MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

Elementary Concepts of Differentiation and

integration
Rest and Motion
 Distance and Displacement
Speed and types of Speed
Velocity and types of Velocity
Acceleration and types of Acceleration
Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated
motion
Relative velocity
 Elementary concepts of differentiation
and integration for describing motion
 FUNCTION
• Let’s take an example: suppose a car is moving on a
road. Its speed, in general, is constantly changing.
Speed may change from 0 to 10 m/s in 30s. The
average rate of change of speed of the car is then
(10 /30 m/s) per second, i.e. 0.33 m/s2 . It can be said
that the speed of the car is a function of time.
• If the value of a quantity y depends on the value of
another quantity x, then y is said to be a function of x.
We can use the notation y = f(x) to represent this
mathematically.
• In this notation, the quantity y is called the dependent
variable, and the quantity x is called the independent
variable.
  Differentiation
• The relationship can be visualised by drawing a graph of function y = f (x)
regarding y and x as Cartesian coordinates, as shown in the graphs fig
(a).

• Consider the point P on the curve y = f (x) whose coordinates are (x, y) and
another point Q where coordinates are (x + Δx, y + Δy). The slope of the line
joining P and Q is given by:
• 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = Δ𝑦 / Δ𝑥
Differentiation . . . . .
• What happens to the line PQ as Δy and Δx approach 0?
• You can see that this line becomes a tangent to the curve at
point P as shown in Fig (b). This means that tan θ
approaches the slope of the tangent at P,
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = d𝑦 / d𝑥
• Differentiation:
The process of finding the differential coefficient of a
function is called differentiation.
• d / dx does not mean that d is divided by dx. It is a single
operator called the differential operator .
• In terms of derivatives, instantaneous velocity and
acceleration are defined as
Elementary formulae for derivatives of functions
Differentiation . . . .
 Integration
 Suppose a variable force f (x) acts on a particle in its motion
along x - axis from x = a to x = b . The problem is to
determine the work done (W) by the force on the particle
during the motion.
 The graphs show the variation of F(x) with x. If the force
were constant, work (given by F x S) would be simply the
area {F x (b-a)} as shown in Fig. (i). But in the general case,
force is varying
 Integration . . . .
 To calculate the area under this curve Fig.(ii) let us employ the
following trick. Divide the interval on x-axis from a to b into a
large number (N) of small intervals:
 The area under the curve is thus divided into N strips. Each strip
is approximately a rectangle, since the variation of F(x) over a
strip is negligible.
 The total area under the curve then is:

 The limit of this sum is known as the integral of F(x) over x from a
to b. It is given a special symbol as shown below:

 Integration is the reverse process of differentiation.

Some standard elementary integrals along with their results
on differentiation
 Rest :
• A body is said to be at rest if its position remains constant with respect to
its surroundings or frame of reference.

• Example: Buildings are at rest w.r.t the tree.

 Motion : 
• A body is said to be in motion if its position is changing with respect to
its surroundings or frame of reference.

• Examples: 1. Moving cars, buses, trains, cricket ball, etc are in motion
w.r.t the ground.
2. All the planets revolving around the Sun w.r.t sun.
3. Molecules of a gas in motion above 0 K w.r.t each other.

Rest and Motion are relative terms:

An object which is at rest can also be in motion simultaneously.
Eg. The passengers sitting in a moving train are at rest w.r.t. each other but
they are also in motion at the same time w.r.t. the objects like trees,
buildings, etc.
Rest and Motion are Relative Terms – How?

• In the examples of motion of ball and car, man is considered to

be at rest (stationary).
• But, the man is standing on the Earth and the Earth itself
moves around the Sun as well as rotates about its own axis.
• Therefore, man is at rest w.r.t. the Earth but is rotating and
revolving around the Sun.
• That is why rest and motion are relative terms !
 MOTION IN ONE, TWO OR THREE DIMENSIONS

 One Dimensional Motion

• The motion of the object is said to be one dimensional if only one of the
three coordinates is required to be specified with respect to time. It is also
known as rectilinear motion.
• In such a motion the object moves in a straight line.
• Example: A train moving in straight track, a man walking in a narrow,
leveled road, etc.

 Two Dimensional Motion

• The motion of the object is said to be two dimensional if two of the three
coordinates are required to be specified with respect to time.
• In such a motion the object moves in a plane.
• Example: Ant moving on a floor, a billiard ball moving on a billiard table,
etc.

 Three Dimensional Motion

• The motion of the object is said to be three dimensional if all the three
coordinates are required to be specified with respect to time.
• Such a motion takes place in space.
• Example: A flying airplane, bird, kite, etc.
 Motion in a Straight Line
Path 
The line joining the successive positions of a moving body is called its path.
The length of the actual path between the initial and final position gives the
distance travelled by the body. Distance is a scalar.

Illustration N

2 km

5 km Distance travelled is 7 km.

5 km Distance travelled is 10 km.

Displacement 
Displacement is the directed line segment joining the initial and final
positions of a moving body. It is a vector.
Illustration
N

2 km

5 km
Displacement is 6.57 km in the direction shown by the arrow
mark.

5 km
Displacement is 0 km.
If a body changes from one position x1 to another position x2, then the
displacement Δx in time interval Δt = t2 – t1, is Δx = x2 – x1

Conclusions about displacement

1. The displacement is a vector quantity.
2. The displacement has units of length.
3. The displacement of an object in a given time interval can be
positive, zero or negative.
4. The actual distance travelled by an object in a given time interval
can be equal to or greater than the magnitude of the
displacement.
5. The displacement of an object between two points does not tell
exactly how the object actually moved between those points.
6. The displacement of a particle between two points is a unique
path, which can take the particle from its initial to final position.
7. The displacement of an object is not affected due to the shift in
the origin of the position-axis.
 Distance

A C
Displacem
ent B

S. No. Distance Displacement

1 Distance is a scalar quantity. Displacement is a vector quantity.

2 Distance travelled by a Final displacement of a moving

moving body cannot be zero. body can be zero.

Scalar
Scalar quantity is a physical quantity which has magnitude only.
Eg.: Length, Mass, Time, Speed, Energy, etc.

Vector
Vector quantity is a physical quantity which has both magnitude as well as
direction and obeys law of vector addition.
Eg.: Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Momentum, Force, etc.
Speed
The time rate of change of distance of a particle is called speed.
Distance travelled
Speed =
Time taken

s
or v=
t

Note:
1. Speed is a scalar quantity.
2. Speed is either positive or zero but never negative.
3. The instantaneous Speed of a running car is measured by
‘speedometer’.
4. Speed is measured in
i) cm/s (cm s-1) in cgs system of units
ii) m/s (m s-1) in SI system of units and
iii) km/h (km.p.h., km h-1) in practical life when distance and time
involved are large.
Uniform Speed
A particle or a body is said to be moving with uniform speed, if it covers
equal distances in equal intervals of time, howsoever small these intervals
may be.

Variable Speed
A particle or a body is said to be moving with variable speed, if it covers
unequal distances in equal intervals of time, howsoever small these
intervals may be.

Average Speed
When a body moves with variable speed, the average speed of the body
is the ratio of the total distance traveled by it to the total time taken.
Total distance travelled stot
Average speed = or vav =
Total time taken ttot
 If a particle covers the 1st half of the total distance with a speed ‘a’ and the
second half with a speed ‘b’, then 2ab
vav =
a+b
If a particle covers 1st 1/3rd of a distance with a speed ‘a’, 2nd 1/3rd of the
distance with speed ‘b’ and 3rd 1/3rd of the distance with speed ‘c’, then
3abc
vav =
ab + bc + ca
Instantaneous Speed
When a body is moving with variable speed, the speed of the body at any
instant is called instantaneous speed.

Position -Time Graph

Position x (m)
Position x (m)
Position x (m)

O Time t (s) O Time t (s) O Time t (s)

An object in uniform An object in non-
Stationary object
motion uniform motion
Velocity
The time rate of change of displacement of a particle is called velocity.

Displacement s
Velocity = or v=
Time taken t
Note:
1. Velocity is a vector quantity.
2. Direction of velocity is the same as the direction of displacement of the
body.
3. Velocity can be either positive, zero or negative.
4. Velocity can be changed in two ways:
i) by changing the speed of the body or
ii) by keeping the speed constant but by changing the direction.

5. Velocity is measured in 18
i) cm/s (cm s-1) in cgs system of units 1 m/s = km/h
5
ii) m/s (m s-1) in SI system of units and
iii) km/h (km.p.h., km h-1) in practical life when 5
1 km/h = m/s
distance and time involved are large. 18
Uniform Velocity
A particle or a body is said to be moving with uniform velocity, if it covers
equal displacements in equal intervals of time, however small these
intervals may be.
Variable Velocity
A particle or a body is said to be moving with variable velocity, if its speed or
its direction or both changes with time.
Average Velocity
When a body moves with variable velocity, the average velocity of the body is
the ratio of the total (net) displacement covered by it to the total time taken.
Net displacement stot
Average velocity = or
Total time taken vav =
ttot

u+v
For a body moving with uniform acceleration, vav =
2
Average velocity is also defined as the change in position or displacement
(Δx) divided by the time intervals (Δt), in which the displacement occurs:

x2 – x1 Δx
vav = or vav =
t2 – t 1 Δt

Note: No effort or force is required to move the body with uniform velocity.
a) If a particle undergoes a displacement s1 along a straight line in time t1
and a displacement s2 in time t2 in the same direction, then
s1 + s2
vav =
t1 + t 2
b) If a particle undergoes a displacement s1 along a straight line with velocity
v1 and a displacement s2 with velocity v2 in the same direction, then
(s1+s2) v1 v2
vav =
s1v2 + s2 v1
c) If a particle travels first half of the displacement along a straight line with
velocity v1 and the next half of the displacement with velocity v2 in the same
direction, then 2 v1 v2
vav = (in the case (b) put s1 = s2)
v1 + v2
d) If a particle travels for a time t1 with velocity v1 and for a time t2 with
velocity v2 in the same direction, then
V1t1 + v2 t2
vav =
t1 + t2
e) If a particle travels first half of the time with velocity v1 and the next half
of the time with velocity v2 in the same direction, then
v1 + v2
vav = (in the case (d) put t1 = t2)
2
 Average Velocity

Position x (m)
x2
P2
The slope of P1P2 gives
P1 average velocity.
x1
O t1 t2
Time t (s)
Uniform Velocity
Position x (m)

Position x (m)
Position x (m)

O Time t (s) O Time t (s) O Time t (s)

x – t graph for x – t graph for an x – t graph for an
stationary object object with +ve velocity object with -ve velocity
 Difference between Speed and Velocity

Speed Velocity
1. Speed is the time rate of change of 1. Velocity is the time rate of
distance of a body. change of displacement of a body.

2. Speed tells nothing about the 2. Velocity tells the direction of

direction of motion of the body. motion of the body.

3. Speed is a scalar quantity. 3. Velocity is a vector quantity.

4. Speed of the body can be 4. Velocity of the body can be

positive or zero. positive, zero or negative.

5. Average speed of a moving 5. Average velocity of a moving

body can never be zero. body can be zero.
Instantaneous Velocity
When a body is moving with variable velocity, the velocity of the body at any
instant is called instantaneous velocity.
The velocity at an instant is defined as the

Position x (m)
limit of the average velocity as the time
interval Δt becomes infinitesimally small. x2 P2
lim Δx dx
v= or v =
Δt→0 Δt dt x4 P4
Suppose we want to calculate the
instantaneous velocity at the point P x3 P1 P
at an instant t. x1 P3
O t1 t3 t t4 t2
The slope of P1P2 at t1 and t2 with intervals
Time t (s)
of Δt from t, (i.e. t1 = t- Δt and t2 = t+ Δt)
gives the average velocity at P.
The slope of P3P4 at t3 and t4 with intervals of Δt/2 from t, (i.e. t3 = t- Δt/2 and
t4 = t+Δt/2) gives the average velocity at P which is the closer value to the
instantaneous velocity.
Proceeding this way, Δt may be gradually reduced to approach zero,
i.e. Δt → 0 to get the actual value of the instantaneous velocity.
Though average speed over a finite interval of time is greater than or equal to
the magnitude of the average velocity, instantaneous speed at an instant is
equal to the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity at that instant. Why so?
Uniform Motion in a Straight Line
A body is said to be in uniform motion, if it covers equal displacements in
equal intervals of time, however small these time intervals may be.

Formula for uniform motion

At t=0 At t=t1 At t=t2

O x0 A B C
x1
x2

Suppose the origin of the position axis is point O and the origin for time
measurement is taken as the instant, when object is at point A such that
OA = x0.
If at time t1, the object moving with velocity v is at point B such that OB = x 1,
then
x1 = x0 + vt1 ………..(1)
Similarly, if at time t2, the object is at point C such that OC = x2,
then x2 = x0 + vt2 ………..(2)
From equations (1) and (2), x2 – x1 = v(t2 – t1) and v = x2 – x1
t2 – t1
 The following points are true for Uniform Motion:
1. Generally, the displacement may or may not be equal to the actual
distance covered by an object. However, when uniform motion takes
place along a straight line in a given direction, the magnitude of the
displacement is equal to the actual distance covered by the object.
2. The velocity of uniform motion is same for different choices of t 1 and t2.
3. The velocity of uniform motion is not affected due to the shift of the
origin.
4. The positive value of velocity means object is moving towards right of
the origin, while the negative velocity means the motion is towards the
left of the origin.
5. For an object to be in uniform motion, no cause or effort, i.e. no force is
required.
6. The average and instantaneous velocity in a uniform motion are always
equal, as the velocity during uniform motion is same at each point of the
path or at each instant.
Position - Time Graph: (Uniform motion)

B
X2
Position ( m )

A
X1 C

x0

O
t1 t2
Time (s)

Slope of the position-time graph gives the velocity of uniform motion.

BC x2 – x1
v = slope of AB = or v=
AC t2 – t1
Velocity -Time Graph: (Uniform motion)

A B
v
Velocity ( m/s )

O D C
t1 t2
Time (s)

Area under velocity-time graph gives the displacement of the body in

uniform motion.
x2 – x1 = area ABCD = v (t2 – t1 )
NON-UNIFORM MOTION
The particle is said to have non-uniform motion if it covers unequal
displacements in equal intervals of time, however small these time intervals
may be.

Acceleration
If the velocity of a body changes either in magnitude or in direction or both,
then it is said to have acceleration.

For a freely falling body, the velocity changes in magnitude and hence it has
acceleration.

For a body moving round a circular path with a uniform speed, the velocity
changes in direction and hence it has acceleration.

For a projectile, whose trajectory is a parabola, the velocity changes in

magnitude and in direction, and hence it has acceleration.

The acceleration and velocity of a body need not be in the same direction.
Eg.: A body thrown vertically upwards.
For a body moving with uniform acceleration,
the average velocity is
u+v
vav =
2

A body can have zero velocity and non-zero acceleration.

Eg.: For a particle projected vertically up, velocity at the highest point is
zero, but acceleration is -g.

If a body has a uniform speed, it may have acceleration.

Eg.: Uniform circular motion

If a body has uniform velocity, it has no acceleration.

When a body moves with uniform acceleration along a straight line and has
a distance ‘x’ travelled in the nth second, in the next second it travels a
distance x + a, where ‘a’ is the acceleration.

Acceleration of free fall in vacuum is uniform and is called acceleration due

to gravity (g) and it is equal to 980 cms-2 or 9.8 ms-2.
Acceleration of a particle is defined as the time rate of change of its velocity.

v2 – v1 Δv
aav = or aav =
t2 – t1 Δt

The acceleration of a particle at any instant or at any point is called

instantaneous acceleration.
lim Δv dv d2s
a= or a= or a=
Δt→0 Δt dt dt2
Note:
1. Acceleration is a vector quantity.
2. Direction of acceleration is the same as the direction of change in
velocity of the body.
3. Acceleration can be either positive, zero or negative.
4. Acceleration of a body is zero when it moves with uniform velocity.

5. Acceleration is measured in
i) cm/s2 (cm s-2) in cgs system of units
ii) m/s2 (m s-2) in SI system of units and
iii) km/h2 (km h-2) in practical life when distance and time involved are
large.
Uniform Acceleration
If equal changes of velocity take place
in equal intervals of time, however small
these intervals may be, then the body is Eg.1:
said to be in uniform acceleration.
The motion of a freely
or falling body is
A body has uniform acceleration if its uniformly accelerated
velocity changes at a uniform rate. motion.

Eg.2:
The motion of a sliding block on a
smooth inclined plane is uniformly
accelerated motion.
Non-uniform Acceleration
A body is said to be moving with non-uniform acceleration, if its velocity
increases by unequal amounts in equal intervals of time.
or
A body has non-uniform acceleration if its velocity changes at a non-
uniform rate.
Eg.:
The motion of a car on a crowded city road. Its speed (velocity) changes
continuously.

Retardation or Deceleration or Negative Acceleration

A body is said to be retarded if its velocity decreases w.r.t. time.

A car is decelerating to come to a halt.

 Position - Time Graph
Uniformly accelerated Uniformly decelerated
(Positive acceleration) (Negative acceleration)
Position x (m)

Position x (m)
Time t (s) Time t (s)
Position x (m)

Uniform motion
(Zero acceleration)

Time t (s)
 Velocity - Time Graph (Uniformly accelerated / decelerated)
v0
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
v0
v

O t Time (s) O t Time (s)

Motion in positive direction Motion in positive direction
with positive acceleration with negative acceleration
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
v0
Time (s)
t Time (s) t1 t2
O O
-v0
-v
-v
Motion with negative acceleration.
B/n 0 & t1 in positive x-axis and b/n
Motion in negative direction
with negative acceleration t1 & t2 in negative x-axis
 KINEMATIC EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
v0 a x v
t

Consider a body moving with initial velocity ‘v 0’ accelerates at uniform rate

‘a’. Let ‘v’ be the final velocity after time ‘t’ and ‘x’ be the displacement.
First equation of motion
We know that:
Final velocity - Initial velocity
Acceleration =
Time taken
v - v0
a=
t
Cross multiplying, v – v0 = at

or v = v0 + at

The equation v = v0 + at is known as the first equation of motion.

Second equation of motion
Initial velocity + Final velocity
Average velocity =
2
v0 + v
vav =
2
Distance travelled = Average velocity x Time
(v0 + v)
x= t (1)
2
From the first equation of motion we have, v = v0 + at
Substituting for v in equation (1),

we get (v0 + v0 + at)

x= t
2
(2v0 + at)
or x= t
2
2v0 t + at2
or x=
2
or x = v0 t + ½ at2

The equation x = v0 t + ½ at2 is known as the second equation of motion.

Third equation of motion

From the first equation of motion we have,

v – v0 = at (1)
v0 + v
We know that: vav =
2

or v0 + v = 2vav

or v + v0 = 2vav (2)

Multiplying eqns. (1) and (2), we get

v2 - v0 2 = 2atvav

or v2 - v0 2 = 2ax vav t = x

or v2 = v0 2 + 2ax

The equation v2 = v02 + 2ax is known as the third equation of motion.

 KINEMATICEQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
BY GRAPHICAL METHOD
First equation of motion
B
v E
Change in velocity

Velocity (m/s)
Acceleration =
Time taken for change v – v0
BD
a= v0 A D
AD
AE
a= O t C Time (s)
OC

OE - OA
a=
OC
v - v0
a=
t
v – v0 = at

or v = v0 + at
Second equation of motion

The area of trapezium OABC gives

the distance travelled. B
v E

Velocity (m/s)
x = ½ x OC x (OA + CB)

x = ½ t (v0 + v) v0 A D
x = ½ t (v0 + v0 + at)
O t C Time (s)
x = ½ (2v0t + at2)

x = v0t + ½ at2
Third equation of motion

The area of trapezium OABC gives

the distance travelled.
B
v E

Velocity (m/s)
x = ½ x OC x (OA + CB)

x = ½ x t x (v0 + v)
v0 A D
2x
(v + v0) = (1)
t O t C Time (s)
From the first equation of motion we have,
(v – v0) = at (2)

Multiplying eqns. (1) and (2), we get

v2 - v02 = 2ax

or v2 = v02 + 2ax
 If the position co-ordinate is non-zero at t=0, say ‘x0’,
then
v = v0 + at
x – x0 = v0t + ½ at2

v2 = v02 + 2a(x – x0)

Equations of motion of a freely falling body

In case of freely falling body, a = g and x = h

Therefore, v = v0 + gt
h = v0 t + ½ gt2
v2 = v02 + 2gh
Equations of motion (In terms of Calculus)

1) a = dv / dt

or dv = a dt
Integrating both sides,
v t
 dv =  a dt
v0 0
v t
 dv = a  dt (since a is constant (uniform))
v0 0

v - v0 = at

or v = v0 + at
2) v = dx / dt
dx = v dt

But, v = v0 + at

dx = (v0 + at) dt

Integrating both sides,

x t
 dx =  (v0 + at) dt
x0 0
x t t
 dx =  v0 dt +  at dt
x0 0 0
x t t
 dx = v0  dt + a  t dt
x0 0 0

x – x0 = v0t + ½ at2
 dv
3) a=
dt

dv dx
a= x
dx dt
dv
a= v
dx

v dv = a dx
Integrating both sides,
v x
 v dv =  a dx
v0 x0
v x
 v dv = a  dx (since a is constant (uniform))
v0 x0

½ (v2 – v02) = a(x – x0)

(v2 – v02) = 2a(x – x0)

Relative Velocity
Relative velocity of an object A with respect to another object B, is the rate
at which object A changes its position with respect to object B.

If vA and vB be the velocities of object A and B respectively, then relative

velocity of A w.r.t. B is vAB = vA - vB
Similarly, relative velocity of B w.r.t. A is vBA = vB - vA

Let us consider two objects A and B moving uniformly with velocities v A

and vB in one direction. Let xA(0) and xB(0) be the positions of the objects
at t = 0 from the origin O. Therefore the positions of two objects after time
t will be given by
xA(t) = xA(0) + vAt
and xB(t) = xB(0) + vBt
xB(t) - xA(t) = [xB(0) - xA(0)] + (vB - vA) t
where xB(t) - xA(t) is relative displacement at time t and

xB(0) - xA(0) is relative displacement at time t0.

Then, (vB - vA) is the relative velocity of B w.r.t. A
 Special Cases
x(m)
1) When the two objects move with
equal velocities
xB(0)

xA(0)

O
t (s)
2) When the two objects move with unequal velocities
i) When vA > vB
ii) When vA < vB
x(m)
x(m)

Meeting Position xB(0)

xB(0)
xA(0)
xA(0)

O Meeting time O
t (s) t (s)
 ]

THE END OF CHAPTER 3