General Anatomy Module

Dr. Gamal Taha Abdelhady

Assistant Professor of Anatomy & Embryology

General
Embryology -
1
 General Embryology
◼ By the end of this session the student
should be able to:
1) Describe the steps of gametogenesis
(spermatogenesis, spermiogenesis and oogenisis)

2) Describe the structure & characters of sperm

3) Identify the components of semen

 Definition of Human
Development
◼ Embryology is the study of the
developmental process that occurs in a
single cell (zygote) till baby formation over
a period of 9 months.

◼ Human development is a process that

begins when an ( egg ) oocyte from a
female is fertilized by a sperm
(spermatozoon) from a male.
 Definition of Human
Development
◼ This developmental process is divided into:

1. The embryonic period or period of

organogenesis (the first 8 weeks): the
period where a cell divides and differentiates to
establish an organ

2. The fetal period (week 9 to the end of

pregnancy): a time when differentiation
continues while the fetus grows and gains
weight
 Prenatal Period: before
Birth
◼ 38 weeks (266 days, 9 months) from
conception to birth (average) “fetal” age

◼ Gynecologic timing has been from LMP (last

menstrual period) therefore refers to 40
weeks “gestational” age

◼ LMP is on average two weeks before

ovulation
 Embryonic Period
◼ Extends from fertilization through 8
weeks.

◼ Week 1-3, germ layers (Ecto – Endo-

Mesoderm) are forming.

◼ Week 4 through 8 (month 2) are the

period of organogenesis.
 Embryonic Period
◼ Week 4 is particularly important, as the
initial set-up of all organ systems is
completed in this week.

◼ All the major events of organ formation

and formation of body regions occurs
during the period of organogenesis, which
is completed in the embryonic period.
Fetal Period - Growth
 Gametogenesis
◼ The production of haploid sex cells that
each carry one-half of the cellular genetic
component, the process producing these
cells derived from each parent is called
gametogenesis.

◼ There are two types of gametogenesis.

1. Spermatogenesis (in males)
2. Oogenesis (in females)
 Gametogenesis
◼ The process formation of mature
of
functioning gametes as a pre-step before
fertilization.

◼ It includes changes in the nucleus and the

cytoplasm to:

1. Reduce the number of chromosomes to

1/2 of normal somatic cells (this is done by
meiotic or maturation division).
 Gametogenesis
2. Altering the shape of the germ cell in
preparation for fertilization:

◼ The cytoplasm is increased in the ovum

to provide sufficient nutrition for the
dividing zygote.

◼ The cytoplasm is decreased in the sperm

+ it develops head, neck and tail
 Gametogenesis
◼ The general plan of gametogenesis
passes in 3 stages:

1. Cell proliferation of the primitive germ

cells by repeated mitotic division.

2. Growth of the resulted cells.

3. Maturation by meiotic division.

(In male cells, additional process of
spermiogenesis is added)
 Spermatogenesis
◼ Definition: It is a process by which
complete motile sperms are produced

◼ Start: it starts at puberty and continues into

old age.

◼ Site: in the seminiferous tubules of the

testis.

◼ Duration: It takes about 60-74 days

 Spermatogenesis

1
23-21
 Spermatogenesis
◼ In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes
separate, while in meiosis II, sister
chromatids separate.

◼ Meiosis II produces 4 haploid daughter

cells, whereas meiosis I produces 2 diploid
daughter cells.
23-25
 Spermatogenesis

44+XY

1. Stage of
proliferation
44+XY

2. Stage of
growth 44+XY

3. Stage of 22+X 22+Y

maturation
 Spermiogenesis
◼ Type A (dark) cells, with dark nuclei. These
cells are reserve spermatogonial stem cells.

◼ Type A (pale) cells, with pale nuclei. These

are the spermatogonial stem cells that
undergo active mitosis. These cells divide to
produce Type B cells.

◼ Type B cells (Spermatogonia), which

divide to give rise to primary spermatocytes.
23-29
 Spermiogenesis
◼ Stage of transformation

1. The nucleus condenses into ovoid

chromatin.

2. Aggregation of golgi complex forming a

big acrosomal vesicle then acrosomal
cap.
 Spermiogenesis
3. The 2 centrioles appear in the neck,
the axial filament starts from the
posterior one.

4. Mitochondria: collect in a helical

sheath in the middle piece around the
axial filament.

5. Cytoplasm: most of it is shed.

Axial filament
 Structure of the Sperm
◼ Its length is 60 micron

◼ Head: Acrosomal cap + nucleus.

◼ Neck: Follows the head & contains the centrioles.

◼ Body: Middle piece containing the mitochondria.

◼ Tail: Containing the axial filament.

From spermatogonia till mature sperm- 74 days

 Seminal Fluid
◼ It is composed of 2 main components:
Spermatozoa: produced by the testis.
Fluid secretions from the accessory sex glands: seminal vesicles,
prostate and bulbo-urethral glands.

◼ It is an alkaline fluid that contains fructose, and vitamin C.

◼ The normal amount of one ejaculate is 3-5 c.c., where each c.c.
contains about 100 million sperm. However, men whose semen
contains 20 million sperms per c.c. are probably fertile.
 Seminal Fluid
◼ In seminiferous tubule: sperm immature,
non- motile, incapable of fertilizing ovum

◼ Maturation: Occurs in epididymis.

Changes in glycoprotein of plasma membrane
covering head. Also acquires some motility

◼ Fully motile: only after ejaculation when get

mixed with secretions of prostate gland and
seminal vesicle
 Seminal fluid

In ejaculation,
the spermatozoa
pass through the
rete testis, duct
of epididymis,
vas deferens,
 Seminal fluid

◼ Then to the ejaculatory duct and finally the

urethra .

◼ N.B.: Sperms remain viable (able to

fertilize ova) for only 2 days after
ejaculation
 Abnormalities
✓Abnormal forms of sperms (giant, dwarf,
bicephalic, abnormal head…) may be present in the
semen but normally should not exceed 10% of the
total count.

✓Necrospermia: dead sperms in the ejaculate.

✓Oligospermia: sperm count is below normal

✓Azospermia: Complete absence of sperms in the

semen
 Introduction to Oogenesis
▪ Definition: It is a process by which oognium
is transformed into mature oocyte

◼ Start: from 3rd month of intrauterine life till

birth and arrested (at prophase), then
reactivated at puberty & end at menopause

◼ Site: in the ovary.

 Introduction to Oogenesis
◼ At birth- 400,000 - 600,000 primordial follicle have
primary oocyte arrested in prophase

◼ During childhood most oocyte become atretic

◼ At puberty, each female has around 40,000 oocyte

◼ During reproductive life not more than 500 oocyte

ovulate

◼ In each cycle- 15-20 follicles grow, Usually one

ovulate
 Introduction to Oogenesis
◼ The process in which ovum or egg is produced
along with three polar bodies in a programmed
series of divisions is known as Oogenesis.

◼ Oogenesis occurs in the outermost layers of the

ovaries.

◼ As with sperm production, oogenesis starts with a

germ cell, called an oogonium (plural: oogonia),
but this cell undergoes mitosis to increase in
number, eventually resulting in up to one to two
million cells in the embryo
 1. Stage of
proliferation
(Mitotic Phase)

2. Stage of growth
(No oogonia after
birth)

3. Stage of
maturation
(Miotic Phase)
 Structure of a Mature
Ovum
◼ A fully mature ovum is the largest cell in the body
and is about 130 microns in diameter.

◼ It consists of cytoplasm and a nucleus with its

nucleolus which is eccentric in position and
contains 23 chromosomes (23, X).

◼ During fertilization, the nucleus is converted into a

female pronucleus (nucleus in fertilization phase).

◼ The ovum is surrounded by a cell membrane called

vitelline membrane.
 Structure of a Mature
Ovum
◼ There is an outer transparent mucoprotein
envelope, the zona pellucida. This structure
binds spermatozoa, and is required to
initiate the acrosomal reaction.

◼ The zona pellucida is penetrated by tiny

channels which are thought to be important
for the transport of the materials from the
granulosa cells to the oocyte.
 Structure of a Mature
Ovum
◼ In between the vitelline membrane and the
zona pellucida, there is a narrow space called
perivitelline space which accommodates the polar
bodies.

◼ The human oocyte, after its escape from the

follicle, retains a covering of granulosa cells
known as the corona radiata, innermost layer of
the cells of the cumulus oophorus and is directly
adjacent to the zona pellucida

◼ Its main purpose in many animals is to supply vital

proteins to the cell.
 Oogenesis Spermatogenesis

Differentiation starts in IU life. Starts at puberty

Both divisions are

Meiosis is completed only if
completed before release
fertilization occurs.
of sperms.
Cells may remain dormant for
Duration-64 days
years.
Cells are not equal- one
main cell and one polar body Equal spermatids
are formed.
Secondary oocytes are alike Spermatocytes are of two
-23x. types-23x & 23y
 Ovarian Cycle
◼ Under the influence of LH & FSH.

◼ Regular monthly cycles at puberty.

◼ 15-20 follicles start maturing; only one

reaches full maturity; others degenerate

◼ 1-13 days: proliferation of primary follicle

secondary follicle- Graafian follicle
 Ovarian Cycle
◼ 14 day: Ovulation

◼ Formation of corona radiata

◼ Oocyte transport

◼ 15-28 day: Corpus luteum

◼ Corpus albicans
 Ovarian Cycle
◼ LH surge

◼ Surface of ovary bulges

◼ Prostaglandins also increase; contraction

of ovarian wall.

◼ Oocyte and cumulus oophorous are

extruded.
 Ovarian Cycle
◼ Cumulus oophorous forms corona radiata.

◼ Oocyte is transported by cilia of fallopian

tube.

◼ Cells remaining behind in the ovary develop

luteal pigment-----corpus luteum.

◼ If fertilization does not occur –corpus

albicans is formed in the ovary and shed off.
 Corpus Luteum
◼ Granulosa cells change into luteal cells.

◼ Secrete progesterone

◼ Corpus luteum of menstruation (functional

for 14 days)

◼ Corpus luteum of pregnancy (functional

for 3-4 months)
 EXTRA READING
◼ Two designations that are often confused
are the ploidy of a cell and its N number.
Ploidy refers to the number of copies of
each chromosome present in a cell
nucleus, whereas the N number refers to
the number of copies of each unique
double-stranded DNA molecule in the
nucleus.
 EXTRA READING
◼ Each chromosome contains one or two molecules
of DNA at different stages of the cell cycle
(whether mitotic or meiotic), so the ploidy and the
N number of a cell do not always coincide. Somatic
cells and PGCs (premordial germ cells) have two
copies of each kind of chromosome; hence, they
are called diploid.

◼ In contrast, mature gametes have just one copy of

each kind of chromosome and are called haploid.
Haploid gametes with one DNA molecule per
chromosome are said to be 1N.
 EXTRA READING
◼ In some stages of the cell cycle, diploid cells also
have one DNA molecule per chromosome, and so
are 2N. However, during earlier phases of meiosis
or mitosis, each chromosome of a diploid cell has
two molecules of DNA, and so the cell is 4N.

◼ Meiosis is a specialized process of cell division that

occurs only in the germ line. Figure 1-2 compares
mitosis (A) and meiosis (B). In mitosis (normal cell
division), a diploid, 2N cell replicates its DNA
(becoming diploid, 4N) and undergoes a single
division to yield two diploid, 2N daughter cells.
 EXTRA READING
◼ In meiosis, a diploid germ cell replicates its
DNA (becoming diploid, 4N) and undergoes
two successive, qualitatively different nuclear
and cell divisions to yield four haploid, 1N
offspring. In males, the cell divisions of
meiosis are equal and yield four identical
spermatozoa.

◼ However in females, the meiotic cell divisions

are dramatically unequal and yield a single,
massive, haploid definitive oocyte and three-
minute, non- functional, haploid polar bodies.
◼ For further inquiries PLZ feel free
to contact at any time through
email

gamaltaha@med.asu.edu.eg
gamal.abdelhady@yu.edu.jo