Bd - F - REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE

Salient Features
‰ Chart of Indian Standards for Concrete
‰ Chart of Indian Standard for Concrete Construction
‰ Cement & Cement Concrete
‰ Storage of Cement
‰ Standard specifications for Cement
‰ Special types of Cement
‰ Estimated quantity of materials required per cubic meter of compacted mortar or concrete
‰ Field test on Cement concrete - position & properties
‰ Aggregates, Grading Limits of Fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, all - in aggregates
‰ Sizes of Samples required for various tests
‰ Field test for coarse aggregate, bulking of sand
‰ Water for concrete mixing
‰ Concrete admixtures, Types and uses
‰ Formwork and scaffolding, tolerance, erection
‰ Reinforcement, Bar types and identification
‰ Some hints on bending
‰ Specification for H.Y.S.D. / M.S. for concrete reinforcement
‰ Cold Bend test & Rebend test
‰ Cover for reinforcement
‰ Some notes on detailing of reinforcement
‰ Batching and Mixing of concrete on site
‰ Transportation placing & compaction of concrete
‰ Vibrating concrete
‰ Characteristics & applications of internal vibrator
‰ Jointing concrete [control (construction) joints]
‰ Curing Concrete
‰ Finishing and Curing Concrete
‰ Finishing Tools
‰ Standard Cement Consumption
‰ Do’s and Don’t
The notes attached herewith are for information
only. The Rates of the DSR have no bearing on
the notes enclosed herewith.
In case of any dispute regarding interpretation
of item it’s specifications etc. the reference to
original specifications shall be made.

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 INDIAN STANDARDS FOR CONCRETE
CHART 1 CONCRETE WORKABILITY
IS : 1199-59
NOMINAL MIX
READY MIX
SETTING TIME
CONCRETE
DESIGN MIX IS : 8142-76
TEST ON IS : 4926-76
IS : 10262-82
FRESH ANALYSIS
SAMPLING SP : 23
CONCRETE IS : 1199-59
IS : 1199-59
ACCEPTANCE PERMEABILITY
TESTING CRITERIA (Strength) IS : 3085-65
IS : 516-59 IS : 456-78
IS : 9013-78

CORE TEST LOAD TEST CUBE TESTS

CEMENT AGGREGATES TESTS WATER TESTS ADMIXTURES

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IS : 393-70 IS : 2386 (Pt 1 To 8)-63 IS : 456-78 IS : 3025-1964

IS : 11262-85 FLYASH OTHERS

FLYASH FINE COARSE LIGHT WEIGHT IS : 10890-84
AA, RA
IS : 5512-83 IS:3812-82 (ICWPC)
WRA, AEA
IS : 5513-76
REQUIREMENTS
TESTS INSTRUMENTS IS : 5514-69 IS:1344-81 IS:2645-75
AND TESTS
IS : 5515-83
IS : 5516-69 IS : 9103-79
PHYSICAL CHEMICAL IS : 5536-69
IS : 4031 IS : 4032-85 IS : 9459-80 WHITE SULPHATE
(Pt. 1 TO 13)-88 IS : 10078-82 IS : 8042-1978 RESISTING PC
IS : 12330-86

OPC PORTLAND SLAG PPC

RAPID HARDENING HIGH SUPER
IS : 455-76 IS : 1489-76 PC ALUMINA SULPHATED
IS : 8041-78 IS : 6452-72 IS : 6909-73
33 Gr 43 Gr 53 Gr
IS : 269-76 IS : 8112-78 IS : 12269-86
 INDIAN STANDARDS FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
CHART 2 CONSTRUCTION

SPLICING
DESIGN MIX (SP : 23) IS : 456-78 FORMWORK
REINFORCEMENT
MANUFACTURE IS : 10262-82
OF CONCRETE WELDING DESIGN
IS : 1786-85
(sp : 34) IS : 2751-79 CONSTRUCTION
NOMINAL MIX IS : 456-78
IS : 9417-79 TOLERANCE
STRIPPING
IS : 456-78
MIXING BATCHING BENDING &
MATERIAL
IS : 456-78 IS : 4925-68 FIXING
IS : 1331-71
IS : 2502-63
IS : 3337-78
IS : 4326-76
CONSTRUCTION TRANSPORTATION IS : 2750-64
IS : 280-78
JOINT PLANNING IS : 4014 (Pt.1)

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COMPACTION IS : 883-70
IS : 456-78 IS : 456-78 MIXERS
IS : 4990-69
IS : 2366-63
CURING VIBRATIONS IS : 4925-70 SPECIAL
IS : 456-78 IS : 2505-80 IS : 1791-85 REQUIRES IN
EARTH QUAKE
IS : 2506-85 IS : 5892-70 ZONE
HOT/COLD WEATHER
IS : 2514-64 IS : 12119-87
IS : 7861 (Pt.1)-75 IS : 4326-76
IS : 4656-68
IS : 7861 (Pt.2)-81 (SP : 34)
IS : 3366-65
UNDER WATER CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
IS : 3558-83
IS : 456-78 NBC : 83
IS : 7246-74
IS : 11998-87
IN SEA WATER
SAFETY IN MEASUREMENT
IS : 456-78 CONSTRUCTION (SP : 27)
AGGRESIVE SOILS/WATER IS : 3696 (Pt.1)-66 IS : 1200 (Pt.1,2,5,8,
IS : 456-78 IS : 4014 (Pt.2)-67 9,11,12,13,15,23-87)
 CEMENT AND CEMENT CONCRETE

CEMENT :- Use of Port land Pozzolana cement may be permitted only in plain concrete
members.

Under severe conditions of sulphate content in sub soil water, special literature
on precautions to be taken with regard to the use of special types of cement
with low C3A content may be referred to. Durability criterion like minimum
cement content and water cement ratio etc., should also be given due
consideration.

ADMIXTURES:- No material other than the essential ingredients i.e. cement, aggregate and
water shall ordinarily be used in the preparation of concrete or mortar. But
the competent authority may permit use of admixtures for imparting special
characteristics to the concrete or mortar on satisfactory evidence, that the
use of such admixtures does not adversely affect the properties of concrete
or mortar particularly with respect to strength, volume, changes, durability
and has no deleterious effect on reinforcement.

STORAGE OF CEMENT

The cement shall be stored by observing following instructions for its effective use and proper
inspection and least detoriation and damage.

1. It shall permit easy access for proper inspection and identification.

2. It shall be stored in suitable weather tight structures to protect the cement from dampness.

3. Bags shall be piled not more than 10 bags high and arranged in header and stretcher
fashion as close as possible.

4. The cement bags denote the manufactured period in terms of week of the year. This should
be noted and cement manufactured earlier shall be used earlier.

5. Do not apply hooks while lifting bags.

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 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR CEMENT
SPECIAL TESTS

SR. NO. Name of test Specified results Frequency and Remarks

OPC PPC

Ratio of percentage 1.02, - Since cement leaving the

of lime to percentage
of silica Alumina and
iron oxide.
Ratio of % alumina
to that of iron oxide
0.66 factory undergoes Q.C. tests,
generally cement is not
required to be tested
chemically. However, in case of
0.66 doubtful quality, the cement
may be got tested chemically.

Weight of insoluble 1.5% * X + 2.0 (100-x)

residue 100

Weight of magnesia 6% 6%

Total sulphur content 2.75% 2.75%

Calculated as S0
3
sulphuric anhydride

5%
Total loss on 5%
ignition
* Where X(i) declared percentage
of pozzolona in given cement.
SPECIAL TESTS
OPC PPC

Fineness Test
a) After sieving the
residue by weight As per requirement

on 90 micron /
Indian standard
sieve 10% 5%

Blaines air
permeability method
specific surface
Cm2 / gm 22.50 3000 -- do --

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 OPC PPC

Soundness test by Le Chatelier < <

method Expansion 10 mm 10 mm The Le Chatelier method may be used for cement
having magnesia content of less than 3%. For
magnesia of more than 3% the cement will be
tested by Auto Clave Test where expansion.
<
0.8%

Setting time by Vicats’ apparatus

a) Initial setting time in minutes <30 minutes <30 min. for each consignment of cement

b) Final setting time minutes <600 minutes<600 min. for each consignment of cement.

Compressive strength of at least

3 mortar cubes (area of face 50
Sq.Cm) composed of one part
of cement 3 parts of standard
sand and P/4 +3% (of combined
mass cement plus sand) water
Where P=% of water required to
produce a paste of standard
consistency.

a) 72 Hr. + 1 Hrs. <160 Kg/cm 2

b) 168 Hr. + 2 Hrs <220 Kg/cm <220 Kg/cm

2 2

c) 672 Hrs. Not specified <310 Kg/cm 2

If single size Encore sand is used.

a) 72 Hr. + 1 Hrs. <115 Kg/cm 2

For PPC average
drying shrinkage of
mortar shall not be
more than 0 — 15%

b) 168 Hr + 2 Hrs. <175 Kg/cm 2

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 SPECIAL TYPES OF CEMENT

Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement (SRPC) (IS.12330:1986)

Concrete is vulnerable to sulphatic attack, because the tricalcium aluminate, constituent of Portland
cement reacts with sulphate ions in presence of free lime which is liberated during the hydration of
the cement in order to form calcium sulphaluminate hydrates (ETTRINGITE). These ETTRINGITES)
occupy larger volume than original reaction compound, giving internal stresses. This leads cracking
in concrete, & subsequently disintegration.
Concrete made with (SRPC) is less vulnerable to sulphatic attack because its C3A content is
much lower.
Use of SRPC is recommended [As per I.S 456 - 1978] where sulphate concentration in soil exceeds
0.2% and 30 parts per 1,00,000 in ground water.

Concreting in sulphate-environment :-

The SRPC is available in following types i.e. as per I.S. 1 2330-1988.

Moderate sulphate resisting portiand cement (MSRC)
High sulphate resisting Portland cement HSRC -1 ; (HSRC - 2)

As per concentration of sulphates available proper selection of SRPC is done and good quality of
concrete is achieved by exercising control on section by concrete making material.

Compaction and curing specifying maximum free water cement ratio and minimum cement content
as per (I.S.456-1978 Table - 20)

For very high sulphate concentrations protective coating based on asphalt , chlorinated rubber,
epoxy or polyethylene should be considered.

The typical test results of SRPC as per I.S.12330 - 1988 is as follows.

C3A content : 2.5

Fineness M2/kg : 32.5

Compression strength of SRPC

3 days : 28 Mpa

7 days : 38 Mpa

28 days : 47 Mpa

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Portland slag Cement :- This cement (I.S.455:1976) is produced by using blast furnace slag.

The usefulness of this portland slag cement is as follows:

i) For all plain and reinforced concrete construction.
ii) Mass concrete structures like dams, reservoir, swimming pools, river embankments, bridges
etc., where low heat of hydrations and resistance to alkali - silica reactions are desired.
iii) Structures in aggressive environments where chemical and mildly acidic waters are encountered.
iv) Massive constructions, dykes, Wharves etc. where sulphatic water is present.
v) Sewerages where attack by sulphuric bacteria is known, converting the water to acidic nature.
vi) Road constructions in marshy areas.

CHARACTERISTIC IN PSC

PSC % of 28 days Concrete Strength

28 days 90 days 360 days
100 127 156

Compressible strength Kg/cm2

PSC 3 days 7 days 28 days
200 300 405

Cement content in concrete 300 Kg/m3

Water cement ratio 0.59

Concrete strength for various ages (Kg/cm2)

3 days 95
28 days 230
90 days 270
180 days 305
1 year 310
2 year 343
3 year 355
Heat of Hydration :- It has low heat of hydration.
Work - ability :- It is better than O.P.C.
Higher impermeability :- PSC concrete is much higher impermeable than OPC.
Resistance of PSC Concrete to aggressive environments
PSC concrete is more resistant to components of aggressive environment because in PSC CALCIUM
HYDROXIDE forms stable compound that resists detoriating reactions of concrete.
Shrink Kemp
It is non rusting, non metallic free from any iron and oxidising, agents and it is chloride free.
Application :- It is mainly used in grouting machine base plates anchor bolts, and drill holes
in rock and concrete structures .

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Availability :- It is available in following ranges.
Shrink Kemp - 10 General Purpose ( Plastic).
Shrink Kemp - 20 Free flow high strength.
Shrink Kemp - 30 Free flow high ultimate strength.
Shrink Kemp - 40 Free flow unique high early strength.
SHRINK KEMP 10 20 30 40
Minimum 12 Hrs — — — 200
1 day — 100 280 350
3 days 150 280 500 400
7 days 210 380 650 500
28 days 320 500 780 —-
CASAL :- Early High Strength Binder
The casal is quick setting, high strength binder used for quick repairs in all types of concrete works
like, repair to foundation with blocks floors, roads, runways, bridges etc.
It gains 80 to 90 % strength in 3 days.
It has high sulphate resistance and is equally useful in low near freezing temperatures.
How to use :-
CASAL should not be mixed with any other type of binder/Cement/Admixture.
CASAL is used in combination with inert fillers. For small areas /quantities, it is mixed with natural
well graded sand below 6 mm. and for larger area it is mixed with stone chips & quantity of water
added shall not exceed 40% by weight of binder.
For repairs :- The surface shall be thoroughly cleaned to expose coarse aggregate over entire
area and fresh mix shall be placed over it. It is usually mixed in 1:3 by weight with inert material.
Strength gained is 12 Hrs. - 200 Kg/cm2
1 Day - 300 Kg/cm2
3 Day - 350 Kg/cm2
Ordinary Port land cement is usually available in 3 grades i.e 33 grade, 43 grade and 53 grade.
Salient requirements :- 33, 43 & 53 grade are as below.
Requirement 33 grade 43 grade 53 grade
IS-269-1989 IS-8112-1976 IS-12699-1987
Compressive strength (MPA)
3 days 16 23 27
7 days 22 33 37
28 days 33 43 53
Insoluble residue (max %) 4 2 2
Loss on Ignition (max %) 5 5 4
CONCRETE :- The reduction in cement content is seen as an advantage by concrete producers
by using high grade cement. But the drawback which need to be recognised and taken into account,
is the possible adverse effect on durability of concrete. If concrete is designed only for strength
criteria then the required strength can be achieved with considerable less cement content. But in
order to maintain the workability the water cement ratio is increased. This reduced cement content
needing higher water cement ratio which is seen as ‘Economy’ can produce more permeable
concrete with reduced protection to reinforcing steel and poor resistance to attack and in aggressive
environment.
The use of higher grade of cement will not automatically result in good quality of concrete. Adopting
good concreting practice will help to achive high quality and durable concrete.
Easily stripping of form work, propagated as an added “ Economy” due to high early strength
attained by concrete; can lead to the evaporation of mixing water and if the curing is in adequate it
can have further adverse effect on permeability and hence durability of concrete.

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 ESTIMATED QUANTITY OF MATERIALS REQUIRED PER CUBIC METER OF COMPACTED MORTAR OR CONCRETE
Cement Fine Coarse Water Water ltrs. Cement Crushed
aggregate aggregate Cement per 50 kg by weight by number Sand ltrs. Stone
ratio bag of Kg. of bags litres
cement

1 1 —- 0.25 12.50 1.005 20.1 697 —-

1 1.5 —- 0.28 14.00 810 16.02 844 —-
1 2 —- 0.30 15.00 680 1 3.06 944 —-
1 2.5 —- 0.35 17.50 580 11.06 1007 —-
1 3 —- 0.40 20.00 505 10.01 1052 —-
1 4 —- 0.53 26.50 395 7.09 1097 —-
1 6 —- 0.70 35.00 280 5.6 11 67 —-
1 8 —- 0.90 45.00 220 4.4 1222 —-
1 1 2 0.30 15.00 550 11.00 382 764
1 2 2 0.42 21.00 425 8.5 590 590

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1 1.5 3 0.42 21.00 395 7.9 411 822
1 1.66 3.33 0.48 24.00 360 7.2 417 834
1 2 3 0.50 25.00 355 7.1 493 740
1 2 3.50 0.53 26.50 330 6.6 458 802
1 2 4 0.55 27.50 305 6.1 424 848
1 2.50 3.50 0.57 28.50 305 6.1 529 741
1 2.50 4 0.60 30.00 385 5.7 495 792
1 3 4 0.65 32.50 265 5.3 552 736
1 2.50 5 0.65 32.50 255 5.1 443 886
1 3 5 0.69 34.50 240 4.8 500 833
1 3 6 0.75 37.50 215 4.3 448 896
1 4 8 0.95 47.50 165 3.3 458 916

NOTES : 1. The table is based on the assumption that the voids in sand and crushed stone are 40 and 45%, respectively.
2. Air content of 1% has been assumed.
3. For gravel aggregate decrease cement by 5%, increase sand by 2% and Coarse aggregate in proportion to fine aggregate in mix.
4. No allowance has been made in the table for bulking and wastage.
 CONCRETE

The concrete shall be in grades designated below where the characteristic strength is defined as
the strength of material below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall.

Grade Designation Specified Characteristic Compressive

Strength of 150mm cubes at 28 days in MPa MPa =1N/mm2

M-15 15
M-20 20
M-25 25
M-30 30
M-35 40
M-40 50

Nominal mix concrete may be used for concrete of grades M-15 and M-20 and not for any higher
grades.

PROPORTIONS FOR NOMINAL MIX CONCRETE

Grade of Total quantity of dry Proportion of fine Quantity of water

Concrete aggregate by mass per aggregates to coarse per 50 Kg of Cement
50 kg of cement to be aggregates (By mass) (Max)
taken as sum of the
individual masses of
fine and coarse aggregates

M-15 350 Kg Generally 1:2 Subject 32 lit

to an upper limit of 1:1.5
and lower limit 1:2.5 30 lit

The proportion of fine to coarse aggregate should be adjusted from upper limit to lower limit
progressively as the grading of fine aggregates become finer and the maximum size of coarse
aggregate becomes larger. Graded coarse aggregates shall be used.

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 FIELD TEST ON CEMENT

[A] FIELD TESTS FOR FINDING OUT ADULTERATION OF CEMENT WITH STONE OR COAL DUST

1) Purpose of the test :- The adulteration tests are required to be done to ascertain that
cement is free from any adulteration.
a) A sample of cement shall be heated on a steel plate for 20 minutes on a stove. The adulterated
sample changes its colour.
b) A normal solution of HCL shall be added to an equal volume of water and the resultant
solution shall be slowly added to small quantity of cement of about 10 gms taken in a test
tube. If any large insoluble residue is noticed it indicates presence of siliceous materials.
Efflorescence and frothing indicates presence of admixture of lime stone dust.
c) A small quantity of cement is taken in a test tube or a measuring cylinder and water added
till the container is half full. The mixture is shaken and allowed to settle for few minutes. The
Cement particles settle down and the coal ash particles are found to be floating or in
suspension as they are lighter.

[B] FIELD TEST TO ASCERTAIN THE HARDENING PROPERTY OF CEMENT

3 small pats each 3" x 3" x 1" in size are made from the sample of cement to be tested with 28% of
water by weight. The pats are covered with moist cloth for 24 hours.
The pat should resist an impression of thumb nail after 24 hours.
After 48 hours it should be difficult to break it with fingers. If the cement is not good the pat can be
broken much easily.
However, the first trial does not necessarily indicate that the cement is bad. The cement may be
slow setting. Therefore, one more pat may be tested after 48 hours of curing. If this shows no
improvement the cement is definitely of a doubtful type and needs further testing in laboratory.

BASIC PERMISSIBLE STRESSES OF CONCRETE

Properties CONCRETE GRADES

Permissible stresses M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40

1. Modules of Elasticity
EC Design value (GPA) 20 25 28 31 33 36
2. Permissible direct
compressive stresses
allowable Mpa 3.8 5.0 6.2 7.5 8.5 8.5
3. Permissible flexural
compressive stresses
allowable Mpa 5.0 6.9 9.3 10.00 11.50 11.5
4. Permissible tensile
stresses Mpa 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.23 0.25 0.25

For calculation of stresses in section a modular ratio ES/EC = 10 may be adopted.

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 CEMENT CONCRETE FOR STRUCTURES
For reinforced cement concrete works the minimum grade of concrete to be used under
moderate conditions of exposure and severe conditions of exposures shall be M-20 and M-25
respectively.
GRADE OF CONCRETE TARGET MEAN STRENGTH
M – 20 30 Mpa Mpa = 1 N/mm2
M – 25 36 Mpa
M – 30 42 Mpa
Aggregate shall consist of (1) coarse aggregates of sizes 4.75 to 40 mm and (ii) fine aggregates of
sizes 0.15 to 4.75 mm but the actual size of aggregates to be used on any work shall be in accordance
with the following clauses.
The preferred nominal size of aggregate is 20 mm for reinforced concrete, larger sizes upto 31.5
mm may be permitted in special cases when there is no restriction to flow of concrete in a section.

If smaller sizes are necessary for any element 10 mm and 12.5 mm may be used.
For plain concrete, preferred nominal size shall be 20 mm and 40 mm and larger size may be
permitted only in special cases subject to supplementary specifications and precautions.
The minimum cement content and maximum water cement ratio shall be as under:

Conditions of exposure Plain concrete Reinforced concrete

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

cement water cement water
content cement content cement
kg/cum. ratio kg/cum ratio
1. Severe Marine enviro-
nment alternate wetting 310 0.45 400 0.40
and drying combined
with freezing and
buried in soil having
corrosive effect.

2. Moderate other than 250 0.50 310 0.45

those mentioned above.

The minimum cement content is based on 19 mm aggregate. For 37.50 mm aggregate it should be
reduced by 10 percent. For portion of structures in contact with water where the Velocity and bed
material are likely to cause erosion of concrete, the condition of exposure be assumed severe.

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 AGGREGATES
FINE AGGREGATES:- I.S.383 —1970 defines aggregate as most of which passes through 4.75 mm sieves. Fine aggregates are
differentiated in four zones.
Grading zone I :- Suitable for making concrete.
Grading zone II :- Suitable for making any concrete.
Grading Zone III :- Suitable for making any concrete.
Grading Zone IV :- Not recommended for reinforced concrete unless tests are made to ascertain the
suitability for proposed mixes.
Grading limits for fine aggregates with respect to percentage passing is given below.

GRADING LIMITS FOR FINE AGGREGATES

I.S SIEVE DESIGNATION Percentage Passing

Grading Grading Grading Grading
Zone I Zone II Zone III Zone IV

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10 mm 100 100 100 100
4.75 mm 90—100 90—100 90—100 95—100
2.36 mm 60— 95 75—100 85—100 95—100
1.18 mm 30— 70 55— 90 75—100 90—100
600 micron 15— 34 35— 59 60— 79 80—100
300 micron 5— 20 8— 30 12— 40 15— 50
150 micron 0— 10 0— 10 0— 10 0— 15
 COARSE AGGREGATE :- I.S.383-1970 defines as aggregate most of which is retained on 4.75 mm sieves I.S.456 stipulates that
nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate should be as large as possible within limits of specified but in no case greater than 1/4th of
the maximum thickness of members. For heavily reinforced concrete members size should be restricted to 5 mm less than the clear
distance between main bars or 5 mm less than the maximum cover. Plums of 160 mm and above can be used in plain concrete upto
maximum limit of 20 %. For reinforced concrete works nominal size of 20 mm is generally considered satisfactory.

GRADING LIMITS FOR COARSE AGGREGATES

I.S.SIEVE Percentage passing for single Percentage passing for graded

Designation sized aggregate of nominal size aggregate of nominal size.
63 mm 40 mm 20 mm 16 mm 12.50 mm 10 mm 40 mm 20 mm 16 mm 12.5 mm

80 mm 100 — — — — — 100 — — —
63 mm 85—100 100 — — — — — — — —
40 mm 0—30 85-100 100 — — — 95—100 — — —

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20 mm 0—5 0—20 85—100 100 — — 30—70 95—100 100 100
16 mm — — — 85—100 100 — — — 90—100 —
12.5 mm — — — — 85—100 100 — — — 90—100
10 mm 0—5 0—5 0—20 0—30 0—45 85—100 10—35 25—55 30—70 40—85
4.75 mm — — 0—5 0—5 0—10 0—20 0—5 0—10 0—10 0—10
2.36 mm — — — — — 0—5 — — — —

Shape of aggregates :- Rounded well rounded aggregates require less water and cement for a given workability of all other shapes, as
round particles have less surface area. Generally, preferred for pumped concrete. Rounded aggregates generally tend to have a stronger
aggregate mortar bond and result in concretes of substantially the same compressive strength for given cement content.

Irregular or partly rounded :- Can be used by suitably proportioning the fine aggregates to give desired workability.
Angular :- Most commonly produced and utilised aggregate.
Flaky :- Not recommended for Concrete works.
 All in Aggregate :- I.S 383-1930 defines as materials composed of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate.
If combined aggregates are available they need not be separated in to fine and coarse aggregate but necessary adjustments may be
made in grading by addition of single sized aggregates.

GRADING LIMITS FOR ALL IN AGGREGATE

I.S.SIEVE DESIGNATION PERCENTAGE PASSING, FOR ALL IN AGGREGATE OF

40 mm nominal size 20 mm nominal size

80 mm 100 —-
40 mm 95 — 100 100
20 mm 45 — 75 95 — 100
4.75 mm 25 — 45 30 — 50
600 micron 8 — 30 10 — 35
150 micron 0—6 0—6

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 SIZES OF SAMPLES REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS TESTS
TEST Minimum Sample Size
To be available in to be tested
the laboratory
Sieve analysis kg kg
maximum size present
in substantial proportions.
63 mm . 150 50
50 mm. 150 35
40 mm. or 31.5 mm. 50 15
25 mm. 15 5
20 mm. or 16 mm. 10 2
12.5 mm. 5 1
10 mm. 2 0.5
6.3 mm. 2 0.2
4.75 mm. 2 0.2
2.36 mm. 2 0.1
Determination of material
finer than 75 micron.
Maximum size present
in substantial proportions.
40 mm. & above 20 5
20 mm. 10 2.5
10 mm. 10 2.0
4.75 mm. 5 0.5
Determination of clay lumps
size of particles making up
the samples.
above 400 mm. 20 5
40 mm. — 20 mm. 15 3
20 mm. — 10 mm. 10 2
10 mm. — 4.75 mm. 5 1
Determination of clay silt
of fine dust
(By Sedimenation method).
Maximum size present in
substantial proportion
63 mm. —25 mm. 30 6
20 mm. —12.5 mm. 10 0.5
4.75 mm. smaller 10 0.3
Determination of light
weight pieces (Coal & lignite).
Maximum Size of aggregate
80 mm. 50 10
40 mm. 25 5
20 mm. 15 3
6.3 mm. 5 0.2

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 SIZES OF SAMPLE REQUIRED FOR TESTS CONTD. -
TEST Minimum sample size Test Minimum sample size
To be available to be to be available to be
in laboratory tested in laboratory tested
kg kg kg kg
Determination of Determination 30 7
soft particles. aggregate
crushing value.
Maximum size of Determination of 30 7
Aggregate “10 % fines” value
50 mm 40 mm 60 12
40 mm 25 mm 30 4.5 Determination of 5 1
aggregate impact
value
25 mm 20 mm 10 1.5 Determination of 30 6
aggregate abrasion
value by use of the
Deval machine
20 mm - 12.5 mm 5 0.6
12.5 mm 10 mm 5 0.5
Estimation of Determination of 300 50
organic impurity. aggregate abrasion
value by use of the
Los Angeles machine
Determination of Determination of
sp. gr. & water aggregate soundness
absorption
Aggregate
Larger than
10 mm. 10 2 coarse aggregate 60 10
10 mm. - 4.75 mm 5 1
smaller than 3 0.5 Fine aggregate 10 1
4.75 mm
Determination of
bulk density and
voids
Maximum size
of aggregate
over 40 mm. 150 60
40 mm. — 4.75mm 100 30
Less than 4.75mm 20 6

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 FIELD TEST FOR COARSE AGGREGATE

Sieve analysis be carried out to find out the grading of the coarse aggregate
Field test for fine aggregate

A- Sieve Analysis

B- Silt Content. The limit of silt content should not exceed 4% by volume (I.S.Specifies maximum
limit of silt content as 4% by weight, limit of 4 % by volume is mentioned assuming the
specific gravity of sand and silt to be same)

C- Organic impurities

D- Moisture and Absorption

BULKING OF SAND FOR VARIOUS MOISTURE CONTENT

Moisture percent Percentage Bulking in

Fine sand Medium sand Coarse Sand
1. 16 8 6
2. 26 16 12
3. 32 22 15
4. 36 27 17
5. 38 29 18
6. 37 28 18
8. 38 29 18
10. 37 28 16
12. 28 19 8
15. 22 12 2
17. 18 7 0
20. 9 0 0
27. 0 0 0

Sand is classified as fine, medium and coarse in accordance with its’ fineness
modulus as follows:
Fine sand F.M. 2.20 to 2.60
Medium sand F.M.2.60 to 2.90
Coarse Sand F.M.2.90 to 3.20

33
WATER * Water distributes the cement evenly, so that every
FOR particles of the aggregate is coated with it and
CONCRETE MAKING brought into intimate contact with other ingredients
* It reacts chemically with cement and brings about
setting and hardening of cement which is called
hydration.
The purpose of * Water lubricates the mix and gives it the workability
water in concrete is required to place and compact properly.
three fold
* It is important that water used in concrete be free from
impurities. Generally it should be of potable quality.
QUALITY * Bore water would need checking before using because
OF it often contains impurities which affect setting times
WATER and reduce concrete strength.
* Sea water is not suitable for reinforced concrete
strength
* IS:456 - 1978 gives the maximum possible limits
of solids as given below.
DETAILS OF PREMISSIBLE
LIMIT OF SOLIDS
Maximum
Organic 200 PPM
Inorganic 3000 PPM
Sulphate (as S04) 500 PPM
Chloride (as CI) 2000 PPM for plain concrete
and 1000 PPM for R.C.C.
Suspended Matters 2000 PPM
PH value 6 to 8

ADMIXTURES To control the rheological properties of fresh concrete

FOR IS : 456 - 1978 permits the use of admixtures in
CONCRETE concrete and stipulates, the admixtures shall
conforming to IS: 9103-1979.

34
 Remember-Admixtures are not substitute
for bad concrete practices

IS: 9103 -1979 defines

admixture as a
material, other than The following types of admixtures are covered
water, aggregate and by IS:9103-1979
hydraulic cement used
• Accelerating Admixtures or Accelerators
as an ingredient of
• Retarding Admixtures
concrete and added to
• Water-Reducing Admixtures
batch immediately
• Air-Entraining Admixtures
before or during its
mixing to modify one or
more of the properties
of concrete in the
plastic or hardened
state.

ACCELERATING
ADMIXTURES
Normally used Accelerators are Calcium
PURPOSE: To Chloride, Thriethanolamin, Stannus Chloride,
increase the rate of Ferrous Chloride, Sodium thio Sulphate,
hydration of hydraulic Hardened Cement Fines. These accelerators
cement, to shorten the are not to be used in prestressed concrete & to
time of set, or Increase be avoided in RCC works.
the rate of hardening or
strength development
(Exposed to cold
climates, for repair,
works, etc.)

RETARDERS
PURPOSE : To retard
setting of cement
paste, and hence of
mixtures such as Commonly used retarders are sugar,
mortars or concrete carbohydrate derivatives soluble zink salts,
containing cement soluble borates and others.
(For hot climate, for
long haul, etc.)

35
 WATER REDUCING Commonly used WRA’s are based on Ligno
ADMIXTURES Sulphonates - a by-product from Paper lndustry,
OR WORKABILITY Polymers based on sulphonated melamine and
AIDS To increase naphthaline, poly hydroxy and poly hydroxicarboxillic
workability of freshly acid components.
mixed mortar or
concrete without Commercially available superplasticizers (HWRA)
increasing water are grouped into four categories
content or to maintain • Sulphonated melamine Formaldehyde
workability with condensates
reduced amount of • Sulphonated naphthalene Formaldehyde
water. These are condensates
generally called • Modified Lignosulphonates.
Plasticizers (Water • Melamine formaldehyde and Naphthelene
Reducing Admixtures- sulphonate
WRA) and
Superplasticizers
(High range Water
Reducing Admixtures)
(HWRA)

AIR ENTRAINING
ADMIXTURES
PURPOSE:To cause
air to be incorporated in These admixtures can be stabilised wood resins,
the form of minute
sulphonated organic compounds, animal and
stable bubbles in the
vegetable fats, alkyle sulphonate, hydroxy carboxilic
concrete or mortar
acid, sulphonated hydrocarbons, naphthalene
during mixing, usually
sulphonates, sulphonated lignins.
to increase workability
and resistance to
freezing and thawing
and disruptive action of
de-icing salts.

Apart from above, water retaining admixtures which reduce the loss of water by a reduction of the
bleeding, water repellent admixtures to reduce the capillary absorption of hardened concrete,
corrosion inhabiting admixtures which reduce the risk of corrosion of embedded metallic elements
by chemical action and surface hardners are also used.

36
Concrete Admixtures
Plasticisers

a) Water reducer/Plasticiser - Chloride free.

• IS : 9103 - 1979 certification.
• Increases workability, density and strength without increase in cement.
• Cement saving - without loss of workability or strength.
Uses: All structural and general concrete where improved density and quality are required. Cement
saving where excess cement proved necessary to obtain target strength.

b) Water reducer/high performance Plasticiser - Chloride free.

• Complies to BS : 5075 - part 1, ASTM C494 Types A & D & IS:9103-1979.
• High water reduction on minimum dosage.
• High early strength.
• Helps to maintain high workability, extends setting time for concrete placement.
Uses: Significant cement saving can be made without reduction in strength and workability. Used
for all structural concrete where improved density and quality are required. Can be used as
a retarding, water-reducing admixture at higher dosages.

Superplasticisers :
Complies to IS : 9103-1979, BS,ASTM Standards - Chloride Free

a) High Workability aid.

• IS:9103-1979 certification.
• Very high workability and strength increase without increase in cement.
• Cement saving - without loss of workability or strength.
• High quality concrete with accelerated early strength.
Uses: Production of precast elements- beams, shell forms and railway sleepers. East compaction
in heavily reinforced concrete-bridges, foundations, columns, beams and narrow formwork
units.

b) High range water reducer

• Very high workability aid.
• Provides high water reduction without loss of workability.
• High ultimate strengths can be achieved.
Uses: Speeds up construction, increases workability and cohesion. Aids pumping by reducing
line friction and dry packing. Low porosity resulting in substantially improved water penetration
resistance.

37
 Retarding Plasticisers :
Water reducer/retarder - Chloride free.
• IS : 9103-1979 certification.
• Retards setting time-extends workability without affecting long-term strength.
• Prevents ‘cold Joints’ where delays upto 3 hours or more occur between pours.
Uses: Avoidance of ‘ cold joints’ where delays in transport or placing of concrete occur. Towers,
chimneys, high-rise buildings, using slipform shutters, tunnels/shaft lining, offshore
construction and piles.

Air Entraining Agents :

Water reducer/Air Entraining Agent - Chloride free.
• IS-9103-1979 certification.
• Enables controlled air entrainment without loss of strength.
• Enables water reduction while maintaining workability.
• Reduces segregation and bleeding to minimum, even with very harsh mises.
Uses: Low permeability concrete water retaining structures-dams, canal lining reservoirs and
tanks, increased weather and salt resistance-marine and coastal structures.
High cohesiveness with harsh sand aggregates for concrete basements, floor slabs and
roof slabs.

Accelerating Plasticisers
a) Chloride free liquid accelerator.
• Accelerates the setting time of concrete.
• Helps in early strength gain of cement in concrete and mortar mixes.
Uses: Precast concrete sections, concrete placed in cold weather condition and concrete for
repairs etc.
b) Water reducing/accelerating admixture.
• Accelerates the initial setting time.
• Most suited for unreinforced concrete.
• Ideal for winter working.
Uses: Manufacture of cement tiles, concrete blocks, paving blocks and kerb stones etc.
Note: Not to be used for reinforced concrete if not chloride free.

Integral Waterproofers :
a) Plasticising liquid waterproofer.
• IS : 2645-1975 certification.
• Most economical and potent waterproofer.
• Disperses instantly with gauging water.
• Superior to powder products-lowers permeability factor.

38
• Low cost-Economical than any powder pore-filler.
• Waterproofs by actually improving the quality of concrete or mortar.
Uses: Increase the waterproofing properties of concrete and cement sand mortars.

b) Powder waterproofer.
• IS:2645-1975 certification.
• Improves workability of concretes & mortars.
Uses: To reduce permeability of concrete and sand/cement mortar for use in basements, roof
slabs, screeds and water retaining structures.

Block Admixtures :
Cement Saver for Blocks.
• Cement Saving - Strength, density and yield maintained with less cement.
• Increased Strength - Higher strength without additional cement.
• Reduced Breakages - breakages reduced through increased ‘ Green Strength’
• Increased Durability - air entrainment offers resistance to attack by frost and deicing salts.

Mortar Plasticisers :
High workability mortar admixture.
• Used for higher quality plastering and masonry mortars.
• High workability - makes smooth, creamy mortar even with harsh sand.
• Reduced shrinkage cracking, increased water retention.
• No mortar staining - mortar cuts cleanly from facing bricks or stone.
• Little or no cost-increased mortar yield normally pays for admixture.

Sprayed Concrete Accelerators :

Set accelerators for gunite and shotcrete.
• Available in liquid and powder forms.
• Accelerates cement gel times.
• Reduces loss of materials from rebound.
• Improve adhesion and speeds overhead works.
• Minimises slumping and enables rapid buildup of thickness.

Miscellaneous Admixtures :
Quick setting waterproof plastering/plugging agents, Liquid materials for mixing with sand/cement
plastering mortar or neat cement.
• Watertight - Produces waterproof plaster to seal porous concrete.
• Quick setting - sets and bonds within minutes even on wet concrete.
• Easy to use - simply mix with normal cement and sharp sand.
• Plugs leaks - instant setting grade available to plug live leaks.
Uses: Waterproof barrier sealing of porous concrete basement walls and floors, tanks and below
ground structures.

39
 Concrete Surface Treatments
Curing Compounds :
Concrete curing compound.
• Complies to ASTM C309-81.
• Single application - spray applied to fresh concrete, forms a barrier to water loss.
• Eliminates water curing where difficult to apply.
• Reliable - no risk of erratic or poor curing.
• High quality surface - minimises risk of drying shrinkage cracks and dusty surfaces.
Uses: Vertical concrete structures and pavements columns, slipform structures, walls, canal
linings, mass concrete faces, bridge decks and aircraft runway/aprons.

Formwork & Mould treatments :

a) Shutter paint.
• Special polyurethane coating for plywood and timber formwork.
• Tough - withstands concrete placing time after time.
• Saves money- extends reuse of plywood many times.
• Maintains quality - used with Reebol mould release agents, ensures consistent repeat quality
causing from the same mould.
Uses: All plywood and timber formwork or moulds where maximum number of refuses are required.

b) Economical chemical based shutter release agent for site dilution. Very economical on
shutters sealed with Reebol Formcote.

Cleaning Agents :
Concrete cleaning and etching fluid. Combines acid action with Improved surface setting.
• Clean tools - assists removal of old concrete or mortar.
• Removes stains- rust staining or mortar staining.
• Etches concrete - surface cleaning and keying prior to applying coatings or repair.

Grouts
Prepacked Cementitious Grouts :
a) Free flow non-shrink high strength grouts.
• High strength - cannot be matched by cement/sand grouts.
• Three grades available - Conbextra GPI (M 45) grade, Conbextra GP2 (M 65) and Conbextra
Spl (M80).
• Ready to use - simply add precise quantity of water and mix mechanically.
• Consistent quality - prepacked, factory tested or consistent performance.
• Free flowing - fluid grouts for grouting even small gaps.
• Non-shrink-controlled expansion ensures excellent surface contact after setting.
Uses: Machine base plate grouting, turbines, generators, pumps, presses, steel rolling beds,
production machinery and crane rails, Construction grouting - stanchions, columns, beams,
bolt pockets, keyways and deep anchors.

40
b) High flow high performance dual shrinkage compensated grout.
• Compensation of both plastic & hardened shrinkage.
• High flow properties & excellent flow retention.
• High strength & performance.
• Ready to use.
• Consistent quality.
• Suitable for pumping or pouring over a large range of application.
Uses: Grouting of machine base plates, bridge bearings, cranerails, large equipments where high
flow is required, critical applications requiring dual shrinkage compensation etc.

Grout Admixtures :
a) Expanding grout admixture for non-shrink injection grouting and concrete fills.
• Avoids shrinkage by controlled expansion during initial setting period.
• Versatile can be used with neat cement, sand/cement or concrete grouts.
Uses: Grouting of voids- tunnels and shaft linings, cable duct grouting underpinning below
foundations and confined cavity fills.

b) Plasticising expanding grout additive for medium expansion and concrete fills.
• Non-shrink property ensures retention of original volume.
• Easy flow helps ease of placement.
• Facilitates the production of more cohesive grout.
Uses: Joint filling between precast concrete units. Grouting of voids in concrete beams, columns
and normal repair work where shrinkage must be avoided.

Resin Grouts :
a) Low viscosity epoxy grout.
• Effective penetration into narrow gaps.
• Excellent bond strength.
Uses: Being free flow, application includes crack injection and/or filling cold joints. Also used for
grouting base plates and bolt pockets with gaps upto 10 mm.

b) Epoxy free flow Grouts.

High strength gain, non-shrink & good bond strength, high compressive tensile & flexural
strengths resistant to chemical attack & for rapid installation.
Suitable for long working periods & for large gaps (upto 120 mm).
Uses: Minimum creep and higher strengths. Free-flow grouting where mechanical properties and
chemical resistance of high order is required. Application includes heavy duty support beneath
crane and transporter rails, drop forges, reciprocating machines subject to heavy dynamic
or mobile loads.
Different grades are available for wide range of gap widths from crack injection to crane rail
support.

41
 Anchoring Systems
Resin Anchors :
Resin anchor grouts.
A range of polyester resin grouts for pouring or injection into anchor holes.
• Rapid setting - full working anchorages within 1 hour.
• Ultra high strength - resin sets to strength exceeding M75.
• Corrosion resistant - provides outstanding protection to bolts in wet conditions.
• Reduced drilling costs - smaller diameter holes and shorter depths than with conventional
grouts.
• Underwater anchoring - can be used in water filled or under water holes.
Uses: High speed, high strength anchoring, holding down bolts for machinery and equipment,
starter bars in concrete, anti-floating and rock bed anchors, fenders and marine equipment
fixing, crane rail and railway track attached to concrete.

Cementitious Grout Anchors :

Anchor bolt grouting capsule.
• Ready made-capsule contain special dry grout powder and only require soaking in water
for less than 4 minutes.
• Early support - Can give working anchorages within 2 to 4 hours.
• Easy to use - after soaking, capsules are stemmed into drilled hole and bolt is driven in.
Uses: Roof support and rock bolting - mines, tunnels, caverns, cliff faces where injection grouting
as difficult or slow to set.

Repairs & Maintenance :

Prepacked Cement Mortars
a) High build, two component, polymer modified cementitious repair mortar.
• In vertical and overhead situations, a high thickness can be built up.
• Excellent bond to concrete substrate.
• Extremely low permeability provides maximum protection against carbon dioxide and
chlorides.
• Shrinkage compensated.
Uses: Reinstatement of spalled concrete r.c. members like beams, slab, soffits etc.

b) Two component structural grade polymer modified concrete reinstatement mortar.

• Extremely low permeability provides maximum protection against carbon dioxide and
chlorides.
• Excellent bond to the concrete substrate.
• contains no chloride admixture.
• Shrinkage compensated.
Uses: Reinstatement of spalled concrete of r.c. members like beams, columns, walls etc.

42
c) General purpose non-shrink, high strength, cementitious micro-concrete.
• Can be pumped or poured into restricted locations.
• Can be used for strengthening deficient r.c. structural members.
• High ultimate strength and low permeability of cured repair.
• Rapid strength gain to facilitate early reinstatement.
Uses: For repair to damaged reinforced concrete elements particularly where access is restricted
and where vibration of the placed material is difficult or impossible.
d) Rapid setting mortar for leak - plugging in running water.
Uses: Designed to seak leaks in running water where conventional mortar would be washed away
and where even rapid set resin mortar will not bond.

e) Concrete floor repair system which contains adhesive primer and special mortar mix.
• Easy to use - With normal builder’s tools.
• High strength - Sets to become harder than original floor concrete.
• High bond - Repaired patch behaves monolithic with parent concrete.
• Early strength gain - Usable in 24 hours for normal traffic.
Uses: Repair of worn areas, holes or depressions in concrete floors, factories, warehouses and
storage areas.

f) Fast setting cementitious patching compound.

• Rapid setting, normal traffic accepted within 2 hours.
• Minimum disruption to work.
• Single pack with only addition of water required.
• Easy to lay.
• Non-shrink - Inhibits tendency to crack.
• High performance - High adhesion and is resistant to wear and weather.

Epoxy resin Mortars :

a) High performance epoxy resin based mortar,
• Prepacked - proportioning errors avoided.
• Chemical resistance - High performance even in chemically aggressive environment.
• Rapid strength gain - repaired areas serviceable quickly.
• High strength - Abrasion, impact, tensile.
Uses: Repair of concrete, masonry etc., damaged due to chemical attack and for repairing areas
subject to high impact or tensile loads.

b) Epoxy based lining material/repair mortar.

• Prepacked - proportioning errors avoided.
• Highly resistant to abrasion and tensile loads.
• Excellent bond to the concrete/steel substrate.
• Resistant to effluents and diluted chemicals.
Uses: For lining ETP, STP and chemical tanks along with suitable protective coating and for repairing
dams (pointing) spillways, etc. where abrasion resistance is required along with high strength.

43
Polyster Resin Mortar :
a) Polyster repair mortar. Two parts - resin and catalysed filler system.
• Simple to mix - just mix resin and powder.
• User friendly - simply mix to give desired consistency.
• No waste - mix sufficient for immediate use only.
• Rapid setting - harder than concrete within 2 hours.
Uses: Repair to concrete to bedding of units to be used on the same day or where ultra-high
strength is required- building element, concrete rises, floor joint damage, worn stairways,
blowholes & erosion pockets in concrete faces, setting window/door frames & bedding
precast units.

b) Low viscous epoxy injection grout to repair any cracks, strengthening r.c. members by
injection technique.
• Easily injectable as the mixed viscosity is very less.
• More pot life to execute effective repair.
• High bond strength, compressive strength, flexural and tensile strength.
• Rapid strength gain - repaired members can be usable within 3 days.
Uses: To inject any cracks/to fill honeycombs, in repair situations.

Industrial Floorings
Hardeners :
a) Non-metallic surface floor hardner.
• Provides a highly abrasion resistant surface to concrete floors by the dry shake-on system.
• Ensures hard-wearing surface.
• Bonds monolithically to the base concrete.
Uses: Ideally suited for all industrial areas subject to the heaviest traffic e.g., loading bays, trucking
lanes, car parks, workshops, machine shops, ramps and spillways.

b) Concrete dustproofer and surface hardner. Reacts chemically with free lime on concrete
surface which is the major source of dusting.
• Permanent - chemical action not reversible.
• Easy to apply - simple 2 or 3 coats brush application.
• Hardens surface - due to lime conversion into hard crystal.
Uses: Used for dustproofing industrial and commercial floors such as factories, warehouses,
maintenance workshopes etc.

Sealer/Floor Coatings :
a) Polyurethane floor sealer, Heavy duty clear surface for concrete floors.
• Easy to apply - 2 coat brush application.
• Oil resistance - prevents oil, grease and contaminants staining concrete.
• Clean - provides washable and easy-to-clean surface.
Uses: For totally dustproofed and easily cleaned concrete floor and wall surfaces, light/medium
industrial buildings, textile plants, computer rooms, electronic factories, hygienic and clean
rooms.

44
b) Water dispersed epoxy floor coating and sealer.
• Attractive - Available in a range of colours.
• Improves chemical resistance.
• Economical and easy to apply.
• Odour free - can be applied in food processing areas.
• Water based - All tools and equipment can be cleaned with water.
Uses: Provides a sealer coat, dust proof, easily cleaned, oil and grease resistant surface. Suitable
in warehouse, light industrial areas, food processing areas, kitchens and other light vehicular
traffic areas.

c) Solvent based two component system based on epoxy resin and amine curing agents
formulated to provide exceptional resistance to chemical attack.
• Withstands high degree of chemical attack.
• Supplied in preweighed quantities.
• Cured film is hard but flexible with excellent adhesion to prepared concrete substrate.
• Cures to semigloss impervious finish - allows easy cleaning.
• Available in attractive colours.
Uses: It can be used in production assembly areas, dairies, soft drinks production and bottling
plants, breweries, kitchens, showrooms, aircraft hangers, dustproof rooms for electronic
equipment etc.

d) Solvent free, high build two part epoxy coating formulated to provide exceptional chemical
and abrasion resistance.
• Hard-wearing - Durable.
• Chemical resistant - Proven against wide range of chemicals.
• Solvent free - No odour during application.
• Seamless - Liquid applied, giving complete protection.
• Attractive - Available in a range of colours.
Uses: Provides a high build, hard-wearing, chemical resistant floor. Used as a slip resistance
coating in wet areas where a high degree of chemical resistance is required. eg. breweries,
dairies, softdrinks production units etc.

e) Pigmented Polyurethane industrial floor coating.

• Simple brush application.
• Resistant to penetration of oils, chemicals and liquids.
• Totally seals the concrete surface preventing dusting.
• Available in pleasing shades.
Uses: Dustproof rooms, textile mills - areas around draw machines, extruders, Processing plants
- around pumps, vessels & tanks, Pulp & Paper mills, around washer areas & bleaching
plants, Engineering industries - light duty shop floors, tool rooms, where only PU coatings
are specified.

45
 Epoxy Floorings :
a) 5mm/3 mm thick heavy and medium duty, chemical abrasion resistant epoxy floor screed.
Three part, solvent free, combination of epoxy resin, modified amine hardener filled with
specially graded, selected high strength -chemically inert aggregates.
• Withstands high degree of abrasion and chemical attack.
• Supplied as a preweighed pack.
• Cured screed is hard and abrasion resistant with excellent adhesion to well prepared concrete
substrate when used with Nitroprime 25 (primer).
Uses: Ideally suited for heavy engineering plants, chemical handling & process areas, steelworks,
dairies, breweries, oil refineries, paint workshops, battery rooms, plating factories.
In areas where high degree of cleanliness is required, the surface can be further sealed
with epoxy resin floor coating.

b) Four component, 2 mm/1 mm thick self-smoothing epoxy floor topping.

• Provides dust free seamless floor.
• Easy to lay.
• Very good chemical resistance to many industrial chemicals.
• Easy to clean.
• Aesthetic appearance in choice colours.
Uses: Ideal for industrial or commercial locations where a hardwearing, hygienic, dust free
environment is important. Useful for hospital clean rooms, electronic assembly plants,
showrooms, office suites, etc.

c) Heavy duty, flow applied, lightweight, antiskid surface dressing.

• Light weight.
• Excellent adhesion to substrate.
• Non-slip, very good resistance to oils & chemicals.
• Excellent corrosion protection to steel - water proof.

Protective Coatings :
a) Two component, Zinc rich epoxy primer.
• Provides active corrosion protection of steel.
• Application by brush, roller or spray.
• Can be welded through; forms conductive film.
Uses: It is a recommended anti-corrosion primer for exposed steel reinforcement for use with
Fosroc concrete repair mortars. The product actively resists corrosion within the confines
of the repair location and avoids the generation of incipient anodes in immediately adjacent
location.

46
b) High performance pure aliphatic acrylate based protective and decorative coating for concrete
and masonry.
• Excellent barrier to carbon dioxide, chloride ions, sulphates, oxygen and water.
• Allows water vapour to escape from the structure.
• Highly UV resistant aliphatic acrylate gives exceptional resistance to the effect of long-term
weathering.
• Highly durable in all climatic conditions.
• Selected range of decorative colours.
• Ease of application - single pack- no mixing of separate components.
Uses: It is recommended as a protective & decorative coating for atmospherically exposed r.c.
structures from long term protection viewpoint. It is ideally suited for soffit of bridge decks,
r.c. frames in high-rise buildings and similar expensive infrastructures. Can be used both in
repaired and new construction situations.

c) Two component, chemical resistant epoxy coating for steel and concrete surfaces.
• Excellent chemical resistance.
• Excellent adhesion to concrete and steel surfaces.
• Hygienic smooth surface.
• Self priming coating.
Uses: A hygienic and chemical resistant coating for steel tanks, concrete walls, concrete and
metal columns, sluices and ducts.
d) Solvent free epoxy resins specially formulated to provide a thixotropic coating, suitable for
application on vertical faces. It cures to form a smooth hygienic film with good resistance to
a wide range of mineral and organic acids, alkalis, fats and oils.
Colour : Green (Non stable)
• Excellent chemical resistance.
• Excellent adhesion to concrete & steel surface with suitable primer.
• High build thickness in single application.
• Can be used with FRP to achieve fibre reinforced coating.
• Tough resistant film.
• Hygienic smooth surface.
Uses: A hygienic and chemical resistant coating for concrete surface, concrete and metal tanks,
sluices and ducts.
e) Solvent free epoxy resin coating for potable water retaining structure & concrete/steel
surfaces coming on contact with food stuff.
• High build application.
• Suitable for use in confined areas, non-toxic.
• Can be applied directly on mild steel and concrete.
• Corrosion, chemical and abrasion resistant.
• Can be applied to damp surfaces.
• Suitable for food and potable water contact; certified by CFTRI.
Uses: Provide protection to concrete & metal structures against corrosion from aggresive agents
in drinking water & food stuff. Suitable for potable water tanks, interior coating for large dia
pipelines conveying potable water & structures in food & beverage industries.

47
f) Epoxy tar based high performance resin coating. Two componment system comprising of
special blend of pitch and epoxy resin a special low viscosity amine hardener
• High build film in single application.
• Easily applied by brush or spray.
• Provides long term corrosion protection.
• Chemical and abrasion resistant.
Uses: Provides protection to concrete and metal structures against corrosion from aggressive
environments, suitable for tanks above ground or in totally submerged conditions such as
pipe linings. Particularly useful in sewage works, effluent treatment plants to dock and harbour
installations.

g) Ready to use colourless silicon water repellent. Assists in reducing efflorescence due to
soluble salts in brick work.
Uses: To provide a water - repellent surface with improved self - cleaning properties on exteriors
of buildings, brickwork, concrete, cement rendering, natural or cast stone.

Joint Sealants & Water Proofing Systems :

a) Two part gun-grade polysulphide sealant for filling and sealing joints in building construction.
• Elastomeric and weather resistant.
• Non - sagging.
• When used with primer as recommended it provides water tight seal.
• Service temperature range is –30o C to 80 o C.
Uses: can be used for sealing expansion and construction joints and elements in building
construction - curtain walls and glazing systems.

b) One part silicone elastomeric sealant.

• One component, ready to use, simple to apply.
• Weather resistant.
• Excellent adhesive properties.
• High movement accommodation characteristics.
Uses: Used for sealing joints in ceramic tilling, sanitary ware, kitchens and glazing applications.
Also used to seal joints in concrete and brick masonary.

c) Two part polysulphide gun grade sealant.

• Forms a tough elastic rubber - like seal.
• Accommodates continuous and pronounced cyclic movement.
• Excellent adhesion to most common substrates.
• High resistance top ageing influence, physical damage and climate extreme.
Uses: Provides excellent adhesion to most common building substrates. It is particularly
recommended for sealing structural expansion joints in most civil engineering structure like
building superstructure, subways, basements, floors & reservoirs.

48
d) Cold applied, high performance fuel resistant sealant.
• Cold applied.
• Fuel, oil and hydraulic fluid resistance.
• Self levelling, less maintenance.
Uses : For sealing joints in concrete roads, concrete runways. Also suitable for sealing concrete
joints where fuel and oil spillage might occur like runways, oil terminals parkings & cargo
areas.

e) Two component acrylic modified cementitious coating for concrete and masonry surface.
• Applied directly to the concrete and masonry.
• Excellent adhesion - bonds to porous and non - porous surfaces.
• Excellent for dampproofing basements below grade.
• High resistance to carbon dioxide attack and chloride ion diffusion.
Uses: Designed to even out variations in concrete and masonry surfaces. Provides seamless,
flexible, waterproof coating suitable for use in water tanks, reservoirs, sealing tie bar holes
to ensure water tightness.

f) Elastomeric cementitious waterproof coating.

• High resistance to the effect of long term weathering durable in all climatic conditions including
UV attack.
• Flexibile with thermal expansion similar to concrete.
• Excellent bond to concrete and masonry.
Uses: Used for roof waterproofing of existing and new structure. Also suitable for all types of
structures including those coastal environment.
g) Bituminous waterproofing coating. Liquid primer, Fibre reinforced coating and mastic provides
complete waterproof membrane system.
• Easy to use - applied by brush or trowel.
• Versatile - can be applied to the angles and to profiled surfaces.
• Internationally proven - for sandwich membranes.
• Very effective for below - ground level and basement waterproofing.
Uses: External coating for below - ground structures such as cellars waterproofing, protection of
concrete against ground water, internal tank coatings - water tanks, reservoirs, waterproof
sandwich membranes, basements, ground floors and roof structures.

h) Chlorinated rubber based, single component protective coating.

• Acts as a protective barrier against water ingress for concrete/steel structures.
• Easily applicable by brush.
• No mixing or proportioning at site.
• Effective over a wide range of temperatures.
• The coating dries fast within 30-45 minutes, hence treated area is ready for use very soon.
Uses: Can be used in places which are not exposed to sunrays and which require water proofing,
e.g. basement, sump, water storage tank, bathrooms etc.

49
Adhesives :
a) Solvent-free epoxy bonding agent containing pigment and fine fillers. It is supplied as a two
part material in pre-weighed quantities for ready on site mixing and use. Coloured
components-white base and green hardener provide visual evidence of adequate mixing.
Uses: For bounding new cementitious materials to existing cementitious surfaces. For use on
horizontal surfaces and on vertical surfaces where mortar or concrete can be supported by
formwork. Ideal for extensions and repairs to structural concrete in factories, loading bays,
bridges, roads, bonded or granolithic floor toppings etc.

b) Multi-purpose adhesive based on polymerised resins and is a white, non-toxic, water base
emulsion of medium viscosity which dries to a transparent film.
Uses : As a Multi - purpose adhesive.
As a Plaster bonding agent.
A bonding agent for tiles.
For repairs to concrete and natural or reconstructed stone.
For bonding of granolithic toppings to subconcrete. For repairs to concrete and granolithic floors.

c) Acrylic emulsion cement modifier and concrete bonding agent. Also can be used as curing
agent and gauging liquid for cementitious systems. It is resistant to hydrolysis and can
therefore be used for external applications.
Uses: Recommended primer for the Fosroc cementitious repairs system for improving and bonding
floor toppings, renders and mortars repair of worn, damaged or spalled concrete.
d) Single component, tropical grade, ceramic tile adhesive suitable for damp and totally
submerged conditions.
• Fast tile fixing-saves labour.
• Good slip-resistance.
• High adhesive bond strength.
Uses: High quality adhesive for the permanent fixing of ceramic tiles both in damp and submerged
conditions, i.e. swimming pools.

e) Styrene butadiene polymer bonding agent to modify cement mortar/concrete.

• To repair spalled concrete, floors, beams, columns and pre-cast slabs.
• Improved tensile strength and flexural strength.
• Excellent adhesion to concrete.
• Reduction in w/c, increases durability and toughness.
• High resistance to water penetration.
Uses: Used to modify the concrete for repairing distressed r.c. members and to modify mortars
as waterproofing and flooring render.

50
 FORMWORK AND SCAFFOLDING

1) Formwork in general :
Forms are the tools and dies of concrete construction. They mould
the concrete to the desired size and shape and control its position
and alignment. But formwork is more than a mould, It is the temporary
structure that supports its own weight and that of the freshly placed
concrete as well as construction live loads including materials
equipment and workmen.

FORMWORK

One of the easiest and most obvious ways of judging whether a concrete job is satisfactory or not
is by its finished appearance.

The formwork and the way it is made and used plays a greater part in the finished appearance than
anything else. It is made from expensive materials by skilled men and the total cost of fabricating,
erecting and striking formwork is often more than that of the concrete itself.

Apart from appearance considerations, formwork usually needs to be used many times and this
can only be done if it is carefully and properly handled, cleaned and stored-be it of timber, steel or
other material-as otherwise time and money will be wasted and the job will not progress smoothly.

A high standard of site workmanship is required to produce a high standard of concrete work and
much depends on the skill and expertise of the foreman and tradesmen. With simple highly
repeatative work, good quality can still be achieved with less highly skilled labour.

51
II) Requirements of –
Good Formwork
• It must be strong enough to take the pressure or weight of the
• It must be built and erected so that the required shape,
size, position and finish of the concrete are obtained.
fresh concrete, and any other loads, without distortion,
leakage, failure or danger to workmen.
• It should be designed and constructed so that it can be easily
and quickly erected and struck, so saving both time and
money.
• It must be able to be struck without damage to the concrete
or to itself.
• It must be able to be handled using available equipment or to
be handled manually if necessary.
• The arrangement of the formwork must provide access for
concrete handling and placing and equally important, all the
necessary safety precautions relating to working areas and
platforms must be followed.
• Joints between members must be tight enough to prevent
grout leakage.

III) Material for Formwork

Timber :

Timber and plywood are the most commonly used materials for formwork because of the ease
with which they can be cut and assembled on site.

Timber while using timber formwork troubles viz warping, twisting, deterioration under stress of
heat and contact with wet concrete, etc. are to be taken care of. Re—use of formwork is limited. In
case of timber formwork. Plywood - For repeated uses plywood formwork is very suitable due to
the reasons viz. large panels can be made for economical construction and removal, choice of
thickness, physical proportion, good finish, etc.

When using either timber boards or plywood, it is usual to frame up the materials into the largest
size of panel that can be handled by the available equipment on the site, or is convenient for
handling.

For large smooth areas like walls or floors, and for complicated shapes, timber frames with a
plywood face are usually more economical than timber boards, especially when a high number of
re-uses are wanted.

Care needs to be taken during assembly, erection and casting, so that their rather soft faces and
edges are not damaged: particular care is necessary when striking and during storage.

Cut edges of ply and tie holes should be sealed using aluminium paint or a chlorinated rubber paint:
these will prolong the life of the ply and it can be re-used number of times.

52
Steel :

Steel - Extensively used in general building construction and also in prefabrication owing to Inherent
rigidity, adequate strength, excellent surface finish, repeated uses, etc. with economy.

Steel is used in a number of different ways, the two main ones being (a) in proprietory systems and
(b) as special purpose-made forms.

Proprietory systems usually consist of steel-framed panels, with either a plywood or a steel facing,
telescopic centres, adjustable props, strong backs and a variety of ties and items of ironmongery
for securing the formwork into place. Such systems can be used for floors, walls, columns and
beams etc. They offer a simple means of dealing with repeatative work and can be re-used quickly.

These types of formworks can be bought or hired “off-the-shelf.”

The equipment available can be used in the casting of deep lifts, large cantilevers, high storey
heights, etc. with the minimum of expenditure on special equipment. Large wall panels, made up
from smaller timber or steel panels, are often strengthened by using steel sections as walling and
soldiers.

Purpose-made forms are usually “one-off”, specially designed and made for a particular section of
work, such as in situ tunnels and culverts, table forms and awkward shapes. This type of formwork
may incorporate its own facility for travel or erection and often has mechancial, hydraulic, or
pneumatic means of operating the moving parts.

With steel forms, a hundred or more uses can be obtained, but this does depend on their being
looked after, properly. Training should be given in the correct use of the equipment and regular
cleaning, oiling and maintenance must be carried out.

Other materials :

Other materials- Hard boards, Fibre forms, Gypsum boards, Asbestos tiles, Plastic
sheathing, Aluminium forms, Wiremesh, Inflated membrane, etc.

1. Form work : Form work shall include all temporary forms of moulds required for forming
the concrete which is cast-in-situ together with all temporary construction required for their
support. Unless otherwise stated all formwork shall conform to I.S. specifications.

2. Design of Formwork : Formwork including complete false work shall be designed by the
Contractor in accordance with IS : 2750, 4041 and all other relevant I. S. Codes without any
extra cost to the Employer and these shall be got approved from the Engineer before any
formwork is taken up.

53
2.1 The contractor shall entirely be responsible for the adequacy and safety for false work not
with standing any approval or review by the Engineer of his drawing and design. Proprietory
system of formwork, when used a detailed information shall be furnished to the Engineer
for approval.

3. Quality of shuttering : The shuttering shall have smooth and even surface and its joints
shall not permit leakage of cement slurry.

3.1 Ply-board shuttering material to be used for sides of beams and columns shall be marine or
laminated plywood well seasoned free from projecting nails splits or other defects that may
mark on the surface of concrete. It shall not be so dry as to absorb water from concrete and
swell and bulge, or so green or wet as to shrink after erection. Mild steel plates or plywood
shall be used for slab and beam bottoms.

3.2 The timber shall be accurately sawn and planed on the sides and the surface coming in
contact with concrete.

3.3 So far as practicable clamps shall be used to hold the forms together. Where use of nails is
unavoidable minimum number of nails shall be used and these shall be left projecting so
that they can be easily withdrawn. Use of double headed nails shall be preferred.

54
4. TOLERANCE

4.1 The formwork shall, be made so as to produce finished concrete true to shape, lines,
levels, plumb and dimensions as shown on the drawings, subject to the following tolerance
unless otherwise specified in these documents or drawings or as directed by the Engineer.

a) Section dimensions = 5mm

b) Plumb = 1 in 1000 of height

c) Levels = 3 mm before any deflection has taken place.

4.2 Tolerance given above are specified for local aberrations in the finished concrete surface
and should not be taken as tolerance for the entire structure taken as a whole or for the
setting and alignment of formwork, which should be as accurate as possible to the entire
satisfaction of the Engineer. Errors if noticed in any lift/ tilt of the structure after stripping of
forms, shall be corrected in the subsequent work to bring back the surface of the structure
to its true alignment.

5. Special Provisions : Whenever the concreting of thinner members is required to be carried

out within shutters of considerable depth, temporary openings in the sides of the shutters
shall, if so directed by the Engineer be provided to facilitate the pouring and consolidation of
the concrete. Small temporary openings shall be provided as necessary at the bottom of
shutters of walls and deep beams to permit the expulsion of rubbish etc.

II. STEEL CENTERING

1. Work include : Erecting steel centering with contractor’s material comprising of standard
steel adjustable props and standard steel trusses/joists/spans, centering plates for bottom
of slab and steel plates for bottom of beams etc. of adequate strength properly balanced for
obtaining adequate rigidity to withstand all loads coming on it including permanent and
temporary fixtures and fastenings etc. complete for R.C.C. members like beams, slabs
and canopy including its removal after the specified period stacking, making good the
damaged parts/its replacement before its next use with all leads and lift (all centering material
shall be of contractor).

1.1 For R.C.C. beams, lintels, arches etc. formwork shall be of plywood of adequate thickness
and grade only. The centering/supporting arrangement such as standard steel trusses /
joists /spans standard adjustable / fixed props. H type frames etc. shall be designed by the
Contractor & got approved from the Engineer before commencement of its erection. The
contractor with the prior approval of the Engineer shall use standard steel centering
arrangement which may be manufactured by the reputed firm.

55
1.2 The supporting arrangement designed by the contractor shall conform to the relevant I.S.
Code and Standard practice adopted in this type of work. The centering arrangement shall
be adequately braced and properly secured by using appropriate type of fastenings and
fixtures to ensure stability and rigidity of the centering to withstand all loads coming on it.
The entire responsibility for design, erection, maintenance and safety etc. will exclusively
rest with the contractor. The Engineer reserves right to call detailed design calculations of
the entire centering or part thereof to verify its stability and also reserve right to reject entire
centering arrangement or part thereof and any material used for the centering in the event
of which the contractor shall have to arrange for its replacement at his own cost.

Form Supports or Centering • Props/Shores—usually of mild steel or high tensile steel

tubes and used to support formwork upto heights
of about 5 m.
• Frames — The frames are usually braced together by
means of ledgers and cross braces to a rigid structure.
These are available in a variety of shapes and modular
sizes using tubes.
• Plumbing Frames and Walkway Brackets — These are
used to support vertical forms or Inclined forms in plumb
and alignment.
• Dropheads - This is fitted on top of the props or supports
which will help in supporting the slab while the remaining
form for the decking could be struck for reuse.
• Gang Forms - These are used for concreting of large
sections of high walls and are usually handled by a crane
in large sections from one location to the other.
• Table Forms- These are form decks with steel or plywood
with fairly large area slab construction in multi storeyed
building construction. The whole table can be lowered or
raised by means of specially designed jacks and can be
rolled out of building which will speed up the construction.

Form System • Moving forms- These are of various types

• Jump forms / leap forms
• Slip forms
• Travelling forms
• Flying forms
These are very suitable for construction of high rise
structure for eg. Ventillation/ Chimney Stacks, Storage
Silo, Concrete Shafts for H.L., Reservoirs, Natural Draft
Cooling Towers, Decking for cantilever or Simply
Supported Bridges, Tunnels, Siphons, Mine Shafts,
Concrete Dams, Multistoreyed Buildings, etc.

56
Erection :
Although it is a temporary structure, readily dismantled and moved, formwork is designed to withstand
the likely pressures and loads occuring during concreting .
It Is the job of the erector to see that all fixtures, fittings, and fastenings are in the right place and
remain secure and rigid during concreting.
Each job is different and has its own particular problems, but the following notes may help to avoid
serious trouble.
1. Use each panel in its correct position: number panels clearly to prevent mistakes.
2. Make sure props, shores, wallings, bearers, clamps and wall-ties are at the required spacings.
3. Make sure props and shores are securely braced and have a firm hearing.
4. Tighten all tie-bolts or wall-ties and remove temporary distance pieces. Check that nothing
has fallen into the formwork.
5. On upper lifts, make sure the lower edge of the panel is tight against the hardened concrete
of the previous lift. With concrete exposed to view, use a foamed plastics strip at panel
joints, stop-ends, returns and construction joints. to prevent grout leakage.
6. Any in-fill pieces or closure panels should marry with the main formwork. Arrange their
fixing so that the main panels are not damaged when fixed or stripped. Avoid drilling holes or
cutting standard panels.
7. Holes made in the formwork on site should be neat, so that patching or plugging is easier.
Drill timber formwork from the face to avoid splintering this surface.
8. Lightly tack all battens and blocking-out pieces so that they stay in the concrete during
striking.
9. Make sure that inserts and boxes that can be positioned before concreting are securely
fixed.
10. Give clear instructions about any items that are to be placed during concreting.
11. Remove dirt, shavings, tie-wire clippings, nails, etc. from the formwork; tie-wire clippings
and nails will stain both the formwork and the concrete.
12. Make sure that adequate access and working platforms are in place for the concreting gang
and that the guard rails and toe boards are provided.
13. Sloping or horizontal top forms are subjected to upward pressures from the fresh concrete
and need to be firmly restrained.

Large prefabricated sections of formwork should be marked with their weights and before they are
lifted the capacity of the crane must be checked at the working radius. Usually, Iifting points are
provided in the sections, if necessary, a spreader or lifting beam should be used to prevent distortion.
When proprietary systems are being used, the makers instructions must be understood and any
special tools needed must be obtained before work starts.

57
Propping :
Collapses of formwork have occurred because of the incorrect use of adjustable steel props and
the use of defective props. For obvious safety reasons, the correct setting up of props is vital.

The load-carrying capacity of adjustable steel props is considerably reduced if they are erected out
of plumb and if the load is applied off-centre. Runners supported by props should not be more than
25 mm off-centre of the prop head. No prop should be more than 1 in 40 out of plumb. Check the
props for verticality by plumbing the end props in each row with a 1 m level and eyeing through the
remainder.

No prop should be used if it has any of the following defects:

1. The tube has a bend or crease in it.
2. There is more than surface corrosion
3. A head or base plate is bent.
4. A pin is incorrect or damaged.
Above all, make sure that props have a firm bearing, and that spreaders are used except when
bearing directly on a concrete base.

SCAFFOLDING These are used to provide temporary platforms at various levels for carrying
out all those works which cannot be conveniently and easily carried out
either from ground level or any other floor of the building or with the use of
a ladder. Generally, these are also used for centering for formwork and
also for supporting heavy loads at greater heights.

Divided into three class • Heavy Duty Scaffolding

• Medium Duty Scaffolding
• Light Duty Scaffolding
For works connected with concreting, heavy duty
scaffoldings are more used.

TYPES OF SCAFFOLDS

Putlog Scaffolds or This consists of single row of uprights connected together

by ledgers.

Single Pole Scaffolds Putlogs are fixed to the ledgers and built into the walls of
the buildings as the construction progresses.

Independent Scaffolds or This consists of two rows of uprights connected together

Double Pole Scaffolds longitudinally by ledgers and transversely by putlogs or
transoms.

58
Cantilever Scaffolding This is usually an independent type of scaffolding which does
not rest on the ground but is cantilevered from face of the
buildings or structures.

Platform Scaffolds This consists of two or more rows of upright connected

together by ledgers and transoms and usually a working
platform is placed on top of the scaffold. This type is used
normally for supporting heavy loads at the top level and
providing an access platform at one level.

Tower Scaffolding This consists of uprights connected together by ledgers and

transoms. This can be made mobile by mounting it on
castors.

Suspended Scaffolds or Cradles This is an Independent scaffold which is hung from a

building or structure and not supported on ground.

Materials for scaffold ∗ Timber - Bally

Bamboo

∗ Metal - Tube and fitting type

- Prefabricated unit frame
- Unit frame type
- Welded frame type
- Wedge lock type

Scaffold Boards Scaffold boards for platforms are generally in timber

particularly in pine wood.

59
Checks before Concreting

Provided that a sound formwork method has been devised and that the work has been done in
accordance with the planned intentions of the persons responsible for the work, a successful
casting should result.

In the interests of accuracy and safety, however a careful and thorough inspection should always
be made by the supervisor as soon as the work is finished and before concreting starts. This
inspection should include, where applicable, satisfactory answers to the following items:

1. Are bolts and wedges secure against loosening due to vibration?

2. Has the right number of ties been used and are they in the right places?

3. Are all the ties properly tightened?

4. Are all inserts, void formers and cast-in fixings in the right position and secured ?

5. Have the stop-ends been properly secured?

6. Have all the joints been sealed to stop grout loss ?

7. Is the formwork correctly aligned and levelled?

8. Are all the props in plumb ? And at the right spacing?

9. Are the props and struts properly tightened up and locked?

10. Can the formwork be struck without damaging the concrete?

11. Has the release agent been applied? Is it the right one?

12. Is the reinforcement correct?

13. Has the reinforcement the right cover? Are there enough spacers?

14. Are the forms clean and free from rubbish or odd bits of timber or metal? Tie-wire droppings
will cause a stain on the face of the concrete.

15. Is there proper access for concreting and compaction?

16. Can any necessary inserts or box outs be done when concreting?

17. Is all the ancillary equipments available, such as vibrators, lighting, skips and hand tools ?

18. Is the curing equipment and covers ready, especially in winter?

19. Have all the necessary guard rails and toe boards been provided?

On completion of the initial check by the tradesmen and supervisors concerned, the work will
normally be inspected by the Clerk of Works or the Resident Engineer, before concreting is allowed
to begin.

The above checks, combined with a general check on the security and tightness of the forms, can
save accident and injury or even loss of life.

60
Concreting :
Someone experienced in the construction of formwork, preferably a tradesman, should always be
standing by when the concrete is being placed so that he can keep an eye open for any dangerous
situations and deal with them effectively. To do this, he should have a supply of suitable materials
such as props, bolts, etc. to cope with any emergency. Tell-tale devices and stringlines should be
fixed at appropriate positions so that a continuous check can be made on alignment, camber and
plumbness while concrete is being placed.
Grout loss is an indication that joints were not tight initially or that some movement has occured
during placing.
The vibrations transmitted to the formwork can be considerable and can loosen wedges and fixings
a close watch should therefore be kept on all fastenings to see that they do not work loose. Similarly,
wedges should be regularly checked and tightened.
Any spilt concrete or grout leakage should be cleaned from the formwork immediately after concreting.
This makes striking add cleaning easier and is particularly important with steel formwork and large
panels where spilt concrete, stuck to the panels, adds considerably to the weight of the section.
Timber spreaders to hold formwork apart-as used in walls-should be removed as concreting
proceeds.
Where unsleeved bars are being used to form holes, ease them before the concrete sets, and
remove them as soon as possible afterwards: if the bar is left in overnight it is more difficult to strike
the formwork without damaging it.

Striking :
Formwork can be struck when the concrete has gained enough strength to be self-supporting and
also to carry any other loads that may be put on it.
The job specification will normally give guidance on when forms can be struck and these times
may be governed by the size and shape of the member, the concrete mix, and the weather.
For walls, columns and beam sides, the forms can usually be struck within about 12 to 18 hours of
placing the concrete but since the concrete will still be green it is easily damaged and so care must
be taken; this is particularly important during cold weather when it may be necessary to leave the
forms in position longer than normal.
When the time comes to strike, ties and clamps should be loosened gradually, a little at a time to
prevent the last tie from binding. As you remove bolts, ties and screws, put them in boxes: do not
throw them down in the hope of recovering them later.
If the forms do not immediately come away they should be CAREFULLY prised loose using hardwood
wedges. Nail bars used to lever forms from the concrete invariably damage both the concrete and
the form. Blocking-out pieces are best left in as long as possible since they protect the edges: and
also they eventually shrink, which makes their removal easier.

61
When striking soffit formwork, release the props evenly in small stages starting at the middle of the
span and working out towards the supports. If you strike from the supports and work inwards,
gross overloading of the props towards the centre of the span can result because of the slab or
beam deflecting under its own load.
“Crack striking” - where large areas of formwork are dropped in one go - should never be allowed.
For one thing, it is dangerous and workmen can be injured. Further more, not only does it cause
damage to the formwork, but the structure itself can be damaged from the sudden loading.
When lowering large sections of formwork, take care to see that they are not damaged by scaffolding
or other projections and that they finally rest on a level surface so that they are not twisted or
misshapen.
Always withdraw or hammer down projecting nails as the formwork is struck from the concrete.
Nails projecting from timber cause untold injury on construction sites.
Make sure that other trades are kept away from areas below those where striking is being done;
accidents can happen so easily.
The person controlling cranes handling formwork must know and use the correct code of signals to
direct the operator.

REMOVAL OF FORMS
Vertical sides of slabs, beams, columns and walls 24 ... 48 hours
Slabs (Props left under) 3 days
Beam Soffits (Props left under) 7 days
Bottom of slabs upto a span of 4. 5 mt. 7 days
Bottom of slabs above 4.5 mt. }
span, bottom of beams upto 6 mt. } 14 days
span and bottom of arch ribs upto 6 mt. span }
Bottom of beams over 6 mt. span }
and bottom of arch ribs over 6 mt. span } 21 days.

Cleaning
As soon as it has been struck, all formwork should be cleaned, not left until it is wanted again.
Timber and ply forms should be cleaned with a stiff brush to remove dust and grout; a timber
scraper should be used for stubborn bits of grout. Do not use steel scrapers on ply or faced ply with
glass reinforced plastics.
When steel forms are to be put in store or are not going to be needed for sometime, they should be
lightly oiled to prevent rusting.
Timber and untreated ply should also have a coat of release agent applied for protection if they are
not going to be re-used immediately. At the same time, any depressions, splits and nail holes
should be repaired with plastic wood, or similar material, followed by a light rubbing down.
Unwanted holes should be overfilled with a suitable filler such as plastic wood and then sanded
down to a smooth surface.

62
Storage :

After all formwork has been cleaned, and oiled where necessary, panels and components should
be properly stored and protected until they are wanted again. Unless they are going to be re-used
immediately, do not leave them lying around because they will only be damaged or used for something
else.

The main rule about storage is to avoid doing any damage: more damage happens to formwork
when it is not in use than when it is being erected or struck.

Care taken in stacking formwork panels prevents damage and avoids unnecessary repairs. The
orderly storage of formwork and components is essential if later work is to proceed without delay.

Panels and plywood sheets are best stored horizontally on a flat base so that they lie flat without
twisting and should be stacked face to face to protect the faces.

Large panels are usually best stored on edge in specially made racks.

Loose walings and soldiers are best numbered and stored with their respective panels. Numbers
painted on panels make their identification easier.

If formwork is not to be used immediately, the stacks should be protected from the sun and weather
by tarpaulins or plastics sheeting in such a way that they are still ventilated.

Small components, such as bolts, ties, wedges and keys should be kept in boxes; larger components
like clamps and props should be stacked off the ground to prevent them becoming covered with
mud.

Fire extinguishers in working order should always be easily accessible to storage areas.

A tidy storage area reduces damage, loss and wastage and makes it easier to find formwork when
it is needed again.

63
Release Agents :

The main purpose of treating formwork with a release agent is to make it easy to strike the form
from the concrete face. Only a few special form face materials, such as expanded polystyrene, do
not need to have a release agent applied.

There are a number of different types of release agent and the various form face materials such as
timber, steel and glass fibre require different release agents. It is therefore important to make sure
that the right one is being used.

The three most common types of release agents are:

1. Neat oils with surfactants: mainly used on steel faces, but can be used on timber and ply.

2. Mould cream emulsion: for use on timber and ply — a good general-purpose release agent.

3. Chemical release agents: can be used on all types of form face - recommended for all high-
quality work.

Because of their absorbency, new and untreated timber and plywood should always be given a
coat of the appropriate release agent at least 36 hrs before being used. A second application
should then be made before using for the first time. For all further pours, a normal application is all
that should be necessary.

Do not use oil from a container which is not clearly labelled, unless you are sure that IT IS a release
agent. Release agents are prepared by the manufacturers to suit various requirements and their
instructions must be followed carefully. If the instructions on the label are unreadable, you must find
out whether there are any special precautions to be taken.

The most common fault with release agent is far too much to be put on: this can stain the concrete.
On the other hand, if not enough is applied, striking is made difficult and both the concrete and form
face can be damaged.

The right amount is a thin film applied uniformly by brush, roller, or, best of all, spray. If, by mistake,
too much is applied, wipe off the excess with a clean rag.

64
 REINFORCEMENT

STEEL IN CONCRETE :

Concrete is largely used as reinforced concrete using steel with concrete in the structures. Hence
various types of reinforcing steel used are also given below. Protection of steel in concrete against
corrosion is very important.

The success of a reinforced concrete job depends to a large extent on the reinforcement being
correctly fixed in the concrete with the right cover. If it is not fixed properly, and moves during
concreting, the member will not be as strong as it should be. Such weakening could lead to failure
under load. In addition, if the cover is not enough the reinforcement will rust, expand and eventually
spall the concrete, which again wiII weaken the structure and spoil its appearance as well.

To get the right amount of cover, accurate cutting and bending is just as important as correct
placing; Bars bent to the wrong angle or shape, or cut to the wrong length, cannot be placed to give
the correct cover. Bending and fixing must be done extremely carefully and when the bars have
been fixed it is essential to see that they do not get moved before or during concreting.

Bar Types and Identification :

There are two main grades of steel used for bar reinforcement: one is mild steel and the other high-
yield steel.

All plain smooth round bars are made by hot rolling mild steel.
High -yield steel is made by either hot rolling a low-alloy steel or by cold working (twisting and
stretching) an originally mild steel. Low-alloy steel can be distinguished from mild steel by the
pattern of ribs. Cold worked steel is recognizable from its twisted appearance: it may also have
ribs. These bars are much stronger than round mild Steel bars of the same diameter. However,
there is no practical difference in hot rolled and cold worked high-yield reinforcement-bars of the
same cross sectional area and these are interchangeable.

65
REINFORCING STEEL :
The following are permitted as Reinforcing Steel
Mild steel and
medium tensile Normally reinforcement is protected against
steel bars corrosion by the one of the following methods.
conforming to
IS:432 (Part I)- * CECRI Process
1982 Hot rolled * Epoxy Coating
deformed bars
* Galvanising
conforming to
IS:1786-1985
* Fe 415
∗ Fe 500 (High
Yield TMT bars
and TISCON
CRS bars)
* Fe 550 (Torkari
bars)
* Hard - drawn
steel wire fabric
conforming to IS :
1566-1982
∗ Rolled steel
made from
structural steel
conforming to IS :
226-1975

PRESTRESSING STEEL
The following are permitted as Prestressing steel. Prestressing steel is protected by emulsions

∗ Wires - IS:6003-1983
∗ Strands- IS:6006-1983

General Site Organization :

The following points will help you to keep the work going smoothly.
1. Get as much room as necessary for storing both uncut bars and cut and bent bars, for storing
cages and as a general working area.
2. Keep the area tidy at all times.
3. Arrange stacks of bars, the bending table, and if you are cutting on site, cutting machines in
the most convenient positions. For example, bars may be up to 12 m long and may require to
be bent at each end: turning such long bars end-for-end is both inconvenient and time-consuming
and can be avoided by having a bending machine at each end of the bench.
4. Handle bars carefully, particularly during offloading and stacking. Do not allow bars to be thrown
on to the stack from a distance as this is likely to give them bends which were not specified .
Kinks are much easier to make than they are to straighten.

66
5. Store bars off the ground otherwise mud and dirt will have to be removed before you can fix
them. Use concrete strips or timber sleepers to do this and place them close enough so
that the steel stays straight during storage. It is often worthwhile using a weed killer over the
storage and stacking areas to prevent weeds and grass from growing among the steel and
subsequently losing some of it. If bars are to be in stock for long periods, provide some
covering to keep off the rain and so prevent excessive rusting. Slight rusting does no harm
but any loose flaky rust or mill scale should be knocked off, otherwise the concrete will not
grip the steel properly and the strength of the unit may be seriously reduced. Loose rust is
normally removed during handling. See also under Cleanness and rust.

6. Take special care to make sure that mild steel bars are not used instead of high-yield steel
bars when these are specified on the schedule. High-Yield bars usually have grooves or
ridges and are easily distinguished from plain round mild steel bars.

Cutting and Bending Reinforcement :

Once a structure has been designed, the reinforcement detailed. The drawings are produced to
show the steel fixer precisely what to put where.

The next step is for the information an the drawings to be transferred to Bar or Fabric Schedules
which give the location, bar mark, type and size, number, length and bending details of each bar or
sheet or fabric.

Site cutting :

Before cutting any bars it is often worthwhile to rearrange them from the bar schedules by putting
them in order of length. In this way, wastage and offcuts can be reduced by cutting the longest bars
first; also it highlights how bars can be most economically cut: cutting two 5.5 m lengths from a
12m long bar would leave 1mt. spare-not a useful length-whereas one 5.5 m and one 6.3 m long
bar will leave only 0.2 m waste. In addition to knowing the stock quantity of full length bars, a list of
the long offcuts is essential.

Always use a steel tape for measuring; this reduces the possibility of error, especially with long
bars. You will also find it useful to have the marking-out bench marked off in 100 mm sections.
Allow room for bin stacking of short ends upright so these can be sorted more easily.

67
Site bending :
Bending should be carried out with the proper machine for the job, whether hand-operated or
powered. Don’t use makeshift methods they produce poor results and can be dangerous.

Bending must be done accurately in accordance with the schedules, otherwise it may not be
possible to fix the reinforcement in the right position. For example, oversize stirrups or links can
easily be fixed in position by skewing them, but the cover may be reduced and so lead to corrosion;
similarly if links and stirrups are too small, the main bars will be fixed out of position and this could
affect the strength of the member. Accurate bending is also essential where the reinforcement is
congested, such as at column and beam Intersections.

Some hints on bending :

1. Have a bench that will properly support the bar while it is being bent and so avoid having a
bend in the wrong plane.

2. Before bending a large complicated bar shape, prepare a full size drawing, which can then
be used for checking.

3. Have gauges handy for checking bar diameters before cutting and before bending, It is not
always easy to identify bars of the right sizes by just looking.

4. Bending machines vary in performance and, so before bending a number of bars with
several bends, especially with critical dimensions, check the first finished bar to see that
you have got it right before starting on the rest. Make occasional checks on the others to
ensure that stops or pegs have not moved.

5. Have the bending machine serviced regularly and make sure you have to use the correct
size mandrels. The inside radius of the bend should not exceed 2d for mild steel bars or 3d
for high - yield bars, d being the bar dia meter. Too tight a radius will weaken the bar.

6. Always bend high-yield bars cold. Mild steel bars of large diameter may be heated to a
cherry red heat but they must not be quenched in water to cool them: In any case, the
Engineer’s permission to bend hot must always be obtained.

7. During cold weather, reduce the speed of bending, especially with high-yield bars as steel
becomes more brittle below 5oC. This reduced speed of bending also applies to bars which
have been bent aside and require straightening after partial concreting.

8. Make sure that you have the latest drawings and schedules. Old schedules and drawings
should be discarded when revisions are issued.

68
Cleanness and Rust :
The strength and performance of reinforced concrete depends on a good bond being achieved
between the steel and the concrete. That means the steel must be in good condition when the
concrete is placed round it. So all reinforcement needs to be kept free from grease, oil, mud, mould
oil, loose mill scale, excessive rust, loose concrete and ice; the presence of any of these will impair
the bond between the concrete and the steel.

Similarly, once it is fixed, do not leave steel exposed for any great length of time, otherwise rain will
wash off some of the rust onto the formwork which will leave a permanent stain on the concrete
when the formwork is struck. Starter bars from the tops of columns and walls are a frequent
source of rust staining on the concrete below, hence, if they are going to be exposed for more than
about two weeks, cover them with plastic sleeves or paint them with a cement grout wash. Mortar
droppings or grout droppings do not need removing from reinforcement provided they are firmly
adhering: if they will not come off easily, leave them.

The effect of rust on the bond between steel and concrete is often a controversial issue on site and
on many jobs rust has been unnecessarily removed at considerable expense. A little rust is in fact
not harmful, but loose mill scale and excess flaky rust not firmly adhering should be removed.
Normal handling will remove excess rust and usually removes mill scale: the same effect can also
be achieved by dropping bars, or cages, to the ground. Similarly, if there is any concern about
starter bars which have been projecting for some time from existing concrete, a firm tap will knock
off any excess.

Steel which has been stored outside for a long time may have rusted to the extent that the diameter
has been reduced. This does not often happen, but if there is any doubt then check the diameter
with a gauge or, more accurately, by weighing a known length (about 300 mm)

Fixing the Reinforcement :

It is often possible to prefabricate beam and column reinforcement into cages so long as there is
crane available. Although this practice can result in a considerable saving in labour and time compared
with fixing in the actual structure, do bear in mind that you will need an area for temporary storage.
Firm fixing is essential to ensure that the bars remain in the correct position not only during concreting
but also under foot or other kind of traffic. The normal method of fixing is to use 16 or 18 guage soft
iron binding wire at most of the intersections of bars in slabs and walls, and at the intersection of
main bars and links of stirrups. Cut off or bend inwards loose ends of ties so that they cannot do
any harm by rusting and showing through on the concrete face. Patent fixing clips may be used
also, but take care to select the right sizes. Be particularly careful on the prefabricated cages so
that the cage is sufficiently firm and rigid for crane lifting.
Once fixed in place, steel should not be bent out of position to ease the placing of concrete. However,
if it is necessary, it is important to note that mild steel bars are not bent to a radius of less than 2
times their diameter, and high-yield steel bars not less than 3 times their diameter. Make sure when
bending bars back, particularly in light weight aggregate concrete, that the concrete around the
bars is not damaged.

69
Cover and spacers :
To protect reinforcement from corrosion, and for the combined action of the reinforcement and
concrete to be effective, it is essential for the reinforcement to be surrounded by sufficient
impermeable concrete. If moisture does penetrate the concrete, the steel will rust and expand,
causing the concrete to spall so exposing the reinforcement to further attack.
For these reasons, all reinforcement has to be embedded a certain minimum distance from the
surface. This distance, called the cover, will have to be determined by the engineer and shown on
the drawings. The amount of cover depends mainly on the quality of the concrete and whether or
not the concrete will be exposed to the weather or to aggressive conditions such as in, or close to,
the sea. The resistance to fire also depends on the correct cover being achieved.
Correct cover is achieved by using spacers, which are usually small mortar blocks or special
plastic shapes. See that you have good stocks of spacers and that they are of the right types and
sizes.
Plastic spacers are now in common use and are made to fit particular bar sizes and give particular
depths of cover. Use enough spacers to ensure that the correct cover is maintained and that the
bars remain in position during concrete placing and compaction. See that sufficient cover is obtained
to the stirrups and ties which project beyond the main reinforcement.
Mortar spacer blocks provide good cover. If you are making them on site, use a mortar consisting
of I part cement and 2 parts of sand with only sufficient water to make a dense mortar. Make sure
that any wire cast into the blocks is kept well away from the surface so that there will be no danger
of rust spots on the surface of the concrete. Do not use metal spacers when the structure is in a
corrosive atmosphere or if water is going to come into contact with the surface of the concrete.
Never use pieces of stone or timbers as permanent spacers.
When you are fixing spacers on a number of parallel bars, such as in beams and columns, avoid
getting them in a straight line across a section, since this might lead to a plane of weakness in the
concrete.
Top and bottom reinforcement in suspended slabs has to be placed correctly before concreting
starts. Small spacer blocks should be used for the bottom steel but it is advisable to use mild-steel
‘chairs’ to carry to top steel. All spacer must be strong enough to take foot traffic.
For ground floor slabs containing top reinforcement, lt is often convenient to place the conerete up
to a given level and then place the bars or fabric on this before placing the rest of the concrete.
Never place reinforcement on the formwork and try to raise it as the concrete is placed; it never
finishes up in the right place.
If spacers are allowed on one face of a beam or wall, but not the other, hold the reinforcing cage in
position by pulling it towards the formwork on one side by means of wires attached to the cage and
passing through holes in the formwork. Pull the wires to draw the cage towards the formwork so
that the spacers on this side prevent it from actually touching and give it the correct cover. This
technique will ensure correct cover on the side without spacers. But remember to remove the wire
soon after placing the concrete or rust stains will result.

70
 SPECIFICATION FOR HYSD / M.S. FOR CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

DEFORMATIONS :

The deformations shall be spaced along the bar at substantially uniform distances. The
deformations on opposite sides of the bar shall be similar in size and shape.

The deformations shall be so placed with respect of the axis of the bar that the included
angle i.e. angle between the deformation and the axis of the bar is not less than 45o.

Where the line of deformations forms an included angle not exceeding 70o with the axis of
the bar the deformation shall alternatively reverse in direction. On each side or those on one side
shall be reversed in direction from those on the opposite

Where the line of deformations forms an included angle of over 70o with the axis of the bar,
the reversal in direction is not required.

The average spacing or distance between deformations on each side of the bar shall not
exceed 7/10 of the nominal size of the bar.

The average spacing of deformation shall be determined by dividing a measured length of a

bar specimen by the number of individual deformations and fractional parts of deformations on any
one side of the specimen.

The overall length of deformation shall be such that the gaps between the extreme ends of
the deformations of opposite sides of the bar shall not exceed 12.5 % of the nominal perimeter of
the bar, when the extreme ends terminate in a longitudinal ribs, the width of the longitudinal rib shall
be considered as the gap, where more than 2 longitudinal ribs are involved the total width of all
longitudinal ribs shall not exceed 25% of the nominal perimeter of the bar.

Further more the summation of the gaps shall not exceed 25% of the nominal perimeter of
the bars. Nominal perimeter of the square bar shall be taken as four times the nominal size and of
a round bar 3.14 times the nominal size.

71
 The average height of the deformations shall not be less than the following percentages of
the nominal size of bars.

The average height of deformations shall be determined from measurements made on not
less than 2 typical deformations. Determinations shall be based on three measurements for
deformations, one at the centre of the overall length and the other two at the quarter points of the
overall length.

HYSD Mild Steel

1. Tolerance in Size Bars upto 25 mm∅
+ 0.5 mm. total
Margin 1.0 mm
Bar above 25 mm∅
+ 0.75 mm
Total margin 1.50 mm
Bars Upto 25 mm∅ + 0.5 mm
Total margin 1.0 mm,
Bars above 25mm∅ + 0.75mm
Total margin 1.5 mm

2. Tolerance in Weight Upto and including 8.00mm Upto & Including 8.0 mm + 4.0
+ 4% Total margin 8% %Total Margin 8%

Over 8.00 mm + 2.5% Over 8.00 mm + 2.5%

Total margin 5% Total margin 5%
Coiled rounds upto and including
12 mm + 0.5 mm.
Total margin 1.0 mm

3. Tensile Strength 15% greater than the 42.00 for all sizes
a) Ultimate tensile measured yield stress.
stress kg/mm2 Min.

b) Yield stress kg/mm2 For bars upto & including Upto including 20 mm 26.00
20 mm 42.5

For bars over 20 mm Upto and including 40 mm 24.00

upto & including 42.5 mm
c) Elongation % minimum On gauge length 5.56 On gauge length 5.56

so where ‘so’ is the so where ‘so’ is the cross

cross sectional area of the sectional area of the test
test piece 14.5 piece For bars under 10 mm
20.00 For bars 10 mm and
over 23.00

72
 COLD BEND TEST

The test piece shall withstand one complete cycle of reverse bend without showing any
Sign of fracture.

REBEND TEST

o
The test bar shall be bent to an included angle of 135 , using a mandrel of appropriate diameter.
The bent bar shall be aged by keeping in boiling water (100oC) for 30 minutes and then allowed to

cool. The bar shall then be bent back to have an included angle of 157 ½o. The specimen shall be
considered to have passed the test if there is no fracture in the bent portion.

The diameter of the mandrel shall be as below:

Upto 10 mm. 5d

Over 10 mm 7d

Where d is the nominal size in mm of the test piece.

For both the tests, should any one of the tensile test pieces first selected sample fail to
pass any of the tests specified in this standard, two further samples shall be selected for testing in
respect of each failure. Should the test pieces from both these additional samples pass the material

represented by the test, sample shall be deemed to comply with the requirements of that particular
test. Should the test piece from either of these additional samples fail, the material represented by
the test samples shall be considered as not having complied with this standard.

73
 COVER FOR REINFORCEMENT

Nominal cover is the dimension used in design and indicated on the drawing. This cover
should be provided to all reinforcements including links and strips corresponding to the

indicated grade of concrete under particular condition of exposure.

Concrete 20 25 30 40 and above

Grade MPa

Condition of Nominal cover in mm

exposure

Moderate 30 30 30 25

Severe — 50 40 30

The cover may be reduced by 5 mm in case of slabs of thickness upto and including
150 mm.

At each end of reinforcing bar, the nominal cover shall not be less than twice the diameter of
such bars.

For portions of structures in contact with water, where the velocity and bed materials are
likely to cause erosion of concrete the condition of exposure shall be assumed to be severe.

DISTANCE BETWEEN BARS

The Horizontal distance between two parallel reinforcing bars shall not be less than the
greatest of the following three dimensions.
1. The diameter of the bar - if the diameters are equal

2. The diameter of the largest bar - if the diameters are unequal.

3. 10 mm more than the nominal size of the coarse aggregate used in concrete.

The minimum vertical distance between two horizontal main reinforcing bars shall be 12
mm or the maximum diameter of coarse aggregates or the maximum size of the bar
whichever is greater.

74
 SOME NOTES ON DETAILING OF REINFORCEMENT

COVER TO REINFORCEMENT :

Reinforcement shall have concrete cover and thickness of such cover exclusive of plaster or other
decorative finish shall be as follows :-

Clear cover at the end of a reinforcing bar shall be 25 mm. or twice the bar diameter whichever is
more.

Clear cover for longitudinal reinforcing bars in a column shall not be less than 40 mm. or bar
diameter whichever is more. In the case of columns with a minimum dimension of 200 mm. or less
where reinforcing bars do not exceed 12 mm., a cover of 25 mm. may be used.

Clear cover for longitudinal bars in beams shall be 25 mm. or the bar diameter whichever is greater.

(a) Clear cover for tensile, compressive, shear or other reinforcement in slabs shall be not less
than 15 mm. or the bar diameter whichever is greater nor less than the bar diameter.

(b) Clear cover for any other type of reinforcement shall be not less than 15 mm. nor less than
the diameter of bar.

Clear cover for reinforcement in different types of foundation shall be as given below

OPEN FOUNDATION :

(a) For surface in contact with earth :-

In case if a uniform thickness can be provided the clear cover to main reinforcement at side
face and bottom face should not be less than 50 mm. otherwise the clear cover should be
75 mm.

NOTE : When a lean concrete bed is provided at bottom the 50 mm. clear cover for bottom
main reinforcement shall be sufficient, otherwise 75 mm. clear cover will have to be
provided to cater for uneven excavated surface. Similarly when side faces are cast
with formwork the 50 mm. clear cover shall be sufficient otherwise 75 mm. clear
cover will have to be provided to cater for the uneven excavated surface.
(b) For external exposed face the clear cover shall not be less than 40 mm.

PILE FOUNDATION :

(a) Pile : The cover of concrete over all the reinforcement including ties should not be less than
40 mm. But where the piles are exposed to sea water or water having other corrosive
content the cover should be nowhere less than 50 mm.

75
(b) Pile Caps : The clear cover for the main reinforcement for the bottom of cap shall not be
less than 60 mm. For cover to side face main reinforcement. The prescription given in the
foregoing paras would be applicable.

RAFT FOUNDATION :

In case of raft foundation, whether resting directly on soil or on lean concrete, the clear cover for the
main reinforcement shall not be less than 75 mm.

Additional Cover :

In case of concrete members exposed to the action of harmful chemicals, acid, vapour, saline or
adverse atmosphere, sulphurous smoke the cover for various members shall be increased as
follows :-

For concrete mix of grade M 20 and of less grade the additional cover shall be 15 mm. This additional
cover will be 25 mm. when concrete member surface is in contact with earth.

For reinforced concrete members totally immersed in sea water, the cover shall be 40 mm. more
than that specified in the foregoing paras.

For reinforced concrete members, periodically immersed in sea water or subject to sea spray, the
additional cover shall be 50 mm.

For concrete grade M-25 and above the additional cover may be reduced to half.

In all such cases the total cover should not exceed 75 mm.

HOOKS AND BENDS :

Where normal hooks are used. They should be of U-type or L-type, but usually U-type is preferred
for mild steel bars and L-type is preferred for deformed bars.

76
 STANDARD HOOK AND BEND

TYPE OF STEEL MINIMUM VALUE OF K

MILD STEEL ..................................... 2

COLD WORKED STEEL ................. 4

Precautions in laying hooked bars.

i) While detailing it is important to ensure that hooks do not foul with other reinforcement
particularly where beams have more than one rows of bars.

ii) Reinforcing bars shall be so detailed that the hooks are not positioned in tensile zones of
concrete as this may cause cracking. It is better to bend the bars so that the hooks and
bars terminate in compression zones or so lengthen the bars to eliminate the need for
hooks.

Precautions in laying bend bars.

(1) In standard components with curve or angled soffit or those form with bends or corners
additional links are to be provided in these curve or bend length.

(2) Bent tension bars at re-entrant angle should be avoided.

DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF BARS IN TENSION OR COMPRESSION

The calculated tension or compression in any bar at any section shall be developed on each side of
the section by an appropriate development length or end anchorage or by a combination thereof.

Development length is the embedded length or reinforcement required to develop design strength
in the reinforcement at a critical section.

The development length in tension and in compression in terms of number of diameters of bar for
different mixes and different grades of steel in Limit State method are given in Tables below.

77
Sr. Mix Development length In tension
No. (Limit State design method)

For plain M.S.bars For H.Y.S.D.bars

Bar up to 20 mm. Bars of dia more fy = fy =

dia. fy = 250 N/mm2 than 20 mm. 415 N/mm2 500 N/mm2
fy = 240 N/mm2

1. M-15 55 53 57 68
2. M-20 46 44 47 57
3. M-25 39 38 41 49
4. M-30 37 35 38 46
5. M-35 32 31 34 40
6. M-40 29 28 30 36

Sr. Mix Development length in tension

No. (Limit State design method)

For plain M.S.bars For H.Y.S.D.bars

Bar up to 20 mm. Bars of dia more fy = fy =

dia. fy = 250 N/mm2 than 20 mm. 415 N/mm2 500 N/mm2
fy = 240 N/mm2
1. M-15 44 42 46 55

2. M-20 37 35 38 46

3. M-25 32 30 33 39

4. M-30 29 28 31 37

5. M-35 26 25 27 32
6. M-40 23 22 24 29

NOTE (1) In tables given above “N ” reads as N times the diameter of bar.
(2) It should be noted that the development length given in above Tables are under the
stress in bar which is equal to 0.87 x fy where :
fy is characteristic strength of the reinforcing steel bars.
(3) When the actual steel provided is more than that theoretically required so that the
actual stress in steel is less than the design strength of the steel (0.87 x fy), the
development length ‘Ld’ required can be reduced according to relation.

Ld (provided) = Ld (Required) X
( ‘As’ required
‘As’ provided )
78
Development length for bundled bars :

Instead of using a number of large diameter bars it is advantageous to make a few groups of small
diameter bars. Groups permit more clear space for ease in placing and compacting concrete.

The groups may have 2 or 3 or 4 bars. Owing to less contact surface with concrete bond resistance
of group is less that sum of resistance of separate bars. Therefore the development length of each
bar in bundle shall be that for the individual bar increase by the multiplying factor given below :-

Bundle Multiplying Factor

Single bar 1.0
Bundle of two bars 1.1
Bundle of three bars 1.2
Bundle of four bars 1.33

ANCHORAGE LENGTH :

Anchorage length in tension

(a) For Deformed Bars :-

For deformed bars it is straight length which is equal to development length given in tables of
development length in tension & compression of this note. Hooks need not be provided. However if
hooks are provided the anchorage value of hooks shall also be considered in the anchorage length.

(b) For Plain Bars

For plain bars normally hooks are provided. And anchorage length which is equal to development
length includes straight length as well as anchorage value of hooks.

(c) Anchorage Value of bend :-

The anchorage value of a standard bend shall be taken as given below

(i) 45 degree bend — 4 x
(ii) 90 degree bend — 8 x
(iii) 135 degree bend — 12 x
(iv) 180 degree and above — 16 x
(for U type hooks)

79
Anchorage length in compression :-

The anchorage length of straight bar in compression is equal to the development length given in
table of development length in compression. This development length should include the straight
length before the hooks or bends if hooks or bends are provided. The projected length of hooks,
bends and straight lengths beyond bends if provided, shall also be considered for development
length. In compression hooks and bends are ineffective and can not be used as anchorage.

ANCHORAGE LENGTH IN COMPRESSION

When a bar is subjected to both tension and compression the anchorage value should correspond
to the one which gives the maximum value, and at the same time individual requirements (with
respect to tension and compression) are also satisfied as given above.

Anchorage length for shear reinforcement :

(a) Inclined Bars :

The Anchorage length for shear reinforcement shall be equal to development length required for
bars in tension. This length shall be measured as under.

80
 IN COMPRESSION ZONE

ANCHORING INCLINED BENT UP BARS

(b) Stirrups :-

In case of secondary reinforcement, such as stirrups and transverse ties complete development
length and Anchorages shall be deemed to have been provided when the bar is bent through the
angle as given below :

(i) Atleast 90 degree round a bar of atleast its own diameter and is continued beyond
the end of the curve for a length of atleast 8 times the diameter of stirrups.

(ii) When the bar is bent through an angle of 135 degree and continued beyond the end
of curve for length atleast 6 times the diameter of stirrups.

(iii) When the bar is bend through an angle of 180 degree and it is continued beyond the
end of curve for length atleast 4 times the diameter of stirrups.

81
Additional Stirrups :

If a change in direction of tension or compression reinforcement induces a resultant force acting

outward tending to split the concrete, such force should be taken up by additional links or stirrups.

For example, when longitudinal bars are offset bend in a column addition links are provided in the
portion of offset bend.

In structural components with curved or angled soffits, or those formed with bends or corners the
radial tensile force due to changes in direction of reinforcement are resisted by additional links as
shown below.

TENSION BAR IN A
CURVED SOFFIT

RADIAL FORCES IN REINFORCEMENT

Bent tension bars at a re-entrant angle shoule be avoided.

82
SPLICES :
Reinforcement splicing is required to transfer force from one bar to another bar. The methods of
splicing are given below :-

(i) Lapping (ii) Welding (iii) Mechanical means.

Splices at points of maximum tensile stress shall be avoided.

It is recommended that splices in flexural members should not be at the sections where the bending
moment is more than 50% of the moment of resistance of the section.
Splices provided shall he staggered. Not more than half the bars shall be spliced at a section.
Where more than one half of the bars are spliced at a section or where splices are made at a point
of maximum stress, special precautions shall be taken such as given below -

(a) Increase the length of lap and/or

(b) Using spirals or

(c) Closely spaced stirrups around the length of the splice.

Lap Splices :

Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than 36 mm, for larger diameters, bars may be welded,
in cases where welding is not practicable, lapping of bars larger than 36 mm. may be permitted, in
which case additional spirals should be provided around the lapped bars.
Lap splices shall be considered as staggered if the c/c distance of the splices is not less than 1.3
times the lap length,

Lapped splices for compression bars need not be staggered.

The bars can lapped vertically one above the other or horizontally one near the other depending
upon space available. When bars of two different diameters are to be spliced, the lap length shall
be calculated on the basis of diameter of the smaller bar.

83
In case of bundled bars, lapped splices of bundled bars shall be made by splicing one bar at a time,
such individual splices within a bundle shall be staggered.
Lap length in tension :-
(a) In flexural tension lap length shall be Ld (Development length) or 30 times the bar diameter
whichever is greater. Anchorage value of hook shall also be counted in development length
in this case.

(b) For direct tension the lap length shall be two times development length (2 x Ld) or 30 times
the bar diameter whichever is greater.
(c) Splices in direct tension members shall be enclosed in spirals made up of bars not less
than 6 mm. diameter with pitch not more than 10 cm. Hooks/bends shall be provided at the
end of bars in tension members.

84
(d) The straight length of lap shall not be less than 15 times the bar diameter or 20 cm., whichever
is greater.

The lap length in compression :

The lap length in compression shall be equal to the development length in compression However,
this length shall not be less than 24 times the diameter of the bar.

= DIAMETER OF SMALLER BAR (IN COMPRESSION)

Lap Splices in Column, reinforcement :

(a) In columns, splicing is normally effected by the lapping of bars. The bottom of the bars are
normally at floor level. When laps are passing through the beam and column joint following
points must be ensured.

(i) Intersecting steel from beams etc. can be placed through the column without difficulty.
(ii) The column reinforcement can be properly supported.
(iii) The concrete can be properly placed.

85
86
87
88
(b) Splices where longitudinal bars are offset bent
(i) Here note that the longitudinal bars are bent due to overlapping of bars and not
due to column face offset.

89
Lap length shall be increased by 20 percent if :
(a) Contact splices are spaced laterally closer than 12 times bar diameter.
(b) Laps are located closer than 15 cm or 6 times bar diameter from outside edge of the
member.
(c) More than one half the bars are lapped within a length of 40 times bar diameters.
(d) Lap is provided at the point of maximum stress.

However in case the splice is enclosed for its full length by stirrups or closely spaced
spirals, the above extra length of lap is not required.

Contact splice should he formed by cranking one bar in such a way that the axis of cranked
bar coincides with the other bar beyond the splice.

90
 (ii) In columns where longitudinal bars are offset at a splice, the slope of inclined portion
of the bar with the axis of the column shall not exceed 1 in 6 and portion parallel to
the axis of the column.

(iii) Adequate horizontal support at the offset bends shall be provided by metal ties,
spirals or part of floor construction.

(iv) Horizontal thrust to be resisted shall be assumed = 1.5 times the horizontal
component of the nominal force in the inclined portion in the bar.

(v) Metal ties or spirals so designed shall be placed at a distance which is less than 8
times the diameter of main bar from the point of bend.

(vi) Offset bars shall be bent before they are placed in the forms.

(vii) Where column faces are offset 75 mm. or more, splices of vertical bars adjacent to
the offset face shall be made by separate dowels over lapped at specified above.

c) Column bars shall be spliced at the top of upstand beams, if available rather than at
floor level.

d) If welded splice or other positive connections are to be used as butt splices for longitudinal
reinforcing bars of larger diameter.

A. END BEARING COMPRESSION B. WELDED

SPLICE BUTT SPLICE
TENSION / COMPRES

TYPICAL DETAILS OF BUTT SPLICES

MEMBERS AS SPECIFIED BY THE APPROPRIATE LOADING CODE.

A HIGHER FACTOR OF SAFETY IS SOMETIMES NECESSARY FOR
JOINTS DESIGN AND DETAILING OF THE JOINT SHOULD BE DONE TO
SATISFY THIS CONDITION.

91
SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT :

For calculating the spacing the diameter of the bar should be considered as given below :

(1) For round bar diameter shall be its nominal diameter.

(2) In case of bar which are not round or which are deformed bar or crimped bars, the diameter
shall be taken as diameter of circle giving an equivalent effective area.

(3) For group of bars bundled together in contact shall be treated as single bar of diameter
derived from the total equivalent area.

MINIMUM CLEARANCE BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL BARS

Clear horizontal distance between two parallel main reinforcing bars shall usualy be not
less than the greatest of the following :

92
(1) The diameter of bar if the diameters are equal.

(2) The diameter of larger bar if the diameters are unequal: and

(3) 5 mm. more than the nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate.

NOTE:This does not preclude the use of larger size of aggregates beyond the congested
reinforcement in the same member; the size of aggregates may reduced around congested
reinforcement to comply with this provision.

Greater horizontal distance than the minimum specified should be provided wherever possible.
However when needle vibrators are used the horizontal distance between bars of a group may be
reduced to two-thirds the nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate, provided that sufficient
space is left between groups of bars to enable the vibrator to be immersed.

The minimum clear vertical distance between two tires of main reinforcing bars in beams or minimum
clear horizontal distance between two rows of main reinforcing bar of column shall normaly be
greatest of the following :-

(i) 15mm.

(ii) Two third of the nominal, maximum size of coarse aggregate.

(iii) The maximum size of bar.

Where there are two or more rows of bars, the bars shall be vertically in line and the minimum
vertical distance between the bars shall be 15 mm. two-thirds the nominal maximum size of aggregate
or the maximum size of bar, whichever is the greatest.

Maximum distance between bars in Tension :

Unless the calculation of crack widths shows that a greater spacing is acceptable, the following
rules shall be applied to flexural members in normal internal or external conditions of exposure.

(a) BEAMS :- The horizontal distance between parallel reinforcement bars, or groups, near the
tension face of a beam shall not be greater than the value given in Table No. 4 below
depending on the amount of redistribution carried out in analysis and the characteristic
strength of the reinforcement.

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Maximum Clear Distance Between Tension Bars
Percentage Redistribution To or from section considered
-30 -15 0 +15 +30
Clear Distance Between Bars
N/MM2 mm. mm. mm. mm. mm.
250 215 260 300 300 300
415 125 155 180 210 235
500 105 130 150 175 195

NOTE : The spacing given in the Table are not applicable to members subjected to particularly
aggresive environments unless in the calculations of moment of resistance, fy
2
(ultimate stress for the steel) has been limited to 300 N/mm in Limit State Design
2
and 6st (allowable tensile stress) limited to 165 N/mm in working stress design.

(b) SLABS :
1. The horizontal distance between parallel main reinforcement bars shall not be more than
three times the effective depth of a solid slab of 450 mm. whichever is smaller.

94
2. The horizontal distance between parallel reinforcement bars provided against shrinkage
and temperature distribution steel) shall not be more than 5 times the effective depth of a
solid slab or 450 mm. whichever is smaller.

(c) COLUMNS :

1. Cracks due to bending in a compression member subjected to a design axial load greater
than 0.2 fck AC, where fck is the characteristic compressive strength of concrete and AC is
the area of the gross section of the member, need not be checked. Spacing of longitudinal
bars measured along the periphery of the column shall not exceed 300 mm.

2. A member subjected to lesser load than 0.2 fck AC where fck and AC are described above,
may be considered as a flexural member for the purpose of crack control. In general,
compliance with the spacing requirement of reinforcement should be sufficient to control
flexural cracking.

REINFORCING DETAILS FOR BEAMS :

While fixing the overall size of beams slenderness limits for beam to ensure lateral stability and
span to depth ratio to control deflection shall be kept in view. The following points shall also be
noted in detailing.

The bars shall be symmetrically placed about the vertical centre line of the beams. Where there
are only two bars in a row, these shall be placed at the outer edges.

Where bars of different diameter are placed in a single bottom row, the larger diameter bars are
placed on the outer side.

Where bars in different horizontal rows have different diameter, the larger diameter bars shall be
placed in the bottom row.

Deformed bars may be used without end anchorages provided development length requirement is
satisfied. Hooks should normally be provided for plain bars in tension.

Minimum 2 bars of 12 mm. dia shall be provided at top and bottom as anchoring bars in beams
through out its length.

Tolerance on placing of reinforcement :

Unless otherwise specified by the engineer-in-charge reinforcement shall be placed with in the
following tolerances.

a) For effective depth 200 mm or less + or - 10 mm

b) For effective depth more than 200 mm. + or - 15 mm
The cover shall in no case reduced by more than one-third of specified cover or 5 mm. whichever
is less.

95
96
Anchoring of bars in beams :
Anchorage length :-

1. When the beam acting as flexural member

The anchorage length for main steel and extra steel at support shall be measured beyond the face
of the support and shall be as under

a) When anchored in adjoining beam

Greatest of the following :

i) Anchorage length shall be as given in the table 2

ii) (0.25 x ‘I’ + hook when hook is provide or only 0.25 x ‘ I ‘ when hook is not provided
(Where ‘I’ is centre to centre span of the beam in which the bar is to be anchored)

b) When anchored in supporting column or supporting beam as the case may be the anchorage
length shall be as given in Table No.2.

2. When the beam is under direct tension the anchorage length shall be as 2 times the
development length or 30 times the bar diameter whichever is greater.

How to anchor the bars at support ?

1) Anchoring of top steel :-
(a) Continuous beams
To be continuous the beam should have a colinear adjoining beam.
i) When top of these continuous beams are at same level the top steel shall
be anchored for full anchorage length by continuing it in the adjoining beam.
ii) When top of these continuous beams are not at same level the top steel of
lower level beam can be anchored by continuing the bars in upper level
beam. The top steel of upper level beam can be anchored in supporting
column by continuing the bars in upper or lower direction. When the top bars
of upper level beam are to be continued in the upper column section provide
the additional steel as shown in the sketch below :

97
The top bars can be continued in the lower column section,

If instead of column the supporting member is a beam and if these secondary beams are designed
as continuous beams over the support, the top steel from upper level beam shall be anchored in
the supporting beam and top steel from lower level beam can be anchored in the adjoing upper
level beam.

b) Discontinuous beams :-
These beams terminate at the support.

In this case if supporting member at discontinuous end is a column then the top
steel from the beam shall be anchored by continuing the bars in supporting column.

If supporting member at discontinuous and is an another beam (the case of secondary

beam) then the supported beam shall be treated as simply supported at this
discontinuous end and accordingly the top steel from this supported beam shall not
be anchored or nominally anchored for 15 cm in the supporting beam.

c) Extra steel at a support shall be fully anchored on either side of the support for the
anchorage length as given above. In this case for calculation of the anchorage length
the centre to centre span ‘L’ shall be of respective beam.

(2) Anchoring of bottom steel at support :-

(a) In Non seismic region including seismic Zone-I and II. The straight bars at bottom shall be
continued for a length of (8d + hook) or 15 cm. respectively beyond face of the support
unless mentioned otherwise.

(b) However, if the diameters of bottom bars of the adjacent beam are same and if their bottoms
are at same level, then these bars may be kept continuous. Surplus bars may however be
stopped or anchored as given above.

98
(c) For beams framing into columns and designed for wind/seismic forces, the bottom bars
also must be anchored for full anchorage lengths as top bars explained above.

In case where the adjacent beams meeting at a column are not at the same level at top, each beam
shall be considered as ending at that support for the purpose of providing reinforcement and
anchorages near support.

Intersection of Beams :-

General :

At beam to beam intersection, reinforcement is so arranged that layers in mutually perpendicular

beams are at different levels.

Top Reinforcement :

It is good practice to pass the secondary beam reinforcement over the main beam reinforcement.
However, where the main beam is very heavily stressed, the main reinforcement may pass over
the secondary reinforcement.

Bottom Reinforcement :

To accommodate bottom bars, it is good practice to make secondary beam shallower than main
beams, even if by only 5 cm. Where soffit of both beams are at same level, secondary beam
reinforcement should pass over main beam reinforcement. Unless the secondary beam span is
short, bars of diameter less than 2.5 cm. be draped Cranking of bottom bars is usually not necessary.

BEAMS DESIGNED FOR TORSION :-

Longitudinal Reinforcement :

Longitudinal reinforcement shall be placed as close as is practicable to the corners of the

cross-section and in all cases there shall be at least one longitudinal bar in each corner of the ties.

99
Tension Reinforcement
(a) Minimum Reinforcement Percentage

Sr. No. Type of Reinforcement Minimum Reinforcement percentage

1. M.S. (fy = 250 N/mm2) 0.34

2. fy = 415 N/mm2 (H.Y.S.D.) 0.21
3. fy = 500 N/mm2 0.17
Minimum Steel area = Pst x bd
Where b = Breadth of beam or breadth of web of flanged beam.
d = effective depth.
Pst = Percentage as given in Table No. 5 above

(b) Maximum Reinforcement :

The maximum area of tension reinforcement shall not exceed 0.04 bD, where b is the width
of the beam rib or web and D is the total depth of the beam.

Compression Reinforcement :

(i) Maximum reinforcement = 0.04 x bD

Where
b - Breadth of beam or breadth of web of flanged beams.
D - Over all depth

(ii) Compression reinforcement in beams shall be enclosed by stirrups for effective lateral
restraint. The arrangement of stirrups shall be specified in IS - 456-1978, Cl. No. 25.5.3.2,
P.No. 71)

Side Face Reinforcement :

(i) Where the depth of the web in a beam exceeds 750 mm, side face reinforcement shall be
provided along the two vertical faces. The total area of such reinforcement shall be not less
than 0.1 percent of the web area and shall be distributed equally on two faces at a spacing
not exceeding 300 mm. or web thickness whichever is less.

(ii) For beams in torsion when the cross-sectional dimensions of the members exceeds 450
mm. additional longitudinal reinforcements shall be provided at the side faces and the total
area of such reinforcement shall be not less than 0.1 percent of the web area and shall be
distributed equally on two faces at a spacing not exceeding 300 mm. or web thickness
whichever is lower.

100
Flanged beams :- In case of slabs cast monolithically with beam, main reinforcement of which is
parallel to length of beam, additional reinforcement called flange steel shall be provided at top
across the beam as shown in fig. This reinforcement should be 60 percent of main reinforcement
of the slab or 0.3 percent and 0.2 percent of the cross section of the slab for M.S. and H.Y.S.D.
respectively (inclusive of available reinforcement of bent bars from adjoining slabs, if any), whichever
is more. The spacing of such bars shall not be more than 3 times the effective depth of slab.

In case of cantilever beams at least two bars shall be bent down at the free end continued at bottom
into the supporting beams or columns as the case may be.

Top reinforcement in cantilever beams shall be anchored in the supporting columns or continued in
adjoining beam, if the adjoining beam is colinear, for sufficient anchor length as above or (0.25 L +
Hook), whichever is more. ‘ L’ is the span of adjoining beam between centre to centre of the support.

101
Corners :-

General :

The closing corners present no major problem, but opening corners require careful detailing.

90 degree – Opening Corners with 1 percent Reinforcement or less :

Where the amount of reinforcement in the beam is equal to or less than 1 percent, detail the
reinforcement as shown below. The splay steel being equal to 50 percent of the main steel.

102
90 degree – Opening Corners with more than 1 percent Reinforcement :

If the area of reinforcement exceeds one percent, provide transverse steel as well as splay steel as
shown. (The use of a splay is also strongly recommended).

Closing Corners :-

At closing corners provide adequate radii (equal to at least 7.5 bar diameter) and some additional
reinforcement.

Cranked Beams :-

The recommended methods of detailing are shown below.

103
Beam of Different Depths :-
Typical arrangements of reinforcement over the support when the beam on either side of the support
are of different depths.

Haunched Beams :-

Haunches are provided at the ends of heavily loaded beams. There are no rules governing size of
haunches, but those shown below are considered ideal.

104
Main Reinforcement in haunches :-
The sketches below show the typical main tensile reinforcement in an end external haunch. The
main bars are carried through the haunch as if it did not exist, with pairs of bars a,b,c etc. stopped
off in accordance with a cut-off bending moment diagram. Bars h are placed parallel to the haunch
to carry vertical links (omitted in the figure are clarity).

105
Stirrups in haunches :

These stirrups are positioned normally to the haunch or placed vertically. Most designers use
vertical stirrups. If ‘ h’ bars provided at the bottom of a haunch are placed near the out side edge of
the beam they would foul the outside main horizontal bars. Therefore, these ‘h’ bars are to be
placed on the inside as shown in sketch. So that two different sets of stirrups are required through
the length of the haunch.

Beams of varying depth :

(i) Stirrups need to be detailed individually. The different stirrup sizes may be reduced in number
by using concertina stirrups with the legs lapped with tension lap length. The difference
between the lengths of successive groups should be at least 50 mm. In order to maintain
the correct size of the member use closed stirrups at centre to centre distances of at least
100 cm.

106
(ii) Detail stirrup sizes individually where beams have varying depth. A range of stirrup sizes
has to be detailed.

Deep Beam:-

A beam shall be deemed to be a deep beam when the ratio of effective span to overall depth (L/D)
is less than

(a) 2.0 for simply supported beam and

(b) 2.5 for a continuous beam.

Positive Reinforcement :-

(a) The tensile reinforcement required to resist positive bending moment in any span of deep
beam shall extend between supports without curtailment. This main reinforcement may be
supplemented by two layers of mesh reinforcement provided near each of the two faces in
which case the spacing between two adjacent parallel bars must not exceed twice the
thickness of beam or 30 cm. whichever is greater.

(b) It shall be embedded beyond the face of each support for length equal to 0.8 x Ld where Ld
is development length as given in this note. This anchorage may be achieved by bending of
the bars in a horizontal plane.

(c) It shall be placed within a zone of depth equal to (0.25 D - 0.05 L) adjacent to the tension
face of the beam where D is the overall depth and L is the effective span. The arrangement
is illustrated below.

107
108
Negative Reinforcement :
(A) Termination of reinforcement :
For tensile reinforcement required to resist negative bending moment over a support of a
deep beam.
i) It shall be permissible to terminate not more than half of the reinforcement at a
distance of 0.5 x D (D = overall depth) from the face of the support.
ii) The remainder shall extended over the full span.

(B) Distribution of negative Reinforcement :

(a) When ratio of clear span to over all depth is in the range 1.0 to 2.5. The tensile steel
at support shall be placed ‘in two zone.
(i) A zone of depth 0.2 D adjacent to the tension face, which shall contain a proportion
of the tension steel given by
0.5 x ( l - 0.5)
D
Where
L Clear span, and
D Overall depth.
(ii) A zone measuring 0.3 D on either side of the mid-depth of the beam, which shall
contain the remainder of the tension steel, evenly distributed.
(b) When clear span to over all depth ratio is less than unity the steel shall be evenly
distributed over a depth of 0.8 D measured from the tension face.

Vertical Reinforcement :-
If forces are applied to a deep beam in such a way that hanging action is required, bars or suspension
stirrups shall be provided to carry all the force concerned.

109
Side face reinforcement for a deep beam :-
Side face reinforcement shall comply with requirements of minimum reinforcement of 0.4 percent
of the gross sectional area of the beam.

Stirrups for deep beam :-

To stiffen the legs of stirrups for deep beams against buckling during construction tie clips to the
legs and horizontal bars. Space the clips horizontally at every second or third stirrup, subject to a
maximum space of 60 cm. and vertically at alternate intersections of horizontal bars.

Reinforcement details of a secondary beam supported over a main beam through a

pedestal :-

In case of a secondary beam supported by another main beam having its bottom at a higher level
than the top of the supporting beam, the gap between the two shall be filled in by concrete mix of the
main beam for full width. Bottom bars of such secondary beams should then be continued in this
concrete block (on the face away from the secondary beam). Top steel at the support of such
secondary beam shall pass through this concrete block and continue in the main supporting beam
for anchorage length. If the height of this concrete block is more than 60 cm., four bars of 12 mm.
may be provided as vertical reinforcement in the concrete block and top bars can be anchore
adequately in this concrete block.

110
Detailing of Shear Reinforcement :- (Normal Beam)

A stirrup in the reinforced concrete beam shall pass around or be otherwise adequately secured to
the outer most tension reinforcement and compression reinforcement, and such stirrups should
have both its ends anchored properly. In T-beams and L-beams, such reinforcement shall pass
around longitudinal bars located close to the outer face of the flange.

While adopting stirrups, different shapes may be considered depending on constructional

requirements keeping in view the end anchorage requirements. However, while choosing a particular
shape for a particular situation, its validity should be considered from structural point of view.

111
Bent-up Bars :-
Tensile reinforcement which is inclined and carried through the depth of beam can also be considered
to act as shear reinforcement provided it is anchored in accordance with as given below.

112
Usually two bars are bent up at a time at an angle 45 degree to 60 degree to the longitudinal axis of
the beam but other angles can also be adopted.
It is usual practice to combine bent up bars and vertical stirrups to resist the shear since some of
the longitudinal bars are bent up when they are no longer required at the bottom.

Maximum Spacing for Stirrup -

The maximum spacing of shear reinforcement measured along the axis of the member shall not
exceed ‘0.75 d’ for vertical stirrups and ‘ d’ for inclined stirrups at 45 degree, where ‘d’ is the effective
depth of the section under consideration. In no case maximum spacing shall exceed 450 mm.
NOTE :- Maximum spacing is also governed by the minimum shear reinforcement criteria and
torsion reinforcement criteria.

113
 Use of Multi-Legged Stirrups:-
(a) Multi-legged stirrups are required from the consideration of shear stresses in the beam,
or where restraint against the buckling of bars in compression is needed. The rules for
stirrups reinforcing steel in compression are the same as those for columns. The vertical
stirrups may be provided as two-legged stirrups, four-legged stirrups or six-legged stirrups
at the same section according to actual requirements. Open type stirrups may be used for
beam-slab construction where the width of rib is more than 450 mm.

(b) Arrangement for supporting shear stirrups.

(i) For two legged stirrups, provide minimum two bars at top face corners and two
bars at bottom face corners.
(ii) For four legged stirrups, provide minimum three bars at top face and three bars at
bottom face.
(iii) For six legged stirrups, provide minimum four bars at top face and four bars at
bottom face.
Stirrups in Edge Beams :-
Where designer shows stirrups in any edge beam or spandrel beam, these stirrups shall be closed
and at least one longitudinal bar shall be located in each corner of the beam section, the size of this
bar is to be at least equal to the diameter of the stirrup but not less than 1 2 mm. These details shall
be clearly indicated by the designer.

114
Typical cross-sectional details are shown above for normal and upturned edge or spandrel beams.
For easier placing of the longitudinal bars in the beam, details for two-piece closed stirrups are also
shown. For the same reason, 90 degree stirrup hook is preferred.

115
Minimum Shear Reinforcement :-

For satisfying minimum shear reinforcement criteria the spacing of stirrups of different diameters
and different grade of steel is given in Table No. 6 and 7 below for different width of beam.

Table No. 6 :- Mild Steel

Width of Maximum spacing of stirrups in cm. for diameter (fy = 250 N/Sq.mm.)
beam (cm.) 8 mm. 10 mm. 12 mm. 16 mm.

23 27 42 60 109

30 20 32 47 83

35 17 27 39 71

40 15 24 35 62

116
Table No. 7 :- H.Y.S.D. Steel

Width of Maximum spacing of stirrups in cm. for diameter

beam (cm.) (fy = 415 N/Sq.mm. or 500 N/Sq.mm.)

8 mm. 10 mm. 12 mm. 16 mm.

23 45 71 101 181

30 34 54 78 139

35 29 46 66 119

40 25 40 58 104

However, in members of minor structural importance such as lintels, or where the maximum shear
stress calculated is less than the permissible value, this provision need not be compiled with

Shear (Transverse) Reinforcement for Torsion :-

The transverse reinforcement for torsion shall be rectangular closed stirrups placed perpendicular

to the axis of the member. The details of single stirrup are shown below. The spacing of the stirrups
shall not exceed the least of X1 (X1 + Y1 ) /4 and 300 mm, where X1 and Y1 are respectively the short
and long dimensions of the stirrup. In a beam with multi-legged stirrup, only the stirrup going around
the outer face shall be considered to resist torsional force. In members having a complex cross-

section (such as L and T-sections), each part (flanges, ribs, webs etc.) should contain closed
stirrups of its own.

117
Force not Applied to Top of Beam :-
Where a load transfer is through the bottom or side of a beam (for example, where one beam

frames into another), ensure that there is sufficient suspension or hang-up reinforcement at the
junction in the main beam in the form of stirrups to transfer the force to the top of the beam. If the
load is large, bent-up bars may also be used in addition to stirrups.

118
Torsion Reinforcement :-
When a member is designed for torsion, reinforcement for the same shall be provided as follow.

transverse reinforcement to be provided as given above longitudinal reinforcement shall be placed

as close as is practicable to the corners of the cross section and in all cases there shall be at least
one longitudinal bar in each corner of the ties.

For Beams in Torsion : (Side face reinforcement)

For beams in torsion, side face reinforcement shall be provided as given in the drawing above.

Openings in the Web :

(a) Small Opening :

When largest dimension of the opening is less than or equal to 0.25 x effective depth of the
member, the opening is small opening.

(b) Large Opening :

When largest dimension of the opening exceed 0.25 x effective depth of the member, the
opening is large opening.

Small Opening
Small square or circular openings may be placed in the mid-depth of the web provided that cover
requirements to longitudinal and transverse reinforcement are satisfied and the clear distance
between such openings, measured along the member, is not less than 15 cm. The area of small
openings shall not exceeds -

(i) 10 Sq.cm. - for members with an effective depth, d, less than or equal to 50 cm. or

(ii) 0.004 d x d when the effective depth d, is more than 50 cm.

119
NOTE: Small openings with areas not exceeding those specified in (a) are considered not to interfere
with the development of the strength of the member. However, such openings must not
encroach in to the flexural compression zone of the member. Therefore, the edge of a small
opening should be not closer than 0.33 d to the compression face of the member. When
two or more small openings are placed transversely in the web, the distance between the
outermost edges of the small openings should be considered as being equivalent to the
height of one large opening and the member should be designed accordingly.
Large Openings :-
For large openings orthogonal or diagonal reinforcement around the openings shall be provided.
For the placement of such large opening following guide lines are given :-
(i) They shall not be placed in the web where they could affect the flextural or shear capacity of
the member.
(ii) They shall not be placed where total shear stress exceeds 0.36 9fck or in potential plastic
hinge zone.
(iii) In no case shall the height of the opening exceed 0.4 d.
(iv) Nor shall its edge be closer than 0.33 d to the compression face of the member.

For large opening longitudinal and transverse reinforcement shall be placed in the compression
side of the web to resist one and one-half times the shear across the opening. Shear transfer in the
web shall be neglected.

Transverse web reinforcement, extending over the full depth of the web, shall be placed adjacent to
both sides of a large opening over a distance not exceeding one-half of the effective depth of the
member to resist twice the entire design shear across the opening.
NOTE: At either side of an opening where the moments and shear forces are introduced to the full
section of a beam, horizontal splitting or diagonal tension cracks are to be expected. To
control these cracks, transverse reinforcement resisting at least twice the design shear
force, must be provided on both sides of the opening. Such stirrups can be distributed over
a length not exceeding 0.5 d at either side immediately adjacent to the opening.

120
SLABS :
Minimum Reinforcement :-
In solid reinforced concrete slabs, the reinforcement in either direction expressed as a percentage
of the gross- sectional area of the concrete shall not be less than
(a) 0.15 percent where plain bars are used, and
(b) 0.12 percent where high yield strength (hot rolled and cold twisted) deformed bars or welded
wire fabric are used.

Spacing, Cover :- Shall be as prescribed for the concrete members in the foregoing paragraphs.

Bar Diameters :-

(a) The main bars in the slab shall not be less than
(i) 8 mm. when H.Y.S.D. bars are used or
(ii) 10 mm. when mild steel are used.
(b) Distribution steel shall not be less than 6 mm. in diameter.
(c) The diameter of the bar shall not also be more than one-eighth of the slab thickness.

Maximum diameter of bars that can be used in a slab.

Sr. No. Thickness of slab Maximum dia of main bars

(1) 10 cm. to 12 cm. 12 mm.

(2) 13 cm. to 14 cm. 16 mm.
(3) 15 cm. 18 mm.
(4) 16 cm. to 19 cm. 20 mm.
(5) 20 cm. 25 mm.

Simply Supported Slabs :

One Way Slab:

The sketch given below shows the general details of slab spanning in one direction. Atleast 50
percent of main reinforcement provided at mid span bottom should extend straight to the support.
The remaining 50 percent should extend straight to within 0.1 L of the support and from there shall
be bent as given in sketch. Distribution steel bars are placed in the upper layers and tied with the
main steel bars.

121
122
123
Bars in the shorter direction are generally place in the bottom layer and bars in the longer direction
are placed in the upper layer and tied together at suitable intervals to keep their relative position
intact during concreting.

At least 50 percent of the tension reinforcement provided at mid span should extend straight to the
supports the remaining 50 percent should extend to within 0.1 Ix or 0.1 ly from the support and from
there shall be bent as shown in sketch. Where lx and ly are effective span in shorter direction and
longer direction respectively.

Continuous Slab :-

For two way slab with one or more edges continuous over the support, see sketches below.

124
125
126
The tension reinforcement provided at mid-span in the middle strip shall extend in the lower part of
the slab to within 0.25 L of continuous edge or 0. 15 L of a discontinuous edge.

Over the continuous edges of middle strip, the tension reinforcement shall extend in the upper part
of the adjoining slab to the distance of 0. 15 L from the support, and at least 50 percent shall extend
a distance of 0.30 L from the support.

The bent up bars will have shape as shown in sketch.

Straight length of bar beyond bent over the support at continuous edge will be 0.25 L1 + 0.5 b +
0.3L2
Where
L1 : Span of slab under consideration measured centre to centre of the support.
L2 : Span of adjoining slab measured centre to centre of support.
b: Width of the supporting beam between the two slabs.

Straight length of bar beyond bent over the support at discontinuous edge will be 0. 15 L 1 + b

At a discontinuous edge, negative moments may arise. They depend on the fixity at the edge of the
slab but, in general, tension reinforcement equal to 50 percent of that provided at mid-span extending
0.1 L into the span will be sufficient.

Reinforcement in edge strip parallel to the edge shall be

(a) 0.15 percent for plain bars.
(b) 0.12 percent for H.Y.S.D. (hot rolled) and (cold twisted) bars.
In addition to this torsion steel at corners will also be provided if required.

Torsional Reinforcement :

Torsional Reinforcement shall be provided at any corner where the slab is simply supported
(discontinuous) on both edges or any one edge meeting at that corner and is prevented from lifting
unless the consequences of cracking are negligible.

127
Reinforcement details :
(i) Torsional steel shall consist of top and bottom reinforcement each with layer of bars placed
parallel to the sides of the slab and extending from the edges a minimum distance of one-
fifth of the shorter span.

(ii) When both edges of the corner are discontinuous, the area of reinforcement per unit width
in each of these four layers (Two layers at top of the slab and two layers at bottom of the
slab) shall be three quarters of the area required for the maximum mid span moment per
unit width in the slab.

(iii) When one of the edge at corner is discontinuous the torsional reinforcement equal to half
that described in (ii) above shall be provided.

When both the edge meeting at a corner are continuous the torsional steel need not be provided.

Extra steel if any as shown in the schedule shall be provided across supporting beam on either
side for a length as specified in the foregoing paras measured from centre of support.

In case, steel at top of support can not be anchored in the adjoining span it shall be anchored in the
supporting beam for adequate anchorage length as specified.

Re-entrant corners :
(a) Diagonal reinforcement shall be placed at all reentrant corners to keep crack width within
limit.

(b) Re-entrant corners -

When tension bars meeting at a corner produce a resultant force resisted by the concrete cover,
the bars shall be crossed over and anchored on either side of the cross-over by adequate anchorage
length for taking up the stresses in the bar.

128
Cantilever Slab :-
The main reinforcement shall be placed at the top of cantilever slab extending to sufficient length
over the support and back into the normal span. Stools and chairs may be provided to support the
top steel. Main top bars that extend to the end (50 percent of top steel at support i.e. alternate bars)
should have vertical bend with a fixing bar at the bend. Fix bar runs perpendicular to main steel.
The secondary steel at right angle to the support may be designed and detailed to carry construction
loading in the propped condition if necessary. If required separate compression steel may be provided
at the bottom of the cantilever slab or top bars extended upto the cantilever end can be bend back
at the bottom of the slab and extended to the centre of the support. This compression steel will help
in reducing the deflection in cantilever slab.

129
Tie backs and counter masses to cantilever :-
Cantilever at the bottom of beams :-
When cantilever is at the bottom of a beam the stirrups in the beam should be designed for moment,
shear, hanging tension and, if required for torsion. Provide corner steel at opening corner. The
corner reinforcement should be at least 50 percent of cantilever reinforcement. The sketches below
provide four such alternative methods of anchoring bars of such cantilever slabs in supporting
beam.

130
Cantilever at the top of beams :-
Where the weathering course is 30 mm. or less crank the main bars of the cantilever slab at a
slope not exceeding 1 in 6. Ensure that the combination of top bars of cantilever slab and stirrups
in supporting beam in such as to provide the required restraint. Note also that if a top bar of cantilever
slab is laced over and under the beam bars it is fully restrained provided that the beam top bars are
heavy enough and a stirrup is within 5 cm. of such laced bar. If it is not possible to lace the top bars,
ensure that the sufficient anchorage is given to these top bars so as to prevent the cantilever slab
from bursting.

Opening in Slabs:-
For special openings for lift shafts large service ducts etc. provide, special beams along the periphery
of the opening. If it is not possible to provide peripherial beams, provide additional reinforcement
around the opening. In such case due regard shall be paid to the possibility of diagonal cracks
developing at the corners of the openings. The number, size and position of these trimming bar is
a matter of special design.

131
Where openings are small and the slab is not subjected to any special type loading or vibration
conditions, the following general detailing rules may be followed around openings.
(a) At least one half the quantity of principal steel intersected by the opening is to be placed
parallel to principal steel on each side of the opening extending Ld beyond the edges of the
opening.
(b) Diagonal stitching bars are put across the corners of rectangular holes or so placed as to
frame circular openings. They should be placed both at top and bottom if the thickness of
slab exceeds 150 mm. The diameter of these bars should be the same as that of the larger
of the slab bars, and their length should be about 80 times diameters.
NOTE : In general openings of diameter less than 250 mm. or of size smaller than 200 x 200 mm.
may be treated as insignificant openings.
Stair Case Slab :-
Minimum Reinforcement :-
Minimum reinforcement bar spacing and cover should conform to the requirement specified for
slabs and beams as appropriate.
Flight supported on side beams :-
The reinforcement detail for a staircase supported by edge beams along each edge with two types
of arrangement are shown below.

Flight supported on central beam : (Stringer beam)

Each step of the staircase is acting as a cantilever on both sides of the main beam.

132
The sketch below shows reinforcement details of a flight spanning from outer edge to outer edge of
landing. These outer edges of landings are simply supported over or fixed in mid landing beam and
floor beams. When this slab is fixed in supporting beam and there is no counter slab on other side
of the supporting beam, the supporting beam shall be designed for torsion. And main reinforcement
from the slab should be properly anchored in the supporting beam.

133
The sketch below shows reinforcement details of a flight spanning from inner edge to inner edge of
landings. If also gives the reinforcement details of landing slabs.

Cranked Beams :
Straight stair flights and landings supported by side or centre beams will require cranked beams.
The elevation details of cranked beam are as below.

134
The bars at the inter section ‘x’ and ‘y’ shall be carried for development length beyond the inter
section and one set of bar shall be cranked inside the other because of fouling. To complete the
intersection extra bars normal to the angle of intersection are usually added as shown by the bars
‘ c’ and ‘ f’ in the sketch above.

Cantilever Stairs :-
For typical reinforcement details of steps cantilevering from supporting wall and for typical
reinforcement details of staircase cantilevering from the side of wall see sketches below.

135
Flight without waist slab

A typical detail of a slabless tread riser staircase is given in sketch below.

Reinforcing Details For Columns :-

Minimum dimension of column shall not be less than 23 cms.

In case if ductility criteria is to he adopted then,

(a) The minimum dimension of column shall be such that the ratio of the shortest cross sectional
dimension to the perpendicular dimension shall preferably be not less than 0.4. (i.e. for 23
cm. width maximum depth should not be more than 60 cm.)

(b) In frames which have beams with centre to centre span exceeding 5 m. or columns of
unsupported length exceeding 4 m. the shortest dimension of the columns shall not be less
than 30 cms.

Longitudinal Reinforcement :-

Maximum Reinforcement :-

The cross sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement in a column shall not be more than 6 percent
of gross cross sectional area of the column.

136
NOTE: The use of 6 percent reinforcement may involve practical difficulties in placing and
compacting of concrete, hence lower percentage is recommended. Where bars from the
lower column have to be lapped with bars in the column under consideration the percentage
of steel shall usually not exceed 4 percent.

Minimum Reinforcement :-

(i) The cross sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement in a column shall not be less than 0.8
percent of gross cross sectional area of the column.

NOTE : In any column that has a larger cross sectional area than that required to support the load,
the minimum percentage of steel shall be based upon the area of concrete required to
resist the direct stress and not upon the actual area provided.

Required area = Factored load

Allowable stress for concrete

(ii) Minimum four bars of 12 mm. diameter in rectangular column and six bars of 12 mm. dia in
circular column.

(iii) Spacing of longitudinal bars measured along the periphery of the column shall not exceed
30 cm.

(iv) A column having helical reinforcement shall have at least six bars of longitudinal reinforcement
within the helical reinforcement.

Bending of longitudinal reinforcement bars:-

(a) (i) Where a column at a particular floor is smaller (in cross-section) than the column
immediately below it, the vertical bars from the lower column shall be offset to come
within the upper column or when this bending of vertical bar is not practical then
dowel shall be used.

137
SKETCH SHOWING PLACING OF COLUMN REINFORCEMENT IN CASE UPPER COLUMN
SECTION REDUCES ABRUPTLY SO AS TO GIVE BIGGER OFFSET WITH SPLAY OF MORE
THEN 1 IN 6 AND ON RIGHT SIDE OF SKETCH OFFSET IS SMALLER AND SPLAY OF BAR IS
LESS THAN 1 IN 6 IN SUCH A CASE LOWER COLUMN BAR ITSELF IS TAKEN UPPER COLUMN.

(ii) The slope of the inclined portion shall not exceed 1 in 6.

(iii) In detailing offset column bars, a bar diameter should be added to the desired offset.

138
(iv) In the corner of the square or rectangular column, the vertical bar should be offset along the diagonal.

(b) General pratice is to sketch the offset for corner bars which should be bent diagonally and
make this the typical offset dimension for all the bars in the column.

139
(c) For offset between column faces up to a maximum of 75 mm. The longitudinal bars should
be offset bent. When the offset exceeds 75 mm. The longitudinal bars in the column below
should be terminated at the floor slab and separate dowels used.
(d) (i) When the bar arrangement changes between floors bars may,
(1) extend through.
(2) Some bars may stop off.
(3) Some bars may require separate dowels.
(ii) All bars of the column in lower section should be continued in the upper section of
the column for length corresponding to the mix of the upper section.
(e) Where adjoining beam is not provided, the height of the column equal to say 75 mm. above
the floor level should be cast along with the lower column. So that a kicker can be formed to
place the column shutters.
(f) Column bars shall be bent and anchored into the beam if the column stops at that beam.
The length of anchorage shall not be less than the development length.

Transverse Reinforcement :-
Lateral ties

(a) Pitch :- The pitch of transverse reinforcement shall be not more than the least of the following distances.
(i) The least lateral dimension of the compression member.
(ii) Sixteen times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bars to be tied.
(iii) Forty eight times the diameter of the transverse reinforcement.

140
b) Diameter :- The diameter of the polygonal links or lateral ties shall be not less than one fourth of
the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, and in no case less than 5 mm.

Helical Reinforcement (Spirally reinforced)

(a) Placement :- Helical reinforcement shall be of regular formation with the turns of the helix
spaced evenly and its ends shall be anchored properly by providing one and half extra turns of
the spiral preferably with a 135 degree hook.

(b) Pitch :- The pitch of the helical turns shall be not more than
a) (i) 75 mm.
(ii) One-sixth of core diameter of the column.
b) Not less than 25 mm. or three times the diameter of steel bar forming helix.
c) Where lap splices are to be provided for helical reinforcing bars tension lap length
shall be provided.

141
d) Diameter :- The diameter shall be not less than one-fourth of the largest diameter of the longitudinal
bars and in no case less than 5 mm.

Temporary Stirrups

At least two temporary fixing stirrups should be provided to hold splices in position or to stiffen the
helically bond columns during fabrication. The stirrups coming above the floor shall not be removed
until the next column is erected.

Where the column verticals are offset bent, additional ties/spirals shall be provided and placed at a
distance not more than 8 bar diameters from the point of the bend. For practical purpose 3 closely
spaced ties are usually used, one of which may be part of the regularly spaced ties plus two extra
ties.

NOTE :- The number of additional ties/spirals should be designed on the assumption that the
horizontal thrust to be resisted shall be 1.5 times the horizontal components of the normal
stress in the inclined portion of the bars.

Different Arrangements of transverse reinforcement

are shown in the sketch below.

Splicing of reinforcing bars

For details of reinforcement splicing in column refer the foregoing pages where lap splices in
column reinforcement are dealts.

142
143
Reinforcement details at column-beam junction :-

Typical details of a column-beam junction are illustrated in sketch below.

At column-beam intersections, it is better to avoid main beam bars clashing with main column
bars.

If splice bars are used the beam cages may be prefabricated and splice bars placed in position
after the beam reinforcement has been positioned in place. This also provides considerable scope
for positioning support bars without resorting to cranking and avoiding intersecting beam and column
reinforcement. However, this detail requires extra steel due to the additional laps.

Where the beam does not frame into the column on all four sides to approximately the full width of
the column, ensure that the stirrups are provided in the column for the full depth of the beam, or
alternately, special U-bars are detailed with the beam to restrain the column bars from buckling and
to strengthen the concrete in compression. This is especially important where the floor concrete is
of a weaker grade than the column concrete.

144
In general, it is advisable to use U-bars at the non-continuous ends of beams of depth greater than
600 mm.

NOTE :- It is important to note that a joint by itself shall have a dependable strength sufficient to
resist the most adverse load combinations sustained by the adjoining members as specified by the
appropriate loading code. A higher factor of safety is sometimes necessary for joints. Design and
detailing of the joint should be done to satisfy this condition.

Column section as specified in the schedule should be continued up to top of beams resting on it.
Proposed reduction in section, if any, should be carried out from the top level of the supported
beams.

Bundled Bars in Columns :-

Bundled bars shall be tied, wired or otherwise fastened to ensure that they remain in position. End-
bearing compression splices should be held concentric, all bundles of column verticals should be
held by additional ties at each end of end-bearing splices, and any short splice bars added for
tension should be tied as part of the bundle within the limit of 4 bars in a bundle. A corner of a tie
should be provided at each bundle.

145
Column in Flat Slabs :
Mushroom heads are normally cast with the columns, and the details of reinforcement should be
such that the steel can be formed into a separate cage. Therefore, it should be ensured that the
column stirrups end below the mushroom head to enable a properly bonded cage to be positioned.

NOTE : Determine the amount of steel required in the mushroom head to control cracks arising
from the out-or balance moments.
Column with Corbel Joints :-
Corbels :- A corbel is a short cantilever beam in which the principal load is applied in such a way
that the distance between the line of action of the load and the face of the supporting member is
less than 0.6 d and the depth at the outer face of the bearing is greater than one-half of the effective
depth at the face of the supporting member.

146
Main Reinforcement - The main tension reinforcement in a corbel should be not less than 0.4
percent and not more than 1.3 percent of the section at the face of the supporting member, and
should be adequately anchored. Anchor the reinforcement at the front face of the corbel either by
welding it to a transverse bar of equal strength or by bending back the bars to form loops; in either
case, the bearing area of the load should not project beyond the straight portion of the bars forming
the main tension reinforcement.

NOTE :- The limitation on reinforcement percentages is based on the limited number of tests
available.
Horizontal Force :- When the corbel is required to resist a horizontal force in direction H applied to
the bearing plate because of shrinkage or temperature changes, provide additional reinforcement
to transmit this force in its entirety. This reinforcement should be welded to the bearing plate and
adequately anchored within the supporting member.

Shear Reinforcement :- Provide shear reinforcement in the form of horizontal stirrups distributed
in the upper two- thirds of the effective depth of the corbel at the column face. This reinforcement
should have an area of at least one- half of the area of the main tension reinforcement and should
be adequately anchored.
Large Column :- Where reinforcement for very wide columns is to be fabricated in separate cages
and erected in sections, they should be held together by at least 12 mm. diameter bars spaced at
double the stirrup spacing.

147
148
FOOTINGS :- As per magnitude and disposition of structural loads and the bearing capacity of the
founding strata, there will be following types of foundation.

(1) Isolated footings : ) Generally on strata whose S.B.C. is more than or equal to 3 Kg/cm2
(2) Combined footings : )
(3) Strip footings )
) On weak strata.
(4) Raft foundation : )
(5) Pile foundation : ) When founding strata is reclaimed soil or a muddy strata piles are
driven through this strata and are rested on Hard strata.

Cover :- For cover details refer foregoing paras of this note.

Pedestal :- Pedestal is provided over a footing to reduce the depth of footing which otherwise
would be required for anchorage of the column bars i.e. in case a pedestal is provided over a
footing the development length for column bars is to be measured from the top level of pedestal.

In case of pedestals in which the longitudinal reinforcement is not taken in to account in strength
calculations nominal longitudinal reinforcement not less than 0.15 percent of the cross sectional
area shall be provided.

NOTE : Pedestal is a compression member, the effective height of which does not exceed three
times the least lateral dimension.

In case of column footings for which dowel bars have been specified, column bars should start
from top of footing. Dowel bars shall be taken above the top of footing to the extent of lap length
corresponding to the mix of the column. However requirement of lap at a section needs to be
considered.

Reinforcing details for different types of Footings :-

Minimum Reinforcement

The minimum reinforcement should be according to slab and beam elements as appropriate unless
otherwise specified.

Minimum Bar diameter :-

The diameter of main reinforcing bars should be not less than 10 mm.

Isolated Footings

Shape :- Generally square in plan or rectangular as per the shape of the column above. It may be
rectangular when the shape is restricted in one direction. Isolated footings of circular and other
shape in plan can also be used.

149
In elevation it can be rectangular, trapezoidal, stepped with or without pedestal. To achieve economy
the footings are sloped (trapezoidal) or stepped towards the edge satisfying the requirement of
bending and punching shear. In trapezoidal footing the slope shall not be more than 45 degree.
The thickness at the edges shall not be less than 15 cm. for footing on soils, nor less than 30 cm.
above tops of piles in case of footing on piles.

Reinforcing Details
(i) Tensile Reinforcement :- Total tensile reinforcement shall be distributed across the
corresponding resisting section as given below.
(a) In one-way reinforced footing, the reinforcement shall be distributed uniformly across the
full width of the footing.
(b) In two-way reinforced square footing, the reinforcement extending in each direction shall be
distributed uniformly across the full width of footing.
(c) In two-way reinforced rectangular footing, the reinforcement in the long direction shall be
distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing. For reinforcement in the short
direction, a central band equal to the width of the footing shall be marked along the length of
the footing and portion of the reinforcement determined in accordance with the equation
given below shall be uniformly distributed across the central band
Reinforcement in central band = 2 l
Total reinforcement in short direction (y / x ) + 1
Where y is the long side and x is the short side of the footing.
The remainder of the reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed in the outer portions of the footing.
Figure illustrates placing of transverse reinforcement for a rectangular footing.

150
(ii) Vertical Reinforcement or Dowels :
(a) Extended vertical reinforcement or dowels of at least 0.5 percent of the cross-sectional
area of the supported column or pedestal with a minimum of 4 bars of 12 mm. diameter
shall be provided. Where dowels are used, their diameter shall not exceed the diameter of
column bars by more than 3 mm.

(b) Column bars of diameter larger than 36 mm. in compression can be dowelled at the footings
with bars of smaller size of the necessary area. The dowel shall extend into the column bar,
and into the footing a distance equal to the development length of the dowel. The development
length shall be calculated in accordance with Table No. 1 and 2.

151
(c) Where the depth of the footing or footing and pedestal combined is less than the minimum
development length in compression required for dowels (starter bars) of a certain size, the
size of dowels (strater bars) may be suitably decreased and the number of dowels increased
to satisfy the required area and development length. Isolated footings with column on its
edge :-

An isolated footing can be eccentricaly loaded. Eccentric footing become necessary where the
external columns of the structure are close to the boundary of an existing structure.
Reinforcing Details :-
To prevent shear failure along the inclined plane in footing (corbel type of failure) where a column is
located on the edge, it is advisable to provide horizontal U-type bars around the vertical starter bars
(dowel bars). These U bars shall be designed for every such column.
Combined Footing :-
When isolated footings of two or more column are overlapping and if it is not possible to avoid this
overlapping then combined footing supporting these columns becomes necessary.
Shapes :-
Combined footing may be of rectangular or trapezoidal shape in elevation and rectangular in plan or
it may be strip footing.
Reinforcing Detailing :-
Detailing of longitudinal and transverse reinforcing bars is similar to that of beams for strip footing.

152
153
154
MISCELLANEOUS

Formwork :-
A proper and definite sequence of operations has to be followed in removing the centering and
shuttering. The simplest principle of striking the centering is to adopt such a sequence as will make
the structure behave as designed. For details, reference is invited to the “code of practice for
design and construction for formwork of concrete” published by government of Maharashtra and IS
code of practice for false work.

Joint :-

Construction Joint :-
A construction joint is a joint in the concrete introduced for convenience in construction at which
measures are taken to achieve subsequent continuity with no provision for further relative movement.
A typical application is between two successive lifts in a wall.

The construction joints shall be as few as possible and interval between two construction joints
should be decided on one full day’s output of concrete mixer/mixers on the job.

Time interval between the new concrete and old one shall normally not exceed 24 hours. Proper
precautions shall be taken when laying new concrete.

Construction joints should primarily be placed at a section of minimum or low shear and the face at
the joint should be normal to the compressive forces in the member.

Inclined feather joints in slabs and beams should be construction joints in various structural members
like slabs, beams and columns should be located as below :

155
156
(A) SLAB :-

(i) In slabs spanning in one direction, construction joints should be located near the
midspan if the joints run at right angles to the main reinforcement. If the joints are to
be located parallel to the main reinforcement, they should preferably be within the
middle third but shall be clear from the flange of the beam designed as TEE or ELL
beam.

(ii) In case of two way slabs, the joints should be located in the middle third of either
span.

(iii) Construction joints in cantilever slabs should be parallel to the main reinforcement
in the slab and should never be located at the face of the support.

(B) BEAMS :-

(i) Construction joints in beams should be located near the midspan within the middle
third at right angle to the span. Joints in slab and beam should be staggered.

(ii) Where a secondary beam joins a main beam, the construction joint in the main
beam should not be located within a distance equal to twice the width of the secondary
beam, from the junction point on either side.

(C) COLUMNS:-

The operation of placing concrete in columns in each lift should be as continuous as

possible but the rate of vertical progress shall not exceed about 1 meter in half an
hour. The depth of concrete placed in a single batch should not preferably exceed 1
meter, concreting of columns should be stopped 10 cm. to 15 cm. below the level of
the soffit of beams running in to the columns. The portion of the columns between
the stopping off level and top of slab should be concreted along with the beam. The
top of each lift of concrete or any other construction joint in vertical columns should
be truly horizontal.

NOTE : If the column is inclined to the vertical, the joints should be at right angles to the column
axis.

Movement Joint :-

A movement joint is a specially formed joint intended to accommodate relative movement between
adjoining parts of structure, special provision being made for maintaining the water tightness of the
joint. Movement joints may be of the following types.

157
(i) Contraction Joint :-
This is a movement joint which has a deliberate discontinuity but no initial gap between the concrete
on both sides of the joint. The joint is intended to permit contraction of the concrete.

A distinction should be made between a complete contraction joint in which both the concrete and
reinforcement are interrupted, and partial contraction joint in which only the concrete is interrupted
while the reinforcement is continued through the joint.

(ii) Expansion Joint :-

This is a movement joint which has complete discontinuity in both reinforcement and concrete and
is intended to accommodate either expansion or contraction of the structure.

(iii) Sliding Joint :-

This is a movement Joint which has complete discontinuity in both reinforcement and concrete.
Special provision is made to facilitate relative moment in plane of the joint. A typical application is
between wall and floor in some cylindrical tank designs.

Reinforced Concrete Hinges :-

It is used in structure where use of normal metal hinge would be very expensive and where actual
rotation required to satisfy the condition of hinge behavior of member in the structure is very small.

158
The sketches below give details of three typical R.C. hinges used for support.

(i) Sketch (A) is a type of reinforced concrete hinge suitable for a large portal frame or vertical
support to a long bridge. The resilient material placed between the member and its foundation
can be bituminous, felt, lead, rubber or plastic. Hinge reinforcing bars are to be adequately
held in place by binders or hoops as shown. Also the area of concrete marked ‘ A’ should be
sufficient to transfer the whole of the compressive force from member to the foundation.

(ii) The “Mesnager” hinge shown in sketch (B) has a short portion reduced in cross section to
about 1/3 rd of the width. This narrow concrete section is heavely reinforced and provided
with closely spaced binders and hoops. The hinge may have spiral reinforcement as shown
in the sketch (C). The gap formed between the abutment and the member is filled with
suitable flexible material.

159
(iii) Crown Hinges :-
They are used in pinned arches
These are inserted into certain types of structures known as three-hinges, or pinned arches. The
sketches above give general details for this type of hinge.
In the “Mesnager” hinge shown above the main reinforcement crosses at an angle of 60 and the
gap is filled with a waterproof, resilient material. The joint developes considerable resistance against
thrust and shear yet has little resistance to rotation. Another sketch shows a modification to the
“Mesnager” type of hinge. This only acts as a hinge during the construction of the arch. When the
formwork is removed and the arch drops slightly under its own action the main reinforcing bars are
welded together and the hinge is concreted to form a permanent joint.

160
BATCHING AND MIXING
1.BATCHING is finding out
the quantities of ingredients
of concrete required
Types of Batching
Batching of Concrete Ingredients
Cement
Sand
Coarse Aggregate
2.CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
The aim of mix design is to
determine the most appropriate
proportion of constituent
materials to meet the needs of
construction
Methods of Concrete
Mix Design
* for one bag of cement (Specified mix concrete or)
* to form one cubic metre of concrete after mixing
(Design mix concrete)
∗ Volume Batching
∗ Weigh Batching
Batching of cement should be by weight or by the use of
a whole number of, normally, 50 kgs bags.
Sand in small works is often batched by volume using
standard measuring boxes. In such cases allowance must
be made for bulking. Since the variation in volume due to
bulking is high, always weigh batching is logical and more
preferred.
Coarse aggregate also in small works hatched by volume.
However weigh batching is always preferred. To reduce
segregation of aggregates to a minimum, it is desirable
to batch coarse aggregate in two or more sizes,
especially when the nominal maximum size is
20 mm or more.
A design mix concrete should
∗ comply with the specification requirement for
structural strength which is normally stated in terms of
compressive strength of standard tests specimens.
∗ have satisfactory durability in the environment in
which the structure is placed.
* have a satisfactory appearance in those situations
where it is exposed to view
∗ be capable of being mixed, transported, placed and
compacted efficiently and be as economical as
possible.
∗ IS: 10262-1982 method
∗ IRC:44-1976 method
∗ Road Note No 44 method
∗ ACI method
∗ USBR practice of Mix Design
∗ BRE or DOE Method of Mix Design
∗ Australian method
161
Process of Mix Design
consists of two stages
* An estimation of correct mix proportions based upon either
published data or past experience and upon the
knowledge of the different constituents used and
observation of trial mixes usually in the site laboratory
using the constituents in the designed proportion and
application of correction, if necessary before the actual
construction starts.

3. Mix Design as per IS: 10262-1982 step by step procedure

1. Fix up data for Mix Design
∗ Characteristic compressive strength required
∗ Workability desired
∗ Limitation on the water-cement ratio and the minimum cement content to ensure adequate
durability as specified in IS : 456-1978
∗ Type and maximum size of aggregate to be used.
∗ Standard deviation of the compression strength of concrete

2. Find out data of Materials from tests

∗ Specific gravity of aggregates
∗ Water absorption and moisture content
∗ Sieve Analysis

3. Find out target mean strength

4. Select water-cement ratio for required strength
5. Select water content and fine to coarse aggregate ratio
6. Adjust the water content and sand percentage for other conditions
7. Calculate the cement content
8. Determine the total aggregate content
9. Determine the quantities of different constituents per cubic metre of concrete

4. MIXING OF CONCRETE All concrete should be mixed thoroughly till it is uniform in

appearance. In India mixing is done generally in mechanical mixers.

TYPES OF MIXERS
Mixers of various capacities *Free-fall Mixers Tilting Type Non tilting Suitable for all
are available. The choice of Type Reversing general work
the type and capacity of Drum Type
mixer depends upon the
size, extent & nature of work Forced Action Pan Type Suitable for concrete
Mixer of low workabilities

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PROCESS OF CONCRETE MIXING

1. LOCATING AND Place the mixer on a correct spot on firm ground and see
INSPECTING OF MIXER that it is level both ways (Visual inspection). Before
commencing each mixing shift, inspect and see that the
engine oil, cooling water, petrol and other fuels are replenished.
The engine is allowed to run for few minutes to warm and
also see the drum and blades are clean and free from
adhering lumps of concrete. Always refuel at the end of the
days work.

2. BUTTERING OF MIXER Before mixing first batch for the day, the drum should be fed
with cement, sand and water, of the same proportions used
in the batch, and be mixed. The mixer should be allowed to
rotate for such a time that blades and inside drum get evenly
coated with cement mortar.

3.LOADING THE SKIP Place the coarse aggregate first followed by fine aggregate
and cement. This will allow coarse aggregate failing last while
charging the drum and also will help to push any cement or
sand adhering to the mouth of the hopper. If damp sand is
being used, place half the quantity of coarse aggregate first
and remaining half at the last in order to avoid chocking of
sand in the mouth.
4.CHARGING THE MIXER After loading the skip, raise it and release the gate into the
drum. Pour required quantity of water into the mixer just before
the skip is unloaded into the drum to ensure even distribution
with dry materials. Always 10% of the designed quantity of
water is added only when the concrete is almost fully mixed.
In case of smaller mixers which has no skip or hopper, these
mixers are poured directly into the place of concreting.

5. MIXING TIME Specifications recommend a mixing time of 1 ½ to 2 minutes,

after all the materials have been fed in drum mixers upto 1
cubic meter capacity & for every half cubic metre increase
mixing time is increased -by 30 to 45 seconds.

6. DISCHARGING Once the concrete is mixed, the entire contents of the

drum have to be discharged before recharging it. Nothing is
to be left inside. This will ensure that each batch of
concrete has correct quantity of constituents material in it.

7.CLOSING DOWN When the mixer is to be closed after concreting for the day
at any time for an hour or so, it is important to clean the drum
and blades of all adhering concrete before it hardens.

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 BATCHING AND MIXING CONCRETE ON SITE

Concrete consists of a mix of cement, sand, stones (coarse aggregates) and water, and to be of
the right quality, the mix must be properly designed and the right amount of each material correctly
batched.

The cement, sand and coarse aggregate should be batched by weight: this reduces the differences
between one batch of concrete and the next, and makes things easier for the man on the job.

Loading the hopper

The materials must be put in the hopper in the right order.

Where the hopper turns upside down to discharge into the mixer, the material batched first is last
out and, since we want the hopper to discharge cleanly, it is better if the coarse aggregate can push
the smaller, stickier sand and cement out in front of it; hence the coarse aggregate usually goes
into the hopper first.

If the cement is fed directly into the mixer, the sand should go on top of the coarse aggregate.
However, it the cement is fed into the hopper from the silo dispenser, some of it would be blown
away in a high wind if it were put on top of the sand; it is therefore usual for the cement to be
sandwiched between the coarse aggregate and the sand.

The order of loading the hopper, as described above, is the most common but for some mixers a
different order might be better. Anyway the right order will have been worked out and it is up to the
batcher man and the mixer driver to stick to it.

Setting the dial pointers

This is best illustrated by a practical example. Suppose that the cement is weighed separately but
will be sandwiched in the hopper between the coarse and fine aggregates, and that the batch
weight, allowing for moisture in the aggregates, are as follows:

Cement 80 kg
Dampsand 200 kg
damp coarse aggregate 295 kg

164
Set the first pointer to 295 kg for the coarse aggregate.
Set the second pointer to 295 + 80 kg = 375 kg, which will be the weight of the coarse aggregate
plus the cement. Then set the third pointer to 375 + 200kg = 575 kg which will be the total batch
weight.

Adding the weighed cement in to the hopper is a useful check that the silo dispenser is working
accurately. When the cement is sandwiched between the coarse and fine aggregates always
check, after adding the cement, that the dial gauge registers the correct weight for the coarse
aggregate plus the cement; if it is not right, then something could well be wrong with the cement
weighing mechanism or the dispenser.

If the cement was to be fed direct into the mixer, the first pointer would be set 295 kg for the coarse
aggregate, and the second pointer 295 + 200 kg = 495 kg for the addition of the sand.

No matter how the materials are batched, the thing to aim for is that the right amounts of materials
finish up in the mixer in the right order.

Water
Water in the mix does two things; it makes the concrete sufficiently workable for it to be placed and
compacted; and it combines chemically with the cement to provide a strong, hard material. However,
only about half the water is required for the chemical reaction; the rest will remain or evaporate
gradually as the concrete hardens, leaving small holes, or voids as they are usually called. Not
surprisingly, voids weaken concrete and so THE MORE WATER THERE IS in a mix, THE WEAKER
WILL BE THE CONCRETE. What is more, it will be less able to withstand weathering, particularly
frost, as water inside the voids can freeze and eventually burst the concrete.

There will always be some voids in the concrete, because you must use sufficient water to make
the mix workable enough to obtain full compaction, but it is important not to add more than is
necessary.

Adding the water

The main job of the mixer driver is to add the right amount of water to each batch. The aim is to
produce concrete that is the same throughout the job; if one batch is dry and the next wet, the
strength will be inconsistent and the variation in work - ability will create problems for the men
placing and compacting the concrete.

To produce uniform concrete, the TOTAL water content should be the same for each batch. However,
as the TOTAL water in a batch is made up of the water that is added and the water that is already
present as moisture in the aggregates, there can be problems - the aggregates may be very wet, or
very dry, or something in between. In other words, the amount of water in the aggregate can vary,
which means that the amount of water to be added to each batch may also have to be varied in
order to keep the TOTAL Water in the batch the same.

165
Usually, it is the moisture content of the sand which causes the trouble. The average moisture
content of sand in a stockpile is about 6 or 7% and this is likely to be the amount assumed by the
engineer in working out the batch weights. However, when sand is very wet-as sometimes happens
with fresh deliveries, or after it has been raining-it can have as much as 12 or 15% moisture;
similary, sand which has dried out in warm weather can have a moisture content as low as 2%.

It will be seen that for a dry sand batch weight of 190 kg. the amount of damp (6% moisture) sand
to be batched would be 200 kg. However, if it were a fresh delivery of sand with a moisture content
of, say, 12% then 200 kg of this wetter sand would contain only about 180 kg of dry sand and 20 kg
(or litres) of water, i.e. 10 litres more than assumed in the calculations. You would therefore need to
add 10 Litres less water to the mix. (The slight decrease in the actual sand would not be significant.)

For example, suppose that you wanted a TOTAL of 44 litres of water in the final mix. The sand at
about 6% moisture content would contain 10 litres of water, the coarse aggregate at about 3%
moisture would have about 9 litres of water, and so only 25 litres would need to be ADDED to get
the total of 44 in the mix.

Because the moisture content of the aggregate will vary, you will have to ADD either more, or less,
water to the mix to keep the concrete the same for each batch.

Normally, the variations in the water to be added from batch to batch will not vary much-probably up
to 2 or 3 litres more or less than the average - and good concrete depends very much on the mixer
driver’s ability to do this.

The best way to cope with this problem is to add most of the water you think you will want, at the
same time as the aggregates; keeping a little back say 2 or 3 litres to add later if you need to. A
skilled mixer driver can tell by looking at the concrete in mixer as it gets to the end of mixing whether
enough water has been added to give the right workability. If more has to be added, carry on mixing
until it is all mixed into a uniform concrete.

Measuring the water

For any job that requires good concrete, the mixer will have a water tank and a gauge for measuring
the water.

Make sure before you start that the gauge is calibrated, i.e. that the gauge correctly corresponds to
the amount of water discharged at a particular setting and that the same amount is discharged
consistently. Mixers get jolted and a gauge can get out of order easily - even standing the mixer on
rough ground can upset its accuracy.

166
To calibrate the gauge, see that the mixer is level and fill the tank; set the gauge to a particular
setting and then discharge the water from the tank into a container big enough to hold the expected
amount; measure the amount of water in the container to see whether it is right.

Repeat this several times by setting the gauge at about 5 litre increases to cover the range of
added water you are likely to need.

Recalibrate the water guage at least once a week and if the mixer has not been used for a few
days.

Mixing and Discharging

It is one of the mixer driver’s responsibilities to ensure that the concrete is properly mixed.

First make sure that the materials are properly fed into the mixer. When the cement is sandwiched
between the coarse and fine aggregate in the hoper, feed the material into the mixer at the same
time as part of the water; it is usually best to start the water a few seconds before the solid materials
are added, with the rest of the water being added as the rest of the materials are fed in. When the
cement and aggregate are fed separately into the mixer, make sure that the cement does not go in
first; load some of the coarse aggregate and part of the water first, then the cement, and then the
rest of the aggregate and water.

For rotating drum mixers upto about 1 m3 capacity, the mixing time needs to be 1 ½ to 2 min. after
all the materials have been fed in. For pan mixers, because of the forced action type of mixing, 30
to 45sec. is usually enough.

The main thing is that each batch should look the same as all the previous batches. Concrete is
mixed when the appearance is uniform-both in colour and consistency.

Always check that the entire contents of the drum have been discharged before loading the next
batch. And once a batch has been discharged, make sure that no more water is added to it
afterwards.

The most important guides to when mixing is done are the two eyes of the mixer driver-it does not
take a good one long to know how much time it takes to get right result. And remember that the men
placing and compacting the concrete are relying on the mixer driver to turnout, hour after hour,
batches which are all of the same consistency , colour and workability.

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The First Batch
With a clean mixer, some cement and sand from the first batch of concrete will stick to the sides
and blades and, unless something is done about it, the first batch will come out harsh and stony -
short of sand and cement. To make up for this loss of cement and sand, in the first batch only,
reduce the amount of coarse aggregate by about half. Do not forget that for this first batch, you will
not need as much water.

Looking after the Weigh Batcher and Mixer

1. Make sure that the mixer If it is not level, the concrete will not be properly mixed, the water
is level-check it every few gauge may be inaccurate and the weighing mechanisms may
days. be affected.

2. Always check the fuel, oil

and water levels before
starting up the mixer: and
make sure that you have
enough fuel for the day’s
work. Refuel at the end of
a day’s work to minimize
condensation in the fuel
tank.

3. Make sure that the needle If it does not, adjust it. On some machines this can be done by
on the dial gauge stands at removing the screws that fix the needle moving it round to the
zero when the hopper is right position, and then screwing it up tightly again.
empty.

4. Do not allow split aggregate
to build up around the
mechanism or under the
hopper.
Aggregate build-up under the hopper, preventing it from moving
downwards freely, will seriously affect the reading of the dial,
especially where the hopper rests on a pressure capsule linked
to the dial gauge.
When cleaning out under the hopper, make sure the safety chain
is on.

5. Clean the drum out
thoroughly after finishing
concreting for the day and if
there is a stoppage, such as a
meal break.
Put coarse aggregate and water in the drum and leave the mixer
running for about 10 min before emptying. This will stop the
blades becoming clogged with hardened mortar.

168
6. Keep the hopper clean, A build-up of hardened cement or mortar will affect the dial
especially when the gauge reading and cause insufficient aggregate to be batched.
cement is being batched in
The coarse aggregate at the bottom has a scouring action
the same hopper as the
on the hopper bottom both as it is fed in and as it is discharged
damp aggregate. This is
into the mixer.
usually best done by
putting the coarse
aggregate in the hopper
first, followed by the
cement and then by the
fine aggregate. In this way
the cement has less
chance of coming into
contact with the damp
bottom and sides of
hopper.

7. Once a week check that This can be done by putting a chalk mark on the drum and
the speed of the mixer counting the number of times it passes a given point in one
drum complies with the minute.
manufacturer’s recom-
mendation; otherwise the
concrete may not be
properly mixed and the
mixer may be heading for
a mechanical breakdown.
Remember that the
number of drum
revolutions is more
important for good mixing
than time.

8. At least once a week, or
less if you think something
is wrong, check that the
weighing gear is working
properly and that the right
weights of materials are
being batched.
For a dial machine, a rough and ready check can be made by
putting known weights (cement bags will do if weights are
not available) into the hopper and seeing that the needle gives
the right reading. Do this for different weights up to the
maximum you are using.

Maintenance
1. Grease all nipples at least once a day.
2. Clean and inspect for wear all moving parts at least once a day.
3. Clean and inspect wire ropes at least once a day.
4. Regularly check that blades are riot bent, broken or worn.
5. Keep the machine free from caked cement by rubbing down the outside with an oily rag.
6. Check the water gauge for leaks or leaking valves.

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TRANSPORTATION, PLACING AND COMPACTION

TRANSPORTATION

WHILE TRANSPORTING * Avoid delays

THE CONCRETE * Early stiffening and drying out

* Segregation

TO TRANSPORT CONCRETE EFFICIENTLY

Plan in advance to ensure fast movement of concrete for a given labour and equipment.

Keep agitating if the ambient temperature is as high as 40 to 50OC.

This sort of agitated concrete can be placed even upto 1 1/2 hrs. after water is added to the
mixture.
Retarding admixtures are to be used if required.

Make concrete air entrained when concrete is to be transported after a long distance or is required
to be placed in difficult Locations to avoid segregation.

REMEMBER: Delays in placing concrete i.e. after initial set, are not useful to us and it may give
increased cube strengths, provided the concrete retains adequate workability to allow full compaction.

CONCRETE HORIZONTALLY
TRANSPORTATION IN SHORT VERTICALLY

METHODS OF TRANSPORTATION OF CONCRETE

Method Remarks

MANUAL Conventional method of transporting concrete

BY HEAD LOADS OR on small and medium size housing projects.
HUMAN CHAIN

WHEEL BARROWS These are suitable for short flat hauls on all types of
construction projects, particularly where accesibility to the
work area is restricted and also in precast product factories.
The method is slower than mechanised and semi mechanised
methods, but faster than human chain of head loads. It can
be power driven and also can operate on rails.

170
LIGHT AND WHEEL BARROWS Used normally in the construction of high rise buildings. These
are of the following types - skip hoists, Automatic skip
discharge type, Twin automatic skip and passenger/concrete
hoists. In all these, concrete from the mixer is elevated to the
working level from where wheel barrows can deliver the
concrete to the forms.

CRANES Used in high rise concrete frame construction projects and

are becoming very familiar in Indian construction sites. Cranes
are fast and versatile and move laterally and vertically along
the boom of the crane which allows the placement of concrete
at the exact point of delivery. These are of five types:
a. Derricks including masts,
b. Excavator and crawler mounted,
c. Lorry or wheel mounted
d. Hydraulic with telescopic booms,
e. Tower cranes.
5. MINI DUMPERS : On fairly large construction projects like concrete road
projects, hydroelectric power projects, or well organised
Industrial projects where large quantities of concrete are to
be placed, these are used for carrying concrete from a central
batching plant to the point of placement.

6. TRUCK AGITATOR : These are used to transport concrete from a central batching
and mixing plant to the point of placement which is some
distance away. The mixed concrete is discharged into a truck-
mounted agitator which keeps on rotating to prevent stiffenning
of the concrete during transit. The transit time should not
exceed 1 to 1 ½ hrs. after water is added to the dry mixed
ingredients. These are used in conjunction with ready mix
concrete plants since quality, uniformity and homogeneity are
ensured.

7. BELT CONVEYORS : These can be used to convey concrete horizontally, or to the

higher or lower levels. It is usually used between a main
discharge point and a secondary one. Belt conveyors have
adjustable reach, travelling divertor and variable speed, both
forward and reverse. Conveyors can place large volumes of
concrete quickly where access is limited. while portable belt
conveyors are used for short distance or lifts.

171
8. PUMPS WITH PLACER BOOMS These are used to convey concrete directly from a central
batching to a secondary discharge point in large or congested
sites since pipe lines take up little space and can be readily
extended. Mobile pumps can be used when necessary on
small or large projects. While using pumps, concrete needs
to be designed for suitable consistency so that it can be
pumped with out segregation.
PLACING AND Most important part of the whole sequence of concrete
COMPACTION: operations.

WHILE PLACING CONCRETE, REMEMBER THE FOLLOWING :

• Deposit concrete at or as near as possible to its final position.
• Never dump concrete in separate piles and then level or deposit in large piles and move
horizontally into final position.
• Place concrete in uniform horizontal layers, thickness of which can be varied depending upon
the conditions.
• In the case of slabs, start placing concrete from one end of the work with each batch being
discharged against previously placed batch.
• Make sure each layer of concrete placed has been fully compacted before placing the next
layer.
• In walls, beams and girders, the first batch in each lift should be placed at the ends with
subsequent placement progressing towards the centre.
• In case where concrete is to be placed through openings, called windows, with sides of tall,
narrow forms, discharge concrete from chutes through a hopper to avoid segregation.
• Care should be taken not to form cold joints (Plane of weakness).
• Care should be taken against bleeding of concrete.
• Place concrete through chutes to lower levels and to below ground levels when the concrete is
directly discharged from truck mixers and agitators into the form, say in case of pavement
construction, into walls and columns, etc.
• In extra ordinary conditions like under water concreting, tremies shall be used to place concrete.

COMPACTION OF CONCRETE It is the process of moulding freshly placed concrete within

the form of mould, around reinforcement and other embedded
items so as to eliminate air voids, fill holes, prevent honey
combing to produce as dense hardened concrete as possible.
METHODS OF HAND COMPACTION Suitable for small concreting works, but generally
COMPACTION not recommended.

MECHANICAL To place stiff mixes with low water cement ratios

COMPACTION and high aggregate content in places with
congested reinforcements to produce concrete
of uniform density.

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MECHANICAL COMPACTION
∗ Proper use of internal
vibrators is important for
best results.
* For compacting concrete in
thin members, congested
reinforcements, etc.,
external vibration is
essential for
supplementing internal
vibration & also in places
where internal vibrators
can not be used.
∗ The time required for
external vibration is more
than internal vibration.
∗ Evaporation is to be
avoided as far as possible.
∗ Over vibration can lead to
segregation.
Internal Spud or ‘Needle’
vibrator which consists of a
metal spud or needle inserted
into newly placed concrete
Internal Vibrating
which is kept vibrating while it
is being withdrawn. The actual
completion of compaction can
be judged by the appearance of
the concrete surface.
Surface Vibration Surface vibrators and vibrators
which are mounted on screeds
or platforms and planks are
chiefly used for consolidating
road slabs, floors, etc.,
External Vibrators These are attached to the
formwork and shuttering of
walls, columns, etc. The forms
transmit the vibration action to
the concrete.
Vibrating tables Used for
making precast concrete
products.
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 TRANSPORTATION OF CONCRETE
Horizontal Movement

Wheelbarrows and prams

Wheelbarrows and prams are still used for handling small quantities of concrete over short distances
and are especially useful in areas inaccessible to other equipment. A wheelbarrow can take a
comfortable load of about 0.03 m3 (30 litres) of concrete, so that it needs about six barrow loads to
take the discharge from a mixer of 200 litres capacity. Labour costs per unit volume of concrete are
high. An indication of productivity with wheelbarrows is that 6 men with barrows can transport
about 2.5 m3 per hour with a run of 70 m from the mixer to the point of placing. Runs over 70 m are
seldom efficient.

Output and efficiency can be improved by providing well constructed and smooth barrow runs to
avoid segregation of the concrete while in transit; congestion can be avoided by having separate
runs for the delivery and return journeys.

When wheelbarrows or prams are used to transport concrete delivered ready-mixed, the truck
mixer standing time can be reduced by discharging the concrete into an intermediate hopper from
which the concrete can then be discharged into the barrows.

The pram, or handcart, can comfortably take about 0.2 m3 (200 litres) of concrete and one man can
move about 3 m3 per hour provided that the run does not exceed about 70 m and is both smooth
and flat: on sloping runs, even slight ones, two men will usually be required to push.

Dumpers

Dumpers have often been rightly described as the maids-of-all-work on construction sites because
they can be used for many other transport duties apart from concreting. They are available in a
range of capacities from 0.3 m3 to an upper limit of about 0.75 m3, With 0.5 m3 being the most
common. It should be noted that the rated capacities are for complete filling of the hopper: to avoid
spillage in transit, the level of the concrete will usually have to be some 100 mm lower than the
maximum possible.

Dumpers are available with either forward or sideways discharge and may be manually or
hydraulically tipped. With manual discharge, the driver releases a catch allowing the skip to tilt
forwards or sideways so giving a rapid but uncontrolled discharge; hydraulic operation permits
greater control over the discharge, and most models using hydraulics have high discharges with
the skip pivoting at the discharge end.

Although dumpers can operate over rough ground, some attempt should be made to prepare smooth
runs to avoid segregation and spillage.

174
Uncontrolled discharge can be a disadvantage-the heavy impact may displace reinforcement, and
small sections may be difficult to fill - and It may therefore be necessary to discharge onto a banker
board first and then shovel in the concrete by hand. Similarly, with slabs, uncontrolled discharge
results in heaps rather than uniform layers and requires increased spreading on the part of the
placing gang.

Lorry-mounted transporters

Lorry-mounted transporters, usually of 2 to 3 m3 capacity, are generally confined to large contracts

where long hauls are required on smooth roads. Discharge is hydraulic and generally at high level
(2 m), and chutes are usually fitted so that the concrete can be placed directly into position at
ground level. In order to reduce segregation which may have occurred in transit, and to control the
rate of discharge, screws or paddles are generally fitted for remixing the concrete as it is discharged.

Tipper trucks

Open tipper trucks, either side or rear tipping, are normally restricted to transporting dry lean concrete.
They must be provided with tarpaulins or covers to protect the concrete from rain or to prevent
evaporation of moisture in hot weather; tail gates should be close fitting. When trucks have been
used for carrying other materials, they must be thoroughly washed out before being used for concrete;
otherwise contamination of the concrete may occur, affecting its eventual strength or durability.

Vertical Movement

Skips and buckets

The use of skips and buckets, in conjunction with tower cranes, is still the most common method
for handling and distributing concrete on most sites where concrete has to be transported vertically
as well as horizontally. Even so, concrete pumps, especially of the mobile type, are often a more
economical and efficient alternative and are being used increasingly on many building contracts.

Although there is no clear and recognized dividing line between skips and buckets, it is generally
accepted that skips have capacities less than 1 m3 whereas buckets are larger. Skips are available
in a range of size from 0.2 to 1 m3, the 0.5 and 0.75 m3 sizes being the most common; they tend to
be used on building and small civil engineering works. Buckets, on the other hand, tend to be used
on heavy civil engineering work where large volumes of concrete have to be placed and where the
capacity may be up to 6 m3.

175
There are two basic types of skip :
1. The lay-back or roll-over skip which is allowed to fall over on its back for filling from a low-
level discharge, usually with a side discharge;
2. The constant-attitude skip with bottom opening, a chute being fitted usually when discharging
side ways.

The discharge of concrete from skips is usually controlled manually, either by a lever or a wheel,
and care needs to be taken, particularly when discharging into narrow sections, to avoid too rapid
a discharge.

With all skips, the opening must be large enough to allow easy discharge of the concrete without
having recource to the use of poker vibrators or other means.

Skips should be looked after and properly maintained if they are to function efficiently. After a day’s
concreting the skip should be thoroughly cleaned and washed down and the gate-operating
mechanism should be oiled and greased. Stop hardened concrete building up on the Outside of the
skip by rubbing it over, every day, with either a light coating of diesel oil or chemical release agent:
either of these methods inhibits the adhesion of concrete and makes cleaning easier.

Points to Watch

During transport, a number of difficulties can arise that affect either the workability of the concrete
or its uniformity. As soon as it is mixed, concrete begins to stiffen and it must be placed before it
becomes so stiff that it cannot be fully compacted. The following conditions have a direct effect on
the final quality of the concrete.
1. Hot weather or strong winds dry out concrete during transport, so open containers such as
lorries, dumpers, skips and barrows should be covered if the concrete is to remain in them
for any length of time. Tarpaulins are suitable.
2. Heavy rain makes the mix too wet: so, again, open containers should be covered.
3. If a container leaks, mortar will be lost in transit, reducing workability.
4. If concrete is not transported quickly enough, or if it is stiffening rapidly, it may be too stiff to
work at the point of placing, particularly in hot weather.
5. Contamination of the concrete by oil or dirt from equipment or by wind-blown dust results in
a loss in quality.
6. Segregation can occur through the incorrect use of chutes, placers and pipelines, and
through long hauls on conveyors or in vehicles over rough ground. After a haul in which
some segregation has occurred, the concrete can be tipped into an Intermediate hopper,
which has the effect of remixing it to some extent.
7. The skin of mortar left in a container dries very quickly and so should be hosed off whenever
there is a break in concrete production, as well as at the end of day.

176
Pumping of Concrete

One of the main advantages of pumping is that concrete can be moved both horizontally and
vertically so that only one method of transport is required from the mixer to the point of placing.
Most pumps can transport concrete more than 60 m vertically or 300 m horizontally - or to shorter
distances when pumping both vertically and horizontally - and some high-pressure pumps have
achieved heights in excess of 300 m or horizontal distances up to 650 m.

Pump output depends on the type of pump, the horizontal and vertical lengths of pipeline, the
number of bends, and the concrete mix. In practice, the range is between 30 and 100 m3 per hour
depends upon the point of placing, and of course by the rate at which the concrete is delivered to
the pump.

Concrete for Pumping

The concrete mix has to be designed not only to satisfy the specification requirements but also to
be pumpable. Basically, this calls for a mix which is not prone to segregation or to bleeding and
which has a low enough frictional resistance for the pump to be able to push it along the pipeline.

As a guide, pumpable concrete requires:

1. a target slump of 75 mm:

2. a cement content of at least 280 kg/m3 to ensure complete filling of the voids in the combined
aggregates:
3. a combined aggregate grading which is continuous with no gaps and a minimum of voids;
4. a slightly increased sand content over that normally used - 50 to 75 kg/m3;
5. the sand to have 15% passing the 300 µ m sieve;
6. avoidance of crushed or flaky aggregates.

Pumping Safely

Pumps work at high pressure and pumping operations can be dangerous if carried out carelessly.
The safety recommendations given by the pump suppliers should be strictly followed.

177
 PLACING AND COMPACTING CONCRETE

Placing Concrete
The main objective with placing is to deposit the concrete as close as possible to its final position
as quickly and efficiently as you can, so that segregation is avoided and it can be fully compacted.

Concrete can be transported by a variety of different methods ranging from wheel barrows, dumpers
and ready-mix trucks to skips and pumps, and though it is obviously desirable to place the concrete
directly into position this is not always possible: for example, it will seldom be practical to discharge
from a dumper or ready-mix truck directly into the top of a column or wall.

When deciding in advance how the concrete can best be placed to satisfy the main objective, or
when actually placing the concrete, you should note, and comply with, the following general
recommendations.

1. Deposit the concrete
at, or as near as
possible to, its final
position.
Shovelling by hand, as in slabs, is wasteful in both time and
effort. Moving concrete by poker vibrators should generally be
avoided because it may lead to segregation.
Particular care is necessary when using a skip to place
concrete in thin walls and other narrow sections to avoid the
formation of heaps or sloping layers. The skip discharge needs
to be carefully controlled and the skip moved so that a ribbon
of concrete is placed.

2. Place the concrete in Avoid placing it in large heaps or sloping layers because there
uniform layers. is always a danger of segregation, especially with mixes
tending to be uncohesive.

In walls and columns With layers thicker than 450 mm, the weight of concrete on
no layer should be top makes it almost impossible even with vibration-to get the
more than about air out from the bottom of the layer: trapped air means
450mm thick. incomplete compaction and possibly also surface blemishes
on vertical surfaces.

Reduce the thickness of layers to about 300mm when the

poker head is only about 300 / 350 mm long.

178
 In thin slabs Vibrating beams will not compact a thickness greater than
compacted by a
this. Lightweight double vibrating screeders will compact only
vibrating beam, restrict
the layers to 150-200 about 150 mm thickness.
mm. With greater
thicknesses, poker
vibrators have to be
used.
3. There need be no This does not apply if the mix is prone to segregation and if it
restriction on the height cannot be fully compacted. Subsequent vibration will improve
from which concrete is badly placed concrete which has segregated. This is
dropped. particularly important in walls and columns where a good struck
finish is required.

4. Place the concrete as But not faster than the compacting method and equipment
quickly as possible. can cope with. The rate of placing and compacting should be
compatible and equal.
5. Where a good finish is Also avoid delays and interruptions because these will
required on columns cause colour variations on the surfaces.
and walls. Fill the forms
at a rate greater than 2
m height per hour.

6. Make sure that each

layer of concrete has
been fully compacted
before placing the next This will make the layers ‘knit’ together.
one, and that each new
layer is placed while the
underlying layer is still
responsive to vibration.
7. Avoid the formation of Good planning is necessary, particularly with large pours.
cold joints.
8. Placing must be done It may result in not only segregation but even the formwork
in such a way that the may also be damaged, affecting the finish.
concrete does not
strike the face of the
formwork; similarly,
avoid heavy impact
against reinforcement,
as the force could
displace it.
9. Always make sure that For thin walls and columns, or even large deep sections, have
you can see the lights available.
concrete being
deposited.

179
Compacting Concrete

After concrete has been mixed, transported and placed, it contains entrapped air in the form of
voids. The object of compaction is to get rid of as much as possible of this unwanted entrapped air,
down to less than 1% is the aim. (Of course, this does not apply with deliberate air entrainment, but
in that case the air is uniformly distributed and stable.)

The amount of entrapped air is related to the workability: concrete with a 75 mm slump contains
about 5% air, while concrete of 25 mm slump contains about 20% This is why a low-slump concrete
requires more compactive effort-either a longer time or more pokers - compared with a concrete
with a higher slump.

It is important to remove this entrapped air(voids) for the following reasons:

1. Voids reduce the strength of the concrete. For every 1% of entrapped air, the strength falls
by about 5 to 6%. So a concrete with, say 3% voids will be about 15-20% weaker than it
should be.

2. Voids increase the permeability, which in turn reduces the durability. If the concrete is not
dense and Impermeable, it won’t be watertight, it will be less able to withstand mildly
aggressive liquids and any exposed surfaces will weather badly: in addition, moisture and
air are more likely to get to reinforcement and cause it to rust.

3. Voids reduce the contact between the concrete and the reinforcement and other embedded
metals; the required bond will then not be achieved and the reinforced member will not be
as strong as it should be.

4. Voids produce visual blemishes such as blowholes and honey-combing on struck surfaces.

Fully compacted concrete will be dense, strong, durable and impermeable. Badly compacted
concrete will be weak, non-durable, honeycombed and porous; in other words, pretty useless.

Rodding, spading-even using your foot ! are all ways of removing air from concrete to
compact it, but the best and quickest method is vibration.

180
When a concrete mix is vibrated it is ‘fluidized’, which reduces the internal friction between the
aggregate particles - just as sugar or dry sand in a loosely filled jar can be made to settle by
knocking it, which makes the particles pack together more tightly. This fluidization of concrete
allows entrapped air to rise to the surface, and the concrete becomes denser.

With a properly designed cohesive mix, segregation and bleeding will be minimised. With an over-
wet mix, the larger aggregate pieces may settle during compaction, with the result that a weak
layer of laitance will finish up on the surface; if this does happen, the laitance must be removed. It
therefore pays to see that the mix is right in the first place!

Internal Vibrators
Most concrete is compacted by means of immersion or poker vibrators. This method is generally
considered the most satisfactory because the poker works directly on the concrete and can be
moved from one position to another easily and quickly.

Sizes
For most reinforced concrete work, pokers can be obtained in diameters from 25 mm up to about
75 mm. Diameters up to 100 and 150 mm are available, but their use is mainly restricted to mass
concrete in heavy civil engineering works such as dam construction; because of their weight,
these large pokers usually need two men to handle and operate them. For the most efficient
compaction, you should use the largest diameter that the complexity of formwork and reinforcement
will allow.

181
 VIBRATING CONCRETE

PROPER INTERNAL VIBRATION

∗ Increases compressive strength and bond between concrete and reinforcement bar and
decreases concrete permeability.

∗ Decreases cold joints, honeycombing, excessive entrapped air, and segregation .

∗ Causes concrete within a circular field of action to act like a liquid .

HOW TO VIBRATE
∗ Insert vibrator vertically, allowing it to
penetrate rapidly to the bottom of the lift
and at least 6 inches into the previous lift.

∗ Hold at bottom of lift for 5 to 15 seconds.

∗ Pull vibrator up at a rate of 15 seconds for

a 4-foot lift (about 3 inches per second).

SPACING TIPS
∗ Insert a vibrator so that the field of action overlap.
∗ Watch the concrete to determine the vibrator’s field of action.
∗ High-powered vibrators and high-slump concretes have larger fields of action.
∗ Rule of thumb: the field of action is 8 times the vibrator’s head diameter.

STOP VIBRATING CONCRETE WHEN

∗ The concrete surface takes on a sheen
∗ Large air bubbles no longer escape
∗ You hear the vibrator change pitch or tone
∗ You feel a change in vibrator action

VIBRATING DON’TS
• Don’t let a vibrator run very long outside concrete; it will overheat
• Don’t use a vibrator to move concrete horizontally
• Don’t force or push a vibrator into concrete; it won’t remain vertical and may get caught in the
reinforcement.
• Don’t start a job without a spare vibrator

182
The table given below gives an indication of poker sizes and applications.

Characteristics and applications of internal vibrators

Diameter of Radius of Approximate rate Application
Head action of compaction,
assuming rapid
(mm) (mm) placing (m3/h)
20-30 80-150 0.8-2 50 mm slump and above in very thin sections
and confined places. May be needed in
conjunction with larger vibrators where
reinforcement, ducts and other obstructions
cause congestion.

35-40 130-250 2-4 50 mm slump and above in thin columns and

walls and confined places

50-75 180-350 3-8 25 mm slump and above in general

construction free from restrictions and
congestion.

Radius of action
Although the table indicates the radius of action for various poker diameters, the actual effectiveness
of a particular poker in a particular situation depends on the workability of the concrete and the
characteristics of the poker itself. Generally, larger the diameter and higher the frequency, the
greater will be the radius of action, but in practice it is best to judge by eye the actual radius of action
for a particular poker in a particular concrete.

The radius of action will determine the spacing and pattern of insertions. For example, if the radius
of action is about 200 mm, insertions will need to be about 300 mm apart and to a predetermined
pattern if all the concrete is to be fully compacted.

As a guide, a spacing of about 450 mm (250 mm radius of action) may be assumed for a 60 mm
diameter poker with concrete of medium workability.

Length of head
Because it is only the head it self which is vibrating, the concrete layer should not be deeper than
the head length; otherwise there is a danger that the top part will not be fully compacted. For most
pokers within the range of diameters given in the table above, the poker head is likely to be between
350 and 600 mm long ; most 60 mm pokers have a head length of 350-450 mm.

183
Using a Poker Vibrator

Pokers are often used inefficiently. Observations from a number of sites have shown that they are
often running wastefully, or at a reduced efficiency, for about 70% of their operating time, this being
made up as follow:

15% out of the concrete and running

35% wrongly positioned in the concrete

20% Vibrating already compacted concrete

1. Make sure you can see

the concrete surface. Lights may be required in thin deep sections.

2. Put it in quickly. When inserting the poker, allow it to penetrate to the bottom
of the layer as quickly as possible under its own weight. If
done slowly, the top part of the layer will be compacted first,
making it more difficult for the entrapped air in the lower part
of the layer to escape to the surface.

Leave it in the concrete See also the advice on length of time of vibration
for about 10 sec.

4. Withdraw it slowly. The main thing is to see that the hole made by the poker is
closed up; otherwise you will be left with a hole in the finished
concrete. If this does happen-and it is often difficult to prevent
if the concrete is very stiff-put the poker back in near enough
to the hole for the next spell of vibration to close it up. For the
final insertion, withdraw the poker even more slowly and
wriggle it about to ensure that the hole closes up properly.

5. Put the poker back in not With the smaller diameter pokers, closer insertions will be
more than about 500 mm needed.
away from its last position.

184
6. Avoid touching the form Not only will the form face be damaged by ‘poker burn’ - but a
face with the poker. mark will be left on the finished concrete surface. To be on
the safe side, keep the vibrator about 75-1 00 mm away
from the formwork.

7. Avoid touching the Provided that all the concrete is still fresh, vibrating the
reinforcement with the reinforcement should not do any harm and could improve the
poker. bond. The danger lies in the vibrations in the reinforcement
being transmitted into parts of the section where the concrete
may have stiffened, in which case the bond may be affected.

8. Avoid using the poker

to make the concrete
flow.

9. Avoid sticking the poker
into the top of a heap.
Although heaps should be avoided in placing they are
sometimes unavoidable or caused by mistake. To flatten a
heap, insert the poker around the perimeter. Do this carefully
to avoid segregation. Remember that compaction starts after
the heap has been flatened.

10. Make sure that the This will knit the layers together, and any laintance on top of
poker extends about the lower layer will be mixed with the bottom of the top one.
100 mm into any
previous layer.

11. Put the whole length of This is essential to keep the bearings cool.
the poker head into the
concrete.

12. Avoid leaving the poker Otherwise there is a risk of bearings overheating.
running when it is not
in concrete.

13. Avoid sharp bends in

flexible drives.

14. Remember that, where

finish is important, a
little bit of extra vibration
can reduce the number
of blowholes.

185
15. Make sure the drive DO NOT move it by pulling the flexible drive.
motor will not vibrate
itself off the staging.

16. Clean it afterwards.

Length of time required for full compaction

The length of time a poker has to be in the concrete at any one position in order to fully compact the
surrounding concrete cannot be precisely stated, since it depends both on the workability of the
concrete and on the size of the poker itself. The duration will vary between 5 and 15 Seconds, for
concrete with a slump of 25-75 mm, a time of 10 Seconds In the concrete will be about right.

Being able to tell when concrete is fully compacted is largely a matter of experience. With a poker,
you soon get the ‘feel of it’ and can judge the right amount of vibration to give. The following indications
will help:

1. Initial consolidation is rapid and the level of the concrete drops, but the entrapped air has
still to be removed.

2. As the concrete is vibrated, air bubbles come to the surface. When the bubbles stop, it can
be taken as a sign that not much more useful work can be done on the concrete. The
distance of the bubbles from the poker is also a useful guide to its radius of action.

3. Sometimes (especially it: the operator has a good ear for music) the sound can be a
helpful guide. When the poker is inserted there is usually a dropping off in frequency, and
when the pitch (whine) becomes constant the concrete is free of entrapped air.

4. The surface appearance also gives an indication of whether or not compaction is complete.
A thin film of glistening mortar on the surface is a sign that the concrete is compacted, as is
cement paste showing at the junction of the concrete and formwork.

In any case, the dangers from under-compaction are far greater than those from over-compaction,
so if there is any doubt don’t hurry to stop vibrating. Too much is better than too little .

186
Over-Vibration
It cannot be stressed too often that the dangers and problems arising from under-vibration are far
greater than any supposedly arising from over-vibration, since it is virtually impossible to over-
vibrate a properly designed mix. The result of over-vibrating badly designed mixes, such as those
prone to segregation and lacking cohesiveness or containing too much water, is in any case only
likely to be an excess of laitance on the surface, in which case it is best to remove this laitance
rather than risk under-vibration. With columns and wall tops, this removal is not difficult and usually
has to be done in any case before the next lift is placed. However, with slabs, laitance removal is
impossible and it is therefore essential to make sure that the mix is designed to reduce bleeding to
a minimum and that the surface is not overworked.

Time Restriction on Placing and Compacting

Many specification still place limitations on the time permitted to elapse between mixing the concrete
and placing and compacting it.

Concrete can be placed and compacted at any time after mixing PROVIDED THAT it is still workable
by the compacting method available, even if some loss of workability has taken place. For example,
if a poker will sink into the concrete under its own weight and the hole closes up as the poker is
withdrawn then that concrete can still be compacted.

No fixed time limit can be applied to all concreting operations because the actual time will depend
on the stiffening of the mix which in turn depends on the richness, on the temperature (both ambient
and of the concrete itself) and on whether a retarder has been used. On cool damp days, most
concrete is still workable 3- 4 hour after mixing whereas on warm dry days and especially with rich
mixes, 30 minutes may be the limit.

Revibration

Provided that it is still workable, is described above, no harm will be done if concrete which has
already been compacted is revibrated in fact, tests have shown that the strength is increased
slightly if it is revibrated some time after the initial compaction.

On columns and walls where surface finish is of importance, there is sometimes a tendency for
blowholes to occur in the top 600 mm of a lift; the reason is that, unlike the lower layers, this top
layer does not have the advantage of the weight of additional concrete on top to increase the
compaction. It can often help to revibrate the top 600 mm, or some 30 min to 1 hour after the initial
compaction.

In thick sections of slabs and beams, and particularly with mixes prone to bleeding, there is a
danger of plastic settlement cracks appearing over the line of top reinforcement. These cracks
generally form about 1-2 hour after compaction and if they are noticed within this time, and provided
the concrete is still workable, revibration of the top 75-100 mm can close them up again.

187
Placing and Compacting Concrete in Small Columns

Always have the poker at the bottom of the form before the first layer of concrete is deposited. The
first layer is the most critical as it has to bond with the already hardened kicker, and it is here where
honey-combing due to inadequate compaction is most likely.

Ideally, the best way to place and compact concrete in a small column (and other sections if
possible) is to feed it in continuously at a rate which the poker can compact, at the same time
withdrawing the poker slowly and continuously. The rate should not exceed about 300 mm in 20
Seconds, which is about as fast as the concrete can be shovelled in; this is equivalent to a total
time of about 3 ½ min for a 300 mm square column 3 m high. When circumstances do not allow
this method to be used, it is essential to restrict the thickness of layers to about 300 mm.

In a small column, say 300 mm square and 3 m high, the total amount of concrete is only 0.27 m3,
so that if it is to be placed in layers not exceeding about 300 mm thickness - and if they are to be
properly compacted the amount to be placed at any one time should not exceed 0.03 m3 - about 3
bucketfools.

Placing from skips should be done only if the skip operator can control the opening and closing of
the skip so that not more than about 3 bucketfuls are placed at a time. If this can’t be guaranteed, it
is best to deposit the concrete on a banker board at the top of the column and then to shovel it in
carefully. You can use buckets instead, but this is likely to take a bit longer.

One 40 mm diameter poker will be sufficient to ensure good compaction in a 300 mm square
section, provided there is enough space to get the poker in; in columns of this size, the poker
should be at the centre.

If placing in layers 300 mm thick, make sure each layer is fully compacted before placing the next.
Also, make sure you can see the surface of the concrete; use a torch if necessary.

If concrete is being placed by a mobile pump, it may be a good idea to lower the end of the flexible
hose to the bottom (if the poker fits as well) and raise the hose and poker at the same time. Reduce
the pump output to the rate which the poker can compact.

If the surface finish is important, revibrate the top 450 mm about half an hour later.

Placing and Compacting Concrete in Walls

Establish in advance from the reinforcement and other drawings that there are not likely to be
problems in placing the concrete or in getting the pokers in. If reinforcement cannot be rearranged,
decide just how the concrete will be placed and compacted and, having decided, tell the concreting
gang so that they each know exactly what is to be done and how it is to be done.

188
With a good cohesive mix and freedom from obstruction, concrete can be dropped from the top of
the formwork. However, it must not come into contact with the form face- baffle boards at the top
are useful for this.

It is essential to be able to see the concrete being both placed and compacted: in thin sections,
some fighting is essential.

If the height of pour exceeds 3m, make sure that the flexible hose or power line is long enough for
the poker to get to the bottom.

Place as uniformly level as possible, avoiding heaps and inclined layers. If skips are being used,
control the discharge: don’t drop a full load all at once - it will only segregate. And move the skip
horizontally along the line of the wall; this is not easy and needs care.

Pay particular attention to the placing and compaction of the first layer of concrete on the horizontal
construction joint or kicker: it shouldn’t be thicker than 300 mm.

Allow for the time it takes to move the poker horizontally from one insertion point to the next. With
through bolts and other obstructions, the poker head may have to be withdrawn to the top of the
formwork before being lowered again for the next insertion. For a 6m length of wall with insertion
points at 400 mm centres, you will probably need at least three pokers.

For thin (300 mm ) walls, you may find it best to have a continuous banker board along the top on
which the concrete can be placed before being shovelled down into the form. This technique is
similar to the use of a banker board for small columns.

Placing and Compacting Concrete with a Sloping Top Layer

It the slope is no more than about 5-10O, concrete can be placed and compacted by the conventional
method for slabs. However, to avoid the concrete slumping towards the bottom of the slope under
its own weight and the effects of vibration, Its workability should be as low as possible - less than 25
mm slump. For slabs up to about 200 mm thick, place the concrete and spread to a uniform
surcharge for a distance of about 1 m up the slope and then use a hand or vibrating tamper,
working it up the slope off screed rails or battens fixed at the sides. Use a poker along the edges.
If some slight slumping of the concrete can be seen after compaction, it may be necessary to wait
for it to stiffen before giving the surface a second pass to get it right.

For slopes in excess of about 10O, it will usually be necessary to use a slip-form screed.

The slipform should not be vibrated because this would cause the concrete coming out from the
bottom edge to swell up.

189
 Jointing Concrete
CONTROL (CONTRACTION) JOINTS

∗ Create weakened sections to control crack locations.

∗ Accommodate movements caused by temperature changes and drying shrinkage.
∗ Prevent vertical, but permit slight horizontal movement.
∗ Are neater in appearance and easier to keep sealed than uncontrolled cracks, and cause fewer
maintenance problems (for heavy forklift traffic, saw cut joints).

LAY OUT JOINTS TO

∗ Divide large floor areas into small rectangular panels, as nearly square as possible
∗ Limit rectangular panels so the long side is no more than 1 ½ times the short side
∗ Avoid reentrant (inside) corners and sharp angles (less than 60 degrees)
∗ Align with changes in slab thickness, plan dimensions, and joints in adjoining slabs.
∗ Terminate at the edge of the slab, not at an intersecting joint

CONTROL JOINT SPACING

∗ Should not exceed, in feet, two to three times the slab thickness, in inches (Example space
joints 8 to 12 feet apart for a 4-inch-thick slab)

GOOD JOINTING PRACTICE

∗ Mark joint locations on edge forms

∗ Use a straight edge as a joint guide

∗ Start with a wide groover, then use a narrower

groover on later passes

∗ Cut joints a minimum of 1/4 the slab thickness (1

inch deep for a 4 - inch slab)

190
Joints
General - As it is not generally possible to place concrete continuously, construction joints are
formed following temporary stoppages of the concreting. Such joints are a possible source of
weakness and should be formed with great care. In addition to construction joints, expansion joints
have also to be provided in concrete structures to allow for the expansion and contraction of the
concrete due to temperature changes.

Position of construction joints - As a general rule the position and arrangement of construction
joints should be settled before concreting begins. The horizontal joints should be arranged with
levels to blend with the general architectural appearance. The vertical joints should be situated as
positions where the length of the joints is shortest or where a symmetrical pattern can be arranged.
In columns, beams, slabs and walls the following general rules should be observed in positioning
construction joints:

(a) Columns should be filled to a level, preferably a few cm below the junction of a beam or
alternatively to the bottom of any haunching.
(b) Joints in beams and slabs should be formed at the points of minimum shear. Thus for
beams, the joint should be at the centre of span or within the middle third. Slabs spanning in
one direction and of short span should have the joints at middle span if they are at right
angles to the direction of spanning. Joints in the direction in which the slabs are designed to
span should be within the middle third Joints in slabs spanning in two directions should be
within the middle third on either span.
(c) If for any reason a joint has to be made between the slab and the beam, it is then necessary
to provide some form of key and to add shear reinforcement to meet any weakness at the
joint.
(d) The positions of joints in ordinary column and beam construction should be as illustrated
below.
(e) Horizontal joints in walls are usually made at such positions as the top of a plinth or the top
or bottom of a window opening.

191
Forming construction joints - All vertical joints should be formed against a stop board as raking
joints often result in honey combing. All horizontal joints should be level. Battens may be nailed to
formwork to ensure a horizontal line and if desired may be used to form a grooved joint. If the
thickness of concrete permits, it is desirable to provide a key of the tongue and groove type at all
construction joints. The width of the groove should be about one third the thickness of the concrete.
For tank walls and similar work it is preferable to form all joints with a strip of sheet metal about 15
cm wide inserted half-way into the concrete at the top of the lift to form a continuous water barrier.

When resuming work at construction joints on a concrete surface which has hardened, such
surface should be roughened. It should then be swept clean, thoroughly wetted, and covered with

a 15 mm layer of mortar composed of cement and sand in the same ratio as the cement and sand
in the concrete mix. This layer should be freshly mixed and placed immediately before placing the
fresh concrete. Where the work has to be resumed on a concrete surface which has not fully
hardened, all laitance should be removed by scrubbing. The surface should then be thoroughly
wetted and all free water should be removed. The surface should then be coated with neat cement
grout. The first layer of concrete to be placed against this surface should not exceed 15cm in
thickness and should be well rammed against the old work. Some details of forming construction
joints are illustrated in Figs above and below.

Curing Concrete

192
 Curing Concrete
BASICS
Curing enables concrete to become stronger and more durable. Proper Curing requires:
∗ Sufficient moisture content-use curing method to supply or retain moisture
∗ Favourable temperatures-50O F to 90 O F
∗ Time-minimum of seven days or until concrete reaches 70% of its specified strength

CURE CONCRETE IMMEDIATELY AFTER FINISHING BY

PONDING
∗ Build dike, then fill with water to cover the entire concrete slab
∗ Avoid water or dike material that can stain the concrete
∗ Use curing water at a temperature within 20 O F of the concrete temperature
∗ Avoid premature or sudden release of ponded water, which can damage the surrounding
environment

SPRINKLING OR FOG SPRAYING

∗ Keep surface continuously wet; alternate wetting and drying causes craze cracking
∗ Use low water pressure and flow to avoid washing away the fresh concrete surface
∗ Use a water temperature within 20 O F of the concrete temperature
∗ Avoid if water runoff can damage the surrounding environment

USING WET MATERIALS

∗ Cover the concrete with wet burlap, straw, sawdust, or sand
∗ Wet continuously, or cover with plastic sheets and wet frequently
∗ Avoid materials that discolor concrete
∗ Prevent materials from blowing away

USING PLASTIC SHEETS OR WATERPROOF PAPER

∗ Lay flat, lap edges 6 inches, and cover exposed concrete edges
∗ Use minimum 4 mm.-thick plastic sheet: white in hot weather and black in cold weather
∗ Don’t use on architectural concrete
∗ Secure covering to prevent concrete exposure

USING CURING COMPOUNDS

∗ Apply after finishing when bleed water disappears
∗ Apply in two applications, at right angles, to form a continuous film
∗ Typical coverage rates are 150 - 200 square feet per gallon

193
General - The chemical action which accompanies the setting of concrete is dependent on the
presence of water, and although there is normally an adequate quantity for full hydration at the time
of mixing, it is necessary to ensure that the water is either retained or replenished to enable the
chemical action to continue until the concrete is fully hardened. Methods of curing are therefore
designed to maintain the concrete in a continuously moist condition over a period of several days or
even weeks either by preventing evaporation and the absorption of water by the forms or subgrade,
or by repeatedly wetting the surface.

Methods of curing - Concrete can be cured either by water or sealing compounds. Water curing
produces the best concrete. It makes the concrete stronger, more durable, more impermeable and
more resistant to abrasion and to frost. It is also the most usual method of curing and is effected,
either

(a) by spraying the concrete with water, or

(b) by covering the concrete with a layer of sacking, canvas, hessian, or similar absorbent
material, which is kept constantly wet.
In the case of floor slabs and pavings the surface may alternatively be
(a) covered with clean wet sand,
(b) covered with water-proof paper, which will keep the moisture in the concrete if it is laid in
close contact with the surface, or
(c) flooded with water; this is known as ponding, and is done by building small earth or clay
dams round the area to be cured.

The use of sealing compounds and protective covering for curing is a more specialised method.
These compounds are generally properitory and instructions for application are issued by the makers.

Period of curing - Curing should begin as soon as the concrete is sufficiently hard by covering it
or by the application of a water spray. Concrete made with ordinary or blast furnace slag cement,
requires moist curing for at least seven days under normal temperature conditions. Slow hardening
cements, such as low heat Portlant cement require 14 days or more of moist curing. Concrete
made with high alumina cement develops its strength more rapidly, generating a good deal of heat
in the setting and hardening process, and thus water evaporates more easily from it than from
Portland cement concrete. It is, therefore, absolutely essential to keep it wet on all faces for twenty-
four hours from the time it begins to harden. It must be kept completely saturated for the first eight
hours and thoroughly wet for further sixteen hours.

194
FINISHING AND CURING OF CONCRETE

FINSINING METHODS ∗ Screeding or striking off

∗ Bull floating

Finishing is the ∗ Trowelling operations

levelling of a ∗ Broom finish
compacted concrete ∗ Burlap of belt finish

Screeding
Screeding is the process of striking off the excess concrete
by moving a template across the concrete surface with a
sawing motion and advancing further a short distance with
each movement. Generally used in slabs and pavements.

Bull Floating Immediately after screeding, low spots and ridges at various
spots are removed by bull floating. Normally two types of tools
are used called Darby Float and Bull Float.

After bull floating, if necessary, the surface is to be finished

Floating
further by floating. This should be done after allowing the
concrete to stiffen for 1 ½ to 2 ½ hrs. The purpose of floating
is to remove slight imperfection and humps and to fill small
hollows. It also helps to level and compact the concrete.
Floating is either done by a wooden or a metal float.

Trowelling The purpose of trowelling is to give a final dense and smooth,

finish. It has to start after an interval of floating operation and
at such a time that considerable pressure is required to make
impressions on the surface. If required repeated trowelling
can be done to get the required finish.

Brooming
For roadways, walks, etc. where a coarse, scored surface is
required , brooming is done by running a stiff broom crosswise
to the direction of the trowel.

Burlap or Belt finish Roads or paths can be given a final finishing with the help of
burlap canvas. This is done immediately after a good float.

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CURING METHODS

What is Curing? It is the process of maintaining a satisfactory moisture con-

tent and a favourable temperature in concrete during hydra-
tion of hardening period so that the desired properties of the
concrete are developed.

Length of Curing Time The length of curing time depends on the type of cement and
the particular form in which the concrete is used.

Generally at least 7 days of moist curing is required for ordinary

portland cement but slow hardening types such as low heat
cement require at least 14 days of moist curing.

Methods of Curing ∗ Water curing

∗ Membrane curing
∗ Application of heat
∗ Miscellaneous

Water Curing ∗ Immersion Water Curing is the best method

∗ Ponding of curing as it satisfies all
requirement of curing viz.
∗ Spraying parameters of hydration,
∗ Wet Covering elimination of shrinkage and
absorption of the heat of hydration.

Membrane Curing In this method concrete is covered with a water proof sheet
or membrane to prevent evaporation of water from concrete.

Curing Compounds Normally used curing compounds are

∗ Eltuminous or Asphaltic Emulsions
∗ Rubber Latex Emulsions
∗ Emulsions of Resin
∗ Emulsions of Wax in water with stabilizer

Generally used in the following circumstances:

∗ Places with acute shortage of water
∗ Inaccessible places where concrete curing cannot be
properly supervised.
∗ On large flat surfaces where continuous curing by
water is difficult.

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Application of Heat/Steam curing ∗ Steam curing at ordinary pressure
∗ Steam curing at high temperature and pressure
∗ Curing by infra-red radiation
∗ Electrical curing
This sort of curing normally used where faster development
of strength is required like prefabricated concrete elements.
But in this case concrete loses strength at later ages.

Miscellaneous Methods of Curing ∗ Use of Calcium Chloride

∗ Retaining Formwork
∗ Shading of concrete work
These methods have very little application, used very rarely.

When to Start Curing? Normally this is to be started after 10-12 hours after concreting.

The right practice is to cover concrete with wet gunny bag or

wet hessian cloth properly squeezed which will avoid fast
drying of concrete. The actual curing by one of the above
methods should start after 24 hrs.

Remember Alternate wetting and drying during curing is worse than not
curing the concrete.

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 Finishing Tools
∗ DARBIES *
∗ Made of wood or magnesium
∗ 28 to 45 inches long
∗ Taper from about 3 1/2 inches wide at
heel to about 2 1/4 inches at toe
∗ Long darbies (36 to 45 inches) usually
have two or three handholds for better
finishing control
* EDGERS *
∗ Constructed of bronze or stainless or
blue steel
∗ 2 1/2 to 6 inches wide by 6 to 10
inches long
∗ Lip (which forms the edge) ranges
from 1/4 to 1 1/8 inches deep and 1/8
to 1 inch in radius.
∗ Use special edgers for steps and curbs;
long handles permit edging while
standing (called walking edgers)
* FLOATS *
∗ Made of wood or magnesium
∗ 3 to 4 inches wide by 12 to 24 inches
long
∗ Woods with different textures and
densities provide varying surface
finishes.
∗ Use rounded-corner or beveled-edge
198
∗ BULL FLOATS *
∗ Blades are made of wood, aluminium, or
magnesium
∗ Blades are 8 inches wide and 3 to 8 feet
long
∗ Handles usually are made of metal, but
use fiber glass handles when working
around electricity
∗ Handles are 4 to 10 feet long and
interlocked to create 20-foot-long
handles
* GROVERS *
∗ Constructed of stainless steel or bronze
∗ 2 to 4 1/4 inches wide by 3 to 9 inches
long
∗ V (which cuts the groove) ranges from 3/
16 to 2 inches deep
∗ Use special groovers to form vertical
grooves in curbs and steps; walking
groovers also are available
* TROWELS *
∗ Made of blue, stainless, or high-carbon
steel
∗ 3 to 5 inches wide by 10 to 24 inches long
∗ Some trowel blades are machine -
ground to provide a curved, broken-in
feel
∗ Use midget trowels (7 ½ x 3-inch blade)
and pool trowels (rounded blade) to
finish small areas and curved surfaces
∗ Fresnos are rounded- end trowels
designed to attach to bull flout handles
floats in tight corners
 Initial Finishing

STRIKE OFF
∗ Properly done removes excess concrete and brings top surface to grade
∗ Start as soon as possible after placing concrete
∗ End before bleed water appears

STRIKE OFF TOOLS

∗ Hand straight edges can be wood or magnesium
∗ Straightedges should be 1 to 2 feet longer than the pour
∗ Wood straightedges should be clean and true (2x4 with no bow)
∗ Magnesium straightedges minimize surface tearing and are preferred on some speciality
toppings.

STRAIGHTEDGE
∗ Use a side-to-side sawing motion while pulling forward
∗ Tilt it slightly backward to create a single cutting edge
∗ Keep about an Inch of concrete in front to fill low spots
∗ Make a second pass if the surface isn’t to grade
∗ Pull concrete into (not away from) end edge forms

Final Finishing
EDGERS
∗ Use to produce a clean slab edge that is less likely to chip
∗ An edger is less likely to dig into concrete or leave a bumpy surface if a trowel is used in a
vertical sawing motion to dislodge aggregate particles away from the edge forms
∗ Run back and forth with the leading edge slightly raised
∗ Don’t start in a corner and don’t raise the edger off the concrete unless the tool is in motion
∗ Use a wide edger for the first pass, then a narrow edger for the second pass

GROOVERS
∗ Use to control crack location by cutting joints to a depth of at least one-fourth the slab thickness
∗ Push the groover into the concrete, then move it forward while applying pressure to the back of
the tool
∗ After joint is cut, turn the groover around, running it back over the cut to give a smoother finish
∗ For a straight cut, use a chalk line or straight edge as a guide.

199
FLOATS
∗ Use to remove imperfections and to bring mortar to the surface for troweling
∗ Hold float flat and it arm’s length, moving it in a wide semicircular motion until surface is smooth
∗ Use magnesium tools for air-entrained concrete
∗ More than one float pass may be required

TROWELS
∗ Use to produce a hard, dense surface
∗ Trowel only after floating, starting with a wide trowel then moving to smaller trowels on later
passes
∗ Hold trowel at a slight tilt at arm’s length and move it in a semicircular motion, overlapping each
pass by one-half until surface is smooth

BULL FLOATS AND BABBIES

∗ Use to level ridges and fill voids left by straightedge
∗ Start immediately after strike off and finish before bleedwater appears
∗ Use at right angle to the direction of strikeoff
∗ Push the bull float with the front edge slightly off the surface to cut bumps; pull the bull float with
the back edge slightly off the surface to fill voids
∗ Use magnesium tools for air-entrained concrete
∗ Darbies serve the same purpose as bull floats but for smaller areas; use in a sawing arc
motion

WAITING PERIOD
∗ Begin further finishing when all the bleedwater has evaporated and concrete is firm enough to
leave only 1/4 inch-deep footprints
∗ Finishing while bleedwater is present can cause surface crazing, dusting, or scaling

200
 STANDARD CEMENT CONSUMPTION

Sr.No. Item Unit Requirement

in bags.

PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE

1. a) Cement concrete (1:2:4) without finishing Cum. 6.27
2. b) Cement concrete (1:2:4) with finishing Cum. 6.72
3. Cement concrete (1:3:6) Cum. 4.42
4. Cement concrete (1:4:8) Cum. 3.40
5. Cement concrete (1:5:10) Cum. 2.65

REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE

6. Cement concrete M- 15 (1:2:4) Cum. 6.27
7. Cement concrete M-20 (1:1 ½ : 3) Cum. 7.60
8. Cement concrete M-25 Cum. 8.50
9. Cement concrete M-30 Cum. 9.50
10. Cement concrete M-35 Cum. 10.00
11. Cement concrete M-40 Cum. 10.50

BRICK WORK
12. B.B. Masonry in C.M. 1:4 proportion Cum. 1.65
13. B. B. Masonry in C.M. 1:5 proportion Cum. 1.52
14. B. B. Masonry in C.M. 1:6 proportion Cum. 1.44
15. B. B. Masonry in C.M. 1:8 proportion Cum. 1.13
16. Half brick masonry in C.M. 1:4 proportion Sqm. 0.22

MASONRY
17. U.C.R.S. masonry in C.M. 1:6 proportion Cum. 1.77
18. U.C.R.S. Masonry in C.M. 1:5 proportion Cum. 1.94
19. C.R.S. Masonry in C.M. 1:5 proportion Cum. 1.80
20. C.R.S. Masonry in C.M. 1:6 proportion Cum. 1.50

DAMP PROOF COURSE

21. Providing and laying damp proof course Sqm. 0.35
50 mm thick in (1:2:4)
22. Finishing the terrace slab 20 mm thick Sqm. 0.20
in C.M. 1:3 proportion.
23. Providing water proofing to W.C. and bath Sqm. 0.276
24. Providing water proofing to W.C. Cum. 4.00
thick single coat in C.M. 1:4

201
Sr.No. Item Unit Requirement in bags.

PLASTERING

25. Providing internal cement plaster 6 mm Sqm. 0.045

thick single coat in C.M. 1:4
26. Providing internal cement plaster 6 mm Sqm. 0.07
thick single coat in C.M. 1:3
27. Providing cement plaster 12 mm thick Sqm. 0.09
in single coat in C.M. 1:5
28. -do - in C.M. 1:4 proportion. Sqm. 0.11
29. -do - in C.M. 1:3 proportion Sqm. 0.14
30. Providing Cement plaster 20 mm thick Sqm. 0.17
in single coat in C.M. 1:3
31. -do- in C.M. 1:5 proportion in two coats Sqm. 0.14
32. -do - in single coat in C.M. 1:5 proportion Sqm. 0.14
33. -do - in two coat in C.M. 1:4 proportion. Sqm. 0.17
34. -do- in two coats in C.M. 1:3 proportion Sqm. 0.22
35. -do - 25 mm thick in two coats in C.M. Sqm. 0.22
1:4 proportion.
36. Sand faced plaster in two coats. Sqm. 0.22
37. Rough cast plaster in two coats in C.M. Sqm. 0.22
1:4 proportion.
38. Providing flush grooving pointing in Sqm. 0.03
C.M. 1:3 for brick work.
39. -do- to stone masonry in C.M. 1:3 prop. Sqm. 0.025
40. Providing tuck pointing with C.M. 1:3 prop. Sqm. 0.05
41. Providing weathered pointing in C.M. 1:3 Sqm. 0.04
for stone masonry.
42. Providing vee pointing for stone masonry Sqm. 0.03
in C.M. 1:3
43. Providing fine finish 1.5 mm. thick over Sqm. 0.044
green surface.

PAVING, FLOORING, FINISHING AND DADO

44. Providing and laying R.S.H. flooring 20mm. Sqm. 0.135
to 30 mm. on bed of 1:6 C.M. and pointing
C.M. 1:3
45. do- 40 mm to 50 mm - do- Sqm. 0.14
46. do- 50 mm to 60 mm - do- Sqm. 0.15
47. Providing and laying polished shahabad Sqm. 0.13
stone flooring 25 mm to 30 mm thick on
bed 1:6 proportion.

202
Sr.No. Item Unit Requirement in bags.

48. Providing and laying polished tandur stone Sqm. 0.13

flooring 25 mm to 30 mm. thick on bed
1:6 proportion.
49. -do- polished Kota stone flooring 25mm. Sqm. 0.13
to 30 mm. thick on bed 1:6 proportion.
50. Providing and laying skirting and dado of Sqm. 0.18
polished shahabad stone 25 to 30 mm.
with 1:4 C.M.
51. Providing and laying skirting of polished Sqm. 0.18
tandur stone - do-
52. Providing and laying c.c. flooring 40 mm. Sqm. 0.36
thick with c.c. 1:1 ½ : 4
53. -do- 50 mm. thick -do- Sqm. 0.44
54. Providing and laying flooring of plain Sqm. 0.15
cement tiles of 25 x 25 mm. on bed 1:6
for flooring.
55. -do- for dado and skirting on polished Sqm. 0.18
surface 1:4 proportion.
56. Providing and laying coloured tiles Sqm. 0.15
25 x 25 mm size.
57. -do- for dado skirting. Sqm. 0.18
58. Providing and laying white glazed tiles Sqm. 0.22
150 x 150 mm for flooring.
59. -do- for dado and skirting. Sqm. 0.21
60. Providing and laying gray cement base Sqm. 0.21
mosaic tiles for flooring 25 x 25 cm.
61. -do- for dado -do- Sqm. 0.18
62. Providing and laying in situ marble mosaic
tiles 10 mm. thick.
(A) Gray cement, Sqm. 0.20
(B) White cement, Sqm. 0.13
63. -do- for dado -do-
(A) Gray cement. Sqm. 0.20
(B) White cement. Sqm. 0.80
64. Providing and laying in required position Sqm. 0.30
flooring of broken china.
65. Providing and laying polished shahabad Sqm. 0.18
stone 25 to 30 mm. thick for tread and riser.

203
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