Alexander and the beginning

of the Greek exploration

in Nilotic Africa
Gościwit Malinowski

Alexander the Great and Egypt:

History, Art., Tradition
Wrocław, 18-19.11.2011
Alexander and the beginning
of the Greek exploration
in Nilotic Africa?
Candace Queen of Meroe
Nile
 SCHOL. HOM. d 477
• πολλῶν λεγοµένων περὶ
τῆς τοῦ Νείλου
ἀναβάσεως πρῶτος
῞Οµηρος τὴν
ἀληθεστάτην αἰτίαν εἶπε
διιπετῆ προσαγορεύσας
αὐτὸν, διότι πληροῦται ἐκ
τῶν ἐν Αἰθιοπίᾳ
γινοµένων ἀδιαλείπτων
τοῦ θέρους καὶ σφοδρῶν
ὑετῶν, ὡς καὶ • "As Aristotle and
᾿Αριστοτέλης καὶ Eudoxus are saying, they
Εὔδοξος, πεπύσθαι ταῦτα themselves were
φάσκοντες ἀπὸ τῶν ἐν informed by Egyptian
Αἰγύπτῳ ἱερέων. priests."
• “From Memphis Alexander went on an expedition up the Nile. We
cannot be certain whether he reached the Thebaid, though it is
possible as even with the means of transport in those days the
excursion need not have lasted longer than a month. On the other
hand at some stage Alexander did send a separate expedition to
discover why the Nile flooded. We know this from an account of
Alexander’s historian Callisthenes. What we cannot be sure of is
whether or not this was purely a geographic and meteorological fact
finding mission or whether its aim also involved ascertaining the
military strength and resources of the Kingdom of Meroe, which was
situated to the south of Egypt. A delegation from that country visited
Alexander at Babylon in 324. Thanks to the findnings of this
expedition, Aristotle was able to formulate a theory that the Nile
floods were caused by seasonal rains falling in the region of the
river’s source in Ethiopia.”
• Krzysztof Nawotka, Alexander the Great, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
2010, p. 207.
 For vs. against
• Ulrich Wilcken • Wilhelm Capelle
• Peter Green • James O. Thomson
• Robin Lane Fox • M. Cary and E.H.
Warmington
• Lionel Pearson
• Jehan Desanges
• Extremely sceptical
• W.W Tarn
• Victor Ehrenberg
• Claire Préaux
 Callisthenes FGrH124 F 12a =
JOHANNES LYDUS De mensibus 4, 107
• ἀλλὰ καὶ Θρασυάλκης ὁ
Θάσιος (24a Diels) τοὺς
ἐτησίους φησὶν ἐξωθεῖν τὸν
Νεῖλον· τῆς γὰρ Αἰθιοπίας
ὑψηλοῖς παρὰ τὰ καθ' ἡµᾶς
ὄρεσι διεζωσµένης,
ὑποδεχοµένης τε τὰς νεφέλας „[As also] Callisthenes the
πρὸς τῶν ἐτησίων ὠθουµένας Peripatetic states in the fourth
ἐκδιδόναι τὸν Νεῖλον· ὡς καὶ book of his Hellenica that he
Καλλισθένης ὁ Περιπατητικὸς campaigned with Alexander
ἐν τῷ τετάρτῳ βιβλίῳ τῶν the Macedonian and while in
῾Ελληνικῶν φησιν, ἑαυτὸν Ethiopia he discovered that the
συστρατεύσασθαι ᾿Αλεξάνδρῳ Nile flooded from the unlimited
τῷ Μακεδόνι, καὶ γενόµενον rains in that region.”
ἐπὶ τῆς Αἰθιοπίας εὑρεῖν τὸν (S.M. Burstein)
Νεῖλον ἐξ ἀπείρων ὄµβρων
κατ' ἐκείνην γενοµένων
καταφερόµενον.
 Callisthenes FGrH124 F 12b =
Strabo XVII 1, 5
• φησὶ γὰρ Καλλισθένη λέγειν
τὴν ἐκ τῶν ὄµβρων αἰτίαν τῶν
θερινῶν παρὰ ᾿Αριστοτέλους
λαβόντα, ἐκεῖνον δὲ παρὰ
Θρασυάλκου τοῦ Θασίου (τῶν
ἀρχαίων δὲ φυσικῶν εἷς οὗτος)
ἐκεῖνον δὲ παρ' ἄλλου, τὸν δὲ
παρ' ῾Οµήρου διιπετέα
φάσκοντος τὸν Νεῖλον
„ἂψ δ' εἰς Αἰγύπτοιο διιπετέος
ποταµοῖο.”
• „for instance, he [Posidonius]
says that it was Callisthenes
who states that the summer
rains are the cause of the
risings, though Callisthenes
took the assertion from
Aristotle, and Aristotle from
Thrasyalces the Thasian (one
of the early physicists), and
Thrasyalces from someone
else, and he from Homer, who
calls the Nile "heaven-fed":
"And back again to the land of
Aegyptus, heaven-fed river."
(H.L. Jones)
 Callisthenes FGrH124 F 12c =
ANONYMUS FLORENTINUS Cod. Laurentianus 646 F 3

• Καλλισθένης δὲ ὁ ἱστοριογράφος • John the Lydian:

πρὸς τὰ µικρῶι πρότερον • ἑαυτὸν συστρατεύσασθαι
εἰρηµένα ὑπὸ ᾿Αναξαγόρου τε καὶ ᾿Αλεξάνδρῳ
Εὐριπίδου ἀντεῖπεν, αὐτὸς δὲ τῆι • γενόµενον ἐπὶ τῆς Αἰθιοπίας
ἑαυτοῦ γνώµηι χρώµενός φησιν εὑρεῖν
«ὑδάτων γινοµένων κατὰ τὴν
Αἰθιοπίαν κατὰ τὴν Κυνὸς
ἀνατολὴν ἕως ἐπιτολῆς • Strabo:
᾿Αρκτούρου, καθ' οὓς χρόνους καὶ • παρὰ ᾿Αριστοτέλους λαβόντα
οἱ ἐτησίαι πνέουσιν». τούτους γάρ
φησι τοὺς ἀνέµους µάλιστα τὰ
νέφη πνέοντας πρὸς τὴν Αἰθιοπίαν
ἄγειν, ὧν δὴ καὶ προσπιπτόντων
πρὸς τὰ ὄρη καταρρήγνυσθαι
πολὺ πλῆθος ὕδατος, ἀφ' οὗ τὸν
Νεῖλον πληρούµενον ἀναβαίνειν
συµβαίνει.
 Lucan X 272-275
summus Alexander regum, quem Memphis adorat,
invidit Nilo misitque per ultima terrae
Aethiopum lectos; illos rubicunda perusti
zona poli tenuit: Nilum videre calentem
„Alexander greatest of kings, was jealous of the
Nile which Memphis worships, and he sent
chosen explorers through the utmost parts of
Ethiopia; but they were stopped by the blazing
zone of parched sky; they but saw the Nile
steaming with heat.” (J.D. Duff)
 Lucan X 239-247
Zephyros quoque uana uetustas • „The ancients were wrong again,
his ascripsit aquis, quorum stata when they accounted for this
tempora flatus inundation by West winds which
continuique dies et in aera longa blow day after day at a fixed
potestas, season, and whose empire over
the air lasts long. These winds
uel quod ab occiduo depellunt nubila were supposed to work in one of
caelo two ways: either they drive the
trans Noton et fluuio cogunt clouds down from the western sky
incumbere nimbos, across the South and force the
uel quod aquas totiens rumpentis river breaks the shore with so
litora Nili many moiths, they strike it and
adsiduo feriunt coguntque resistere bring it to a halt by the steady
fluctu: pressure of the sea; and thus the
stream overflows the fields,
ille mora cursus aduersique obice because its course is hindered
ponti and a barrier interposed by the
aestuat in campos sea.” (J.D. Duff)
 Lucan X 275-282 Strabo XVII 1,5
uenit ad occasus mundique extrema
Sesostris
et Pharios currus regum ceruicibus
egit;
ante tamen uestros amnes,
Rhodanumque Padumque,
quam Nilum de fonte bibit. uaesanus
in ortus
Cambyses longi populos peruenit ad
aeui,
defectusque epulis et pastus caede
suorum
ignoto te, Nile, redit
• ὥστε καὶ θαυµάζειν ἄξιον καὶ διὰ
τοῦτο καὶ διότι Σέσωστρις τὴν
Αἰθιοπίαν ἐπῆλθεν ἅπασαν µέχρι
τῆς κινναµωµοφόρου, καὶ
ὑποµνήµατα τῆς στρατείας αὐτοῦ
καὶ νῦν ἔτι δείκνυται στῆλαι καὶ
ἐπιγραφαί.
• Καµβύσης τε τὴν Αἴγυπτον
κατασχὼν προῆλθε καὶ µέχρι τῆς
Μερόης µετὰ τῶν Αἰγυπτίων· καὶ
δὴ καὶ τοὔνοµα τῇ τε νήσῳ καὶ τῇ
πόλει τοῦτο παρ' ἐκείνου τεθῆναί
φασιν, ἐκεῖ τῆς ἀδελφῆς
ἀποθανούσης αὐτῷ Μερόης· οἱ δὲ
γυναῖκά φασι· τὴν ἐπωνυµίαν οὖν
ἐχαρίσατο αὐτῇ τιµῶν τὴν
ἄνθρωπον,
 Photius cod. 249, 441b6-14:
᾿Ανεγνώσθη Πυθαγόρου βίος
• Καὶ τοῦτο ᾿Αριστοτέλης • "It was treated by Aristotle,
ἐπραγµατεύσατο· αὐτὸς γὰρ because he has apprehended
ἀπὸ τῆς φύσεως ἔργῳ it from nature, when he thought
κατενόησεν, ἀξιώσας πέµψαι worthy to send Alexander of
᾿Αλέξανδρον τὸν Μακεδόνα εἰς Macedon into that region and
ἐκείνους τοὺς τόπους καὶ ὄψει to receive from eyewitness the
τὴν αἰτίαν τῆς τοῦ Νείλου cause of the Nile flood.
αὐξήσεως παραλαβεῖν. ∆ιό Wherefore he says, it is no
φησιν ὡς τοῦτο οὐκέτι longer the problem".
πρόβληµά ἐστιν· ὤφθη γὰρ
φανερῶς ὅτι ἐξ ὑετῶν αὔξει.
Καὶ τὸ παράδοξον, ἐν τοῖς
ξηροτάτοις τόποις τῆς
Αἰθιοπίας, ἐν οἷς οὔτε χειµὼν
οὔτε ὕδωρ ἐστί, ξυµβαίνει τοῦ
θέρους πλείστους ὑετοὺς
γίνεσθαι.
 Strabo XVII 1.5
• µηδὲ τοιούτων δεῖσθαι µαρτύρων οἵους
Ποσειδώνιος εἴρηκε. φησὶ γὰρ Καλλισθένη
λέγειν τὴν ἐκ τῶν ὄµβρων αἰτίαν τῶν
θερινῶν παρὰ ᾿Αριστοτέλους λαβόντα,
ἐκεῖνον δὲ παρὰ Θρασυάλκου τοῦ Θασίου
(τῶν ἀρχαίων δὲ φυσικῶν εἷς οὗτος)
ἐκεῖνον δὲ παρ' ἄλλου, τὸν δὲ παρ'
῾Οµήρου διιπετέα φάσκοντος τὸν Νεῖλον
„ἂψ δ' εἰς Αἰγύπτοιο διιπετέος ποταµοῖο.”
 Strabo XVII 1,5
• Οἱ µὲν οὖν ἀρχαῖοι στοχασµῷ τὸ πλέον, οἱ
δ' ὕστερον αὐτόπται γενηθέντες ᾔσθοντο
ὑπὸ ὄµβρων θερινῶν πληρούµενον τὸν
Νεῖλον, τῆς Αἰθιοπίας τῆς ἄνω κλυζοµένης,
καὶ µάλιστα ἐν τοῖς ἐσχάτοις ὄρεσι,
παυσαµένων δὲ τῶν ὄµβρων παυοµένην
κατ' ὀλίγον τὴν πληµµυρίδα·
 Strabo XVII 1,5 – Diodorus I 37,5
• τοῦτο δ' ὑπῆρξε µάλιστα δῆλον
τοῖς πλέουσι τὸν ᾿Αράβιον κόλπον
µέχρι τῆς κινναµωµοφόρου καὶ
τοῖς ἐκπεµποµένοις ἐπὶ τὴν τῶν
ἐλεφάντων θήραν, καὶ εἴ τινες
ἄλλαι χρεῖαι παρώξυνον ἐκεῖσε
ἄνδρας προχειρίζεσθαι τοὺς τῆς
Αἰγύπτου βασιλέας τοὺς
Πτολεµαϊκούς.
• οὗτοι γὰρ ἐφρόντισαν τῶν
τοιούτων, διαφερόντως δ' ὁ
Φιλάδελφος ἐπικληθείς,
φιλιστορῶν καὶ διὰ τὴν ἀσθένειαν
τοῦ σώµατος διαγωγὰς ἀεί τινας
καὶ τέρψεις ζητῶν καινοτέρας.
• ἀπὸ γὰρ τῶν ἀρχαίων χρόνων
ἄχρι Πτολεµαίου τοῦ
Φιλαδέλφου προσαγορευθέντος
οὐχ ὅπως τινὲς τῶν ῾Ελλήνων
ὑπερέβαλον εἰς Αἰθιοπίαν, ἀλλ'
οὐδὲ µέχρι τῶν ὅρων τῆς
Αἰγύπτου προσανέβησαν· οὕτως
ἄξενα πάντα ἦν τὰ περὶ τοὺς
τόπους τούτους καὶ παντελῶς
ἐπικίνδυνα· τοῦ δὲ προειρηµένου
βασιλέως µεθ' ῾Ελληνικῆς
δυνάµεως εἰς Αἰθιοπίαν πρώτου
στρατεύσαντος ἐπεγνώσθη τὰ
κατὰ τὴν χώραν ταύτην
ἀκριβέστερον ἀπὸ τούτων τῶν
χρόνων. τῆς µὲν οὖν τῶν
προτέρων συγγραφέων ἀγνοίας
τοιαύτας τὰς αἰτίας συνέβη
γενέσθαι·
 Callisthenes
• Hellenica [387-357/346 BC] - published before
334 BC
• IV book of Hellenica – account of Pharnabazus’
unsuccesful invasion of Egypt [374/3] was an
opportunity to write about the Nile flood
• Explanation of Nile flood depends on Aristotle
and/or his own speculative judgement – cf.
Strabo, Anonymus Florentinus
 Arist. Mete. 349a
- AET. IV 1, 4 (Democritus. 385)
• γίγνεται δὲ καὶ περὶ τὴν
᾿Αραβίαν καὶ τὴν Αἰθιοπίαν τοῦ
θέρους τὰ ὕδατα καὶ οὐ τοῦ
χειµῶνος, καὶ ταῦτα ῥαγδαῖα,
καὶ τῆς αὐτῆς ἡµέρας
πολλάκις, διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν·
ταχὺ γὰρ ψύχεται τῇ
ἀντιπεριστάσει, ἣ γίγνεται διὰ
τὸ ἀλεεινὴν εἶναι τὴν χώραν
ἰσχυρῶς. περὶ µὲν οὖν ὑετοῦ
καὶ δρόσου καὶ νιφετοῦ καὶ
πάχνης καὶ χαλάζης, διὰ τίν'
αἰτίαν γίγνεται καὶ τίς ἡ φύσις
αὐτῶν ἐστιν, εἰρήσθω τοσαῦτα.
• ∆ηµόκριτος τῆς χιόνος τῆς ἐν
τοῖς πρὸς ἄρκτον µέρεσιν ὑπὸ
θερινὰς τροπὰς ἀναλυοµένης
τε καὶ διαχεοµένης νέφη µὲν ἐκ
τῶν ἀτµῶν πιλοῦσθαι, τούτων
δὲ συνελαυνοµένων πρὸς
µεσηµβρίαν καὶ τὴν Αἰθιοπίαν
ὑπὸ τῶν ἐτησίων ἀνέµων
ἀποτελεῖσθαι ῥαγδαίους
ὄµβρους, ὑφ' ὧν
ἀναπίµπλασθαι τάς τε λίµνας
καὶ τὸν Νεῖλον ποταµόν.
 De inundatione Nili
• (10) Nunc autem relinquetur sola causa
dictorum. hanc / causam dicendum, propter
quod iam non problema videtur / esse: in
sensum enim venit, quemadmodum per se
videntes / facti a visis. videntur enim aqu(a)e
fact(a)e in Ethiopia per / tempora h(a)ec a
Cane usque ad Arcturum mult(a)e et
habun/danter, hyeme autem null(a)e; et
fluctus nutriuntur, cum / crescunt in ipsis, et
propter hoc simul annualibus advenit /
fluvius. isti enim nebulas maxime ferunt in
regionem, et / quicunque alii venti fiunt
estivales ante hos. quibus offen/ dentibus ad
montes, defluunt aqu(a)e ad stagna, per
qu(a)e Nilus / fluit. adhuc autem et qu(a)e a
nive dicentibus fluere sub / contrarietates
testificantur huic racioni, quodque et toti
con/ventibus mensium magis crescere
fluvium; etenim aqu(a)e con/sueverunt fieri
tunc magis. et quod non similiter copiosum /
inchoans cum postremo. adhuc autem
quando not[h]i flant / minus quam utique
bore(a)e; boreas enim nubes fert ad locum, /
ex quibus aqua facta impletur Nilus.
• De Nilo quidem igitur h(a)ec dicta sunt. /
Explicit liber de inundatione Nili (Aristotilis).
• “Now there remains only one cause of
the matters under discussion. It is
necessary to discuss this cause
because there no longer seems to be
a problem. For we have perceived how
men have gained knowledge on their
own from observations. Rains are
seen to occur frequently and
abundantly in Ethiopia throughout the
period from the Dog Star until
Arcturus, but in winter there are no
rains. The flood waters are nourished
by these same rains while they are
growing. For this reason the flood
arrives at the same time as Etesian
winds. These and the other summer
winds which precede them but these
especially bring clouds to the region.
When the clouds strike against the
mountains, rains occuer and water
flows down to the swamps through
which the Nile flows.” (S.M. Burstein)
PROCLUS in Plat. Tim. 22 E (I 121,
8 Diehl):
• ᾿Ερατοσθένης δὲ οὐκέτι • Eratosthenes says it is no
φησὶν οὐδὲ ζητεῖν χρῆναι longer necessary to
περὶ τῆς αὐξήσεως τοῦ inquire into the Nile
Νείλου, σαφῶς καὶ inundation, because
ἀφικοµένων τινῶν εἰς τὰς evidently some men have
τοῦ Νείλου πηγὰς καὶ reached the sources of
τοὺς ὄµβρους τοὺς the Nile and they have
γιγνοµένους ἑωρακότων, seen the rains of that
ὥστε κρατύνεσθαι τὴν place, so as the
᾿Αριστοτέλους [frg. 235] hypothesis of Aristotle
ἀπόδοσιν. has been confirmed.
• Proclus [Eratosthenes] - οὐκέτι φησὶν οὐδὲ
ζητεῖν χρῆναι
• Strabo - εἰ γὰρ ἄρα, τοῦτ' ἐχρῆν ζητεῖν ὅπερ καὶ
νῦν ἔτι ζητεῖται, τί δή ποτε θέρους, χειµῶνος δὲ
οὔ, καὶ ἐν τοῖς νοτιωτάτοις, ἐν δὲ τῇ Θηβαΐδι καὶ
τῇ περὶ Συήνην οὐ συµπίπτουσιν ὄµβροι· τὸ δ'
ὅτι ἐξ ὄµβρων αἱ ἀναβάσεις µὴ ζητεῖν,
• Photius cod. 249 - ∆ιό φησιν ὡς τοῦτο οὐκέτι
πρόβληµά ἐστιν
• (Ps.?) Aristotle - iam non problema videtur /
esse:
 Eratosthenes apud Procl. (in Tim
22E, 120):
• ἄλλοι δέ φασιν, ὅτι αὔξεται ὁ Νεῖλος ἀπὸ
ὄµβρων τινῶν εἰς αὐτὸν ἐκχεοµένων, ὡς
εἴρηται διαρρήδην ὑπὸ ᾿Ερατοσθένους.
 Maximus of Tyre (c. AD 125-185) 41 (Siwa)
Curtius Rufus (ca. 50 AD) IV 8,3-4 (Memphis):
• ἀλλ', ὥσπερ αὐτῷ τῶν ἄλλων • Cupido haud iniusta quidem,
καλῶς ἐχόντων, ἠρώτα τὸν ceterum intempestiva
θεὸν περὶ τοῦ Νείλου, ὁπόθεν incesserat non interiora modo
ὁρµηθεὶς ἐπὶ Αἰγύπτου Aegypti sed etiam Aethiopiam
κάτεισιν. Πάνυ γοῦν αὐτῷ invisere: Memnonis Tithonique
τοῦτο ἓν ᾔδει πρὸς celebrata regia cognoscendae
εὐδαιµονίαν, καὶ µαθόντι εἶχεν vetustatis avidum trahebat
ἂν καλῶς paene extra terminos solis.
Sed imminens bellum, cuius
multo maior supererat moles,
otiosae peregrinationi tempora
exemerat.
 Aristobulus Strabo XV 1,19
• Τὴν δ' ὁµοιότητα τῆς χώρας ταύτης
πρός τε τὴν Αἴγυπτον καὶ τὴν
Αἰθιοπίαν καὶ πάλιν τὴν ἐναντιότητα
παραθεὶς ὁ ᾿Αριστόβουλος, διότι τῷ
Νείλῳ µὲν ἐκ τῶν νοτίων ὄµβρων ἐστὶν
ἡ πλήρωσις τοῖς ᾿Ινδικοῖς δὲ ποταµοῖς
ἀπὸ τῶν ἀρκτικῶν, ζητεῖ πῶς οἱ
µεταξὺ τόποι οὐ κατοµβροῦνται· οὔτε
γὰρ ἡ Θηβαῒς µέχρι Συήνης καὶ τῶν
ἐγγὺς Μερόης οὔτε τῆς ᾿Ινδικῆς τὰ ἀπὸ
τῆς Παταληνῆς µέχρι τοῦ ῾Υδάσπου·
τὴν δ' ὑπὲρ ταῦτα τὰ µέρη χώραν ἐν ᾗ
καὶ ὄµβροι καὶ νιφετοί, παραπλησίως
ἔφη γεωργεῖσθαι τῇ ἄλλῃ τῇ ἔξω τῆς
᾿Ινδικῆς χώρᾳ· ποτίζεσθαι γὰρ ἐκ τῶν
ὄµβρων καὶ χιόνων.
• Aristobulus, comparing the
characteristics of this country that are
similar to those of both Aegypt and
Aethiopia, and again those that are
opposite thereto, I mean the fact that
the Nile is flooded from the southern
rains, whereas at Indian rivers are
flooded from the northern, inquires
why the intermediate regions have no
rainfall; for neither the Thebaiďs as far
as Syene and the region of Meroe nor
the region of India from Patalenę as
far as the Hydaspes has any rain. But
the country above these parts, in
which both rain and snow fall, are
cultivated, he says, in the same way
as in the rest of country that is outside
India; for, he adds, it is watered by the
rains and snows." (H.L. Jones)
 Timeline of Alexander the Great
(campaign in Egypt)
• October 322 – the fall of Gaza
• Pelusium – Satrap Mazakes surrendered
• 1st stay in Memphis
• December 322 – faraonic coronation
• An expedition up the Nile – Thebaid (?)
• An expedition down the Canopic branch of Nile
• Founding of Alexandria
• Visit to Siwa
• April 331 – back to Memphis (2nd stay)
• Late spring – departure from Memphis
• mid June 331 – Alexander reached Tyre
• Alexander in Egypt:
• October – May

• Rainy season in Ethiopia:

• June - September
Syene – Dongola – Meroe
(Khartoum)
January - April
May-August
September - December