 (A) A pair of hard-baked photoresist pads used for a microfluidic device, seen in monochrome when imaged through a traditional
microscope (left). The SweptVue adapter measures the relative depth of the features in the image and colorizes them in software using a jet color map,
with feature heights increasing blue to red (right); (B) depth maps can be exported to MATLAB software for further image processing and 3D plotting;
(C) the SweptVue stereo microscope adapter, shown mounted to an Olympus SZX7 stereo microscope
image processing (computation) and closed-feedback loop
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control. If these can be achieved in other processes, they
can provide better quality and agile AM process.
 Feedback interaction between design or printing process and
part evaluation: Closed-feedback loop recently developed
for correcting design and printing factors in real-time is a
good example of intercommunication between design and
printing processes. There is another research that
compares CT scanned images with initial design model to
calculate dimensional discrepancy. If there is a module or
software that enables feedback of part evaluation (e.g.
inner defect, dimensional inaccuracy and surface crack) to
be considered when redesigning to remove these
discrepancies, high quality of product can be expected in
shorter time. For example, on an unresolvable part defect
in spite of several printing efforts, design software can
adjust design or printing parameter (e.g. printing speed,
extrusion rate, etc.) using the feedback data generated
from part evaluation; therefore, defects can be prevented
before printing process.
 Agile part evaluation: Part evaluation is also time-consuming
like the printing process and waste lots of materials owing to
iterative destructive evaluation. Non-destructive evaluation
(NDE; offline inspection) is needed to enable validation of
process performance. However, it is expensive and requires
skills to operate the machine. If machine vision or NDE
technique can be imbedded into the 3D printer for external
and internal quality evaluation as online inspection, part
evaluation process can be agile and finished in 3D printers
without separated evaluation process. For example, 3D
scanners that are commercially available are imbedded into
3D printers can be used for surface quality evaluation
through image processing right after printing process.
 High speed fabrication and scale: Future technology will
require more rapid and bigger scale customized production
skills. However, in the current technology, the faster printing
process is, the worse its quality will be. Fabrication speed is
significantly correlated to part quality in all techniques and
dependent on part price. Increasing this speed with an
increase in quality will be the challenge in the future of AM.
 Cyber quality control: AM technology can be incorporated
with remote connection for quality monitoring and
control. If all the processed data attained from the sensor
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Volume 24 · Number 3 · 2018 · 645–669
and printing process are displayable and controllable
under remote control, massive and customized AM
productions would be feasible in less time and cheaper
cost of production in the near future.
5. Conclusion
AM technology has reached a crossroad right before being used
as end-part production. Many techniques have been developed
up to now to respond to the demand of high-quality 3D printed
parts but more studies are still required to improve their
systems and quality. This paper presented a review on quality
control in seven different techniques in the AM technology,
and provided detail discussions in each quality process stages.
Most of the AM techniques follow the trend of using in-situ
sensors and cameras to acquire processing data for real-time
monitoring and quality analysis. This effort opens up the in-situ
correction by the closed-feedback loop and image processing.
However, owing to the closed geometry of the 3D printing
system, some techniques such as BJP are not eligible to adopt
this technique. More sophisticated process monitoring and
agile feedback control are required to enable end-product to be
better quality and faster process. Processes such as EBP are
more advanced regarding data analytics and predictive
algorithms-based research regarding mechanical properties and
optimal printing parameters. This data analytics research is
critical for optimization and prediction of design and printing
process. This research effort would lead to artificial control
system that enables to produce perfect quality of AM product.
MJP technique has advanced with systems that are integrated
with closed-feedback loop, machine vision and image
processing to minimize quality issues during printing process. It
is expected that future challenges would use these predictive
algorithms based research and integrated system in the near
future for proved QC-based agile and accurate printing
process.
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Corresponding author
Hoejin Kim can be contacted at: hkim4@miners.utep.edu