SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Key points and formula

Basic postulates of the special theory of relativity are:

 The laws of physics must be the same for all observers moving at constant velocity with
respect to one another.
 The speed of light must be the same for all inertial observers, independent of their
relative motion.
To satisfy these postulates, the Galilean transformations must be replaced by the Lorentz
transformations given by

𝑥 ′ = 𝛾(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)

𝑦′ = 𝑦

𝑧′ = 𝑧
𝑣
𝑡 ′ = 𝛾 (𝑡 − 𝑥)
𝑐2
1
where 𝛾 = 2
√1− 𝑣2
𝑐

These equations relate an event with coordinates 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 measured in S to the same event with
coordinates 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ , 𝑡 ′ measured in S′, where it is assumed that the primed system moves with a
speed 𝑣 along the xx′ -axes.

 The relativistic form of the velocity transformation is

𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣
𝑢𝑥′ = 𝑢 𝑣
1 − 𝑥2
𝑐
where 𝑢𝑥′ is the speed of an object as measured in the S′ frame and 𝑢𝑥 is its speed measured in
the S frame.

If the object has velocity components 𝑢𝑦 and 𝑢𝑧 along y and z respectively, the components in S′
are
𝑢𝑦
𝑢𝑦′ = 𝑢 𝑣
𝛾 (1 − 𝑥2 )
𝑐
′
𝑢𝑧
𝑢𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑣
𝛾 (1 − 𝑥2 )
𝑐

Some of the consequences of the special theory of relativity are as follows:

  Clocks in motion relative to an observer appear to be slowed down by a factor γ. This is
known as time dilation.
 Length of objects in motion appear to be contracted only in the direction of motion by a
factor of 1⁄𝛾 . This is known as length contraction. While dimensions perpendicular to
the velocity are not contracted.
 Events that are simultaneous for one observer are not simultaneous for another observer
in motion relative to the first. This is known as the relativity of simultaneity.

These three statements can be summarized by saying that duration, length, and simultaneity are
not absolute concepts in relativity.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A passenger train travels east at high speed. One passenger is located at the east side of
one car; another is located in the west side of that car. In the train’s frame, these two
passengers glance up at the same time. In the earth’s frame:

(a) They glance up simultaneously

(b) The passenger at the east side glances up first
(c) The passenger at the west side glances up first
(d) The passengers glance sideways

2. James travels at high speed from the Earth to the star Alpha Centauri, four light years
away. In James’s frame:

(a) The trip takes more time than it does in the Earth’s frame
(b) James travels to Alpha Centauri over a length that is shorter than four light years
(c) Clocks on Earth and on Alpha Centauri are synchronized
(d) Alpha Centauri travels to James over a length that is shorter than four light years

3. A train is 200 feet long in its own frame, and a railroad platform is 160 feet long in its
own frame. The train rushes past the platform so fast that, in the platform’s frame, the
train and platform are the same length. How fast was the train moving:

(a) 4/5 c (b) 5/4 c (c) 3/5 c (d) 4/3 c (e) 5/3 c

4. Michelson and Morley experiment showed that:

(a) Newtonian mechanics is correct for all low and high velocities
(b) There is an absolute ether frame
(c) There is no absolute ether frame, but all frames are relative
(d) Velocity of light is relative in all cases.

5. You are in a windowless spacecraft. You need to determine whether your spaceship is
moving at constant nonzero velocity, or is at rest, in an inertial frame of Earth:
 (a) You can succeed by making very precise time measurements.
(b) You can succeed by making very precise mass measurements.
(c) You can succeed by making very precise length and time measurements.
(d) You cannot succeed no matter what you do.

6. If 𝑣 = 𝑐, the length of a rod in motion is:

(a) Zero (b) Equal to proper length

(c) Less than proper length (d) More than proper length.

7. Michelson-Morley experiment to detect the presence of either is based on the

phenomenon of:

(a) Interference (b) Diffraction

(c) Polarization (d) Dispersion

8. According to relativity, the length of a rod in motion:

(a) Is same as its rest length

(b) Is more than its rest length
(c) Is less than its rest length
(d) May be more or less than or equal to rest length depending on the speed of rod

9. The average lifetime of μ - mesons with a speed of 0.95c is measured to be 6 × 10−6 s.

Compute the average lifetime of μ - mesons in a system in which they are at rest:

(a) 1.06×10-6s (b) 1.87×10-6s

(c) 1.56×10-6s (d) 0.87×10-6s

10. Observers O and O ′ approach each other with a relative velocity of 0.6c. If O measures
the initial distance to O ′ to be 20m, how much time will it take, as determined by O,
before the two observers meet:

(a) 10.6×10-8s (b) 12.1×10-8s

(c) 11.1×10-8s (d) 9.6×10-8s

11. The resolution to the Twin Paradox lies in the observation that:

(a) No two people can be exactly the same age

(b) The twin that stays on the Earth ages differently because of the Earth's gravitational
field
(c) The predictions of special relativity only apply to subatomic particles
(d) One of the twins must accelerate in order to leave Earth and come back
12. Consider three galaxies, Alpha, Beta and Gamma. An observer in Beta sees the other two
galaxies each moving away from him in opposite directions at speed 0.7c. At what speed
would an observer in Alpha see the galaxy Beta moving:

(a) 0.35c (b) 0.57c (c) 0.70c (d) 0.82c (e) 0.94c

13. On which of the following will observers in different inertial systems agree about the
results:

(a) The simultaneity of events at separate locations.

(b) The rate at which their clocks run
(c) The lengths they measure along the direction of their relative travel
(d) The synchronization of their own clocks with the moving clocks of the other frame
(e) The observers will agree on none of the above

14. A body at rest spontaneously breaks up into two parts which move in opposite directions.
The parts have masses of 3kg and 5.33kg and respective speeds of 0.8c and 0.6c. Find the
rest mass of the original body:

(a) 9 kg (b) 12.55 kg

(c) 11.66 kg (d) 13.11 kg

15. Calculate the momentum of 1 MeV electron:

(a) 42 MeV/c (b) 1.02 MeV/c

(c) 0.99 MeV/c (d) 1.24 MeV/c

16. Simultaneity is:

(a) Dilated (b) Absolute

(c) Invariant (d) Relative

17. An observer sees two lightning flashes and determines that one happens 10 ns before the
other. Which statement is true:

(a) Another inertial observer must find the order of events, the location of events, and the
time difference to be the same
(b) Another inertial observer must find the order of events to be the same but the location
and time difference may be different
(c) Another inertial observer must find the order of events and the locations to be the
same but the time difference may be different
(d) Any other inertial observer might find the order of events, the locations, and the time
difference to be different
 18. A Λ particle with mass 1116 MeV/c2 decays at rest to a proton with mass 938 MeV/c2
and a pion with mass 140 MeV/c2 What can we say about the proton and pion momentum
and energy:

(a) The proton and pion have the same magnitude momentum and energy
(b) The proton and pion have the same energy but the proton has more momentum
(c) The proton and pion have the same momentum but the proton has more energy
(d) The proton and pion have equal and opposite momenta and the proton has more
energy

Tutorial questions

Q1: As determined by O′, a lightning bolt strikes at x′=60m, y′=z′=0 and t′=8×10-8 s. O′ has a
velocity of 0.6c along x-axis of O. What are the space-time co-ordinates of the strike as
determined by O? Ans: ( x,y,z,t ) = ( 93m, 0, 2×10-7 s ).

Q2: An observer O′ holds 1.00 m stick at an angle 30o with respect to positive x′- axis. O′
moving in the positive x- x′ direction with velocity 0.8c with respect to the observer O. What are
the length and angle of the stick as measured by O. Ans. 0.721m, 43.9o

Q3: An airplane is moving with respect to the earth with a speed of 600 m/s. As determine by
earth clocks, how long will it take for the airplanes's clock to fall behind by two microseconds?
Ans: 11.6 days

Q4: Pions have a half-life of 1.8×10-8 s. A Pion beam leaves an accelerator with a velocity of
0.8c. Relativistically, what is the expected distance over which half the Pions should decay?
Ans: 7.2m

Q5: At what speed must an observer move past the earth so that earth appears like an ellipse
whose major axis is six times the minor axis? Ans: 0.986c

Q6: It takes 105 years for light to reach us from the most distant parts of our galaxy. Could a
human travel there at a constant speed in 50 years?

Ans: A human being travelling at the speed v=0.999999875 will find that when he completes the
trip he has aged 50 years.

Q7: As determined by the observer O a red light flashes, and, 10-6 s later, a blue flashes 600m
farther out on the x-axis. What are the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the second
observer O′, if he measures the red and blue flashes to occur simultaneously? Ans: +0.5c

Q8: The relative speed of O and O′ is 0.8c. At t′=2×10-7s , a super bullet is fired from x′=100m.
Traveling in the negative x′- direction with a constant speed, it strikes a target at the origin of O′
at t′= 6×10-7s. As determined by O, what is the speed of the bullet and how far did it travel.
Ans. 3×107 m/s , 2.23×10-7s
Q9: Two events occur at the same place and are separated by a 4s time interval as determined by
one observer. If second observer measures the time separation between these two events to be 5s,
what is his determination of their spatial separation? Ans. 9×108 m.

Q10: Observer O′, moving with a speed of 0.8c relative to a space platform, travels to α -
Centauri, which, at a distance of 4 light years, is the nearest star to the platform. When he
reaches the star he immediately turns around and returns to the platform at the same speed. When
O′ reaches the space platform, compare his age with of his twin sister O, who has stayed on the
platform? (Ans. O′ is 4 years younger than O when they meet)

Q11: Refer to the previous problem, suppose that every year, as determined by O, O send a light
signal to O′. How many signals are received by O′ on each leg of his journey (In other words,
what would twin O′ actually see if he looked at his twin sister through telescope)

Ans: A signal sent by O at t = 1 yr α –Centauri simultaneously with O′. Since O sends a total of
10 signals, the remaining 9 signals all reach O′ on the return journary.

Q12: The Earth and Sun are 8.3 light-minutes apart. Ignore their relative motion for this problem
and assume they live in a single inertial frame, the Earth-Sun frame. Events A and B occur at t=0
on the earth and 2 minutes on the Sun respectively. Find the time difference between the events
according to an observer moving at u=0.8c from Earth to Sun. Repeat if observer is moving in
the opposite direction. Ans: -7.7m, 14 m

Q13: Refer to the previous problem, (a) what is the speed of a space craft that makes the trip
from Sun to Earth in 5 minutes according to the on board clocks? (b) What is the trip time in the
Earth-Sun frame: Ans: 2.6×108 m/s, 9.7 min

Q14: A particle moves with a speed of 0.8c at angle of 3 0 0 to the x-axis, as determined by O.
What is the velocity of the particle, as determined by second observer, O′, moving with a speed
of -0.6c along the common x- x ′ axis. Ans: 0.913c

Q15: A K0 - meson, at rest, decays into a π+ meson and π- meson, each travels with a speed of
0.827c. When a K0 - meson traveling at a speed of 0.6c decays, what is the greatest speed that
one of the π mesons can have? Ans: 0.954c

Q16: The speed of a rocket with respect to a space station is 2.4×108 m/s, and the observers O′
and O in the rocket and space station respectively, synchronize their clocks in the usual fashion (t
= t′= 0 when x = x′= 0). Suppose that O looks at O′ s clock through a telescope, what time does
he see on O′ clock when his own clock read 30s.

Ans: 10.s

Q17: Refer to previous problem, if O′ looks at O clock through a telescope, what time does his
own clock read when he sees O clock reading 30s.

Ans: 100s
Q18: A particle of rest mass mo moving with a speed of 0.8c makes a completely inelastic
collision with a particle of rest mass 3 mo that is initially at rest. What is the rest mass of the
resulting single body? Ans: 4.47 mo

Q19: A moving electron collides with a stationary electron and an electron-positron pair comes
into being as a result. When all four particles have the same velocity after the collision, the
kinetic energy required for this process is a minimum. Use a relativistic calculation to show that
K E min =6mc2 , where m is the rest mass of the electron. (It’s a derivation !)

Q20: Consider two rockets A and B of rest length L0 =1m travelling towards each other with a
tiny shift in the y-direction so they do not collide, as part figure 1. Each sees the other approach
it with speed u. According to A, when the tail of B passed the tip of A, a missile was fired from
the tail of A towards B as in part (a) of the figure. It will clearly miss due to length contraction of
B as seen by A. But B will see the event as in part (b) of the figure and expect a hit. Who is
right? (Ignore the time it takes the missile to hit its target)

Ans: Both the observers agree that missile misses the rocket, in fact both are right.
Conceptual Questions:

1. Explain in your own words what is meant by the term “relativity”. Are there different
theories of relativity ?
2. Does the Michelson-Morely experiment show that the ether does not exist or that it is
merely unnecessary?
3. Einstein developed the relativity theory after trying unsuccessfully to imagine how a light
beam would look to an observer traveling with the beam at speed c. Why is this so
difficult to imagine.
4. Explain in your own words the terms time dilation and length contraction
5. According to the time dilation effect, would the life expectancy of someone who lives at
the equator be longer or shorter than someone who lives at the North Pole, by how much
6. “In special relativity, mass and energy are equivalent”. Discuss this statement and give
examples.
7. Which is more massive, an object at low temperature or the same object at high
temperature? A spring at its natural length or same spring under compression? A
container of gas at low pressure or at high pressure? A charged capacitor or an uncharged
one?
8. (a) What properties of nature would be different if there were a relativistic transformation
law electric charge?
(b) What experiments could be done to prove that electric charge does not change with
velocity?