Chapter 3

Three-Phase A.C. Circuits

Learning Outcomes
This chapter introduces the concepts and principles of the three-phase electrical supply, and the
corresponding circuits. On completion you should be able to:
1 Describe the reasons for, and the generation of the three-phase supply.
2 Distinguish between star (3 and 4-wire) and delta connections.
3 State the relative advantages of three-phase systems compared with single-phase-systems.
4 Solve three-phase circuits in terms of phase and line quantities, and the power developed in
three-phase balanced loads.
5 Measure power dissipation in both balanced and unbalanced three-phase loads, using the
1, 2 and 3-wattmeter methods, and hence determine load power factor.
6 Calculate the neutral current in a simple unbalanced 4-wire system.

3.1 Generation of a Three-Phase Supply

In order to understand the reasons for, and the method of generating
a three-phase supply, let us firstly consider the generation of a single-
phase supply. Alternating voltage is provided by an a.c. generator,
more commonly called an alternator. The basic principle was outlined
in Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles, Chapter 5.
It was shown that when a coil of wire, wound on to a rectangular
former, is rotated in a magnetic field, an alternating (sinusoidal)
voltage is induced into the coil. You should also be aware that for
electromagnetic induction to take place, it is the relative movement
between conductor and magnetic flux that matters. Thus, it matters not
whether the field is static and the conductor moves, or vice versa.
For a practical alternator it is found to be more convenient to rotate the
magnetic field, and to keep the conductors (coil or winding) stationary. 85

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 86 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

In any rotating a.c. machine, the rotating part is called the rotor, and
the stationary part is called the stator. Thus, in an alternator, the field
system is contained in the rotor. The winding in which the emf is
generated is contained in the stator. The reasons for this are as follows:

In this context, the term field refers to the magnetic field. This field is normally produced
by passing d.c. current through the rotor winding. Since the winding is rotated, the
current is passed to it via copper slip-rings on the shaft. The external d.c. supply is
connected to the slip-rings by a pair of carbon brushes.

(a) When large voltages are generated, heavy insulation is necessary.

If this extra mass has to be rotated, the driving device has to
develop extra power. This will then reduce the overall efficiency
of the machine. Incorporating the winding in the stator allows the
insulation to be as heavy as necessary, without adversely affecting
the efficiency.
(b) The contact resistance between the brushes and slip-rings is very
small. However, if the alternator provided high current output (in
hundreds of ampere), the I2R power loss would be significant. The
d.c. current (excitation current) for the field system is normally
only a few amps or tens of amps. Thus, supplying the field current
via the slip-rings produces minimal power loss. The stator winding
is simply connected to terminals on the outside of the stator casing.
(c) For very small alternators, the rotor would contain permanent
magnets to provide the rotating field system. This then altogether
eliminates the need for any slip-rings. This arrangement is referred
to as a brushless machine.

The basic construction for a single-phase alternator is illustrated in

Fig. 3.1. The conductors of the stator winding are placed in slots

G
E J stator

C N L

A rotor B

M S D

K F
H

Fig. 3.1

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 87

around the inner periphery of the stator. The two ends of this winding
are then led out to a terminal block on the casing. The rotor winding
is also mounted in slots, around the circumference of the rotor. This
figure is used to illustrate the principle. A practical machine would
have many more conductors and slots.
Since the conductors of the stator winding are spread around the whole
of the slots, it is known as a distributed winding. As the rotor field
sweeps past these conductors an emf is induced in each of them in turn.
These individual emfs reach their maximum values only at the instant
that the rotating field ‘cuts’ them at 90°. Also, since the slots have an
angular displacement between them, then the conductor emfs will be
out of phase with each other by this same angle. In Fig. 3.1 there are a
total of twelve conductors, so this phase difference must be 30°. The
total stator winding emf will therefore not be the arithmetic sum of the
conductor emfs, but will be the phasor sum, as shown in Fig. 3.2. The
ratio of the phasor sum to the arithmetic sum is called the distribution
factor. For the case shown (a fully distributed winding) the distribution
factor is 0.644.

F
E G J
30
D H

K
B C L

M
A
AB, CD etc. are conductor (coil) emfs.
AM is the phasor sum

Fig. 3.2

Now, if all of the stator conductors could be placed into a single pair
of slots, opposite to each other, then the induced emfs would all be
in phase. Hence the phasor and arithmetic sums would be the same,
yielding a distribution factor of unity. This is not a practical solution.
However, if the conductors are concentrated so as to occupy only one
third of the available stator slots, then the distribution factor becomes
0.966. In a practical single-phase alternator, the stator winding is
distributed over two thirds of the slots.
Let us return to the option of using only one third of the slots. We will
now have the space to put two more identical windings into the stator.
Each of the three windings could be kept electrically separate, with
their own pairs of terminals. We would then have three separate single-
phase alternators in the same space as the original. Each of these would

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 88 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

also have a good distribution factor of 0.966. The three winding emfs
will of course be mutually out of phase with each other by 120°, since
each whole winding will occupy 120° of stator space. What we now
have is the basis of a three-phase alternator.
The term three-phase alternator is in some ways slightly misleading.
What we have, in effect, are three identical single-phase alternators
contained in the one machine. The three stator windings are brought
out to their own separate pairs of terminals on the stator casing. These
stator windings are referred to as phase windings, or phases. They
are identified by the colours red, yellow and blue. Thus we have the
red, yellow and blue phases. The circuit representation for the stator
winding of such a machine is shown in Fig. 3.3. In this figure, the three
phase windings are shown connected, each one to its own separate
load. This arrangement is known as a three-phase, six-wire system.
However, three-phase alternators are rarely connected in this way.

LOAD 1

LOAD 2

LOAD 3

Fig. 3.3

Since the three generated voltages are sinewaves of the same

frequency, mutually out-of-phase by 120°, then they may be
represented both on a waveform diagram using the same angular or
time axis, and as phasors. The corresponding waveform and phasor
diagrams are shown in Figs. 3.4 and 3.5 respectively. In either case,

voltage
VR VY VB

0
180 360 θ (deg)

Fig. 3.4

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 89

VB

VR

VY

Fig. 3.5

we need to select a reference phasor. By convention, the reference is

always taken to be the red phase voltage. The yellow phase lags the
red by 120°, and the blue lags the red by 240° (or, if you prefer, leads
the red by 120°). The windings are arranged so that when the rotor is
driven in the chosen direction, the phase sequence is red, yellow, blue.
If, for any reason, the rotor was driven in the opposite direction, then
the phase sequence would be reversed, i.e. red, blue, yellow. We shall
assume that the normal sequence of R, Y, B applies at all times.
It may be seen from the waveform diagram that at any point along the
horizontal axis, the sum of the three voltages is zero. This fact becomes
even more apparent if the phasor diagram is redrawn as in Fig. 3.6. In
this diagram, the three phasors have been treated as any other vector
quantity. The sum of the vectors may be determined by drawing them
to scale, as in Fig. 3.6, and the resultant found by measuring the
distance and angle from the beginning point of the first vector to the
arrowhead of the last one. If, as in Fig. 3.6, the first and last vectors
meet in a closed figure, the resultant must be zero.

VR

VB VY

Fig. 3.6

3.2 Three-Phase, Four-Wire System

It is not necessary to have six wires from the three phase windings to
the three loads, provided there is a common ‘return’ line. Each winding
will have a ‘start’ (S) and a ‘finish’ (F) end. The common connection
mentioned above is achieved by connecting the corresponding ends

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 90 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

of the three phases together. For example, either the three ‘F’ ends or
the three ‘S’ ends are commoned. This form of connection is shown
in Fig. 3.7, and is known as a star or Y connection. With the resulting
4-wire system, the three loads also are connected in star configuration.
The three outer wires are called the lines, and the common wire in the
centre is called the neutral.

F F
F
S
S

Fig. 3.7

If the three loads were identical in every way (same impedance and
phase angle), then the currents flowing in the three lines would be
identical. If the waveform and/or phasor diagrams for these currents
were drawn, they would be identical in form to Figs. 3.4 and 3.5. These
three currents meet at the star point of the load. The resultant current
returning down the neutral wire would therefore be zero. The load in
this case is known as a balanced load, and the neutral is not strictly
necessary. However it is difficult, in practice, to ensure that each of
the three loads are exactly balanced. For this reason the neutral is left
in place. Also, since it has to carry only the relatively small ‘out-of-
balance’ current, it is made half the cross-sectional area of the lines.
Let us now consider one of the advantages of this system compared
with both a single-phase system, and the three-phase 6-wire system.
Suppose that three identical loads are to be supplied with 200 A each.
The two lines from a single-phase alternator would have to carry the
total 600 A required. If a 3-phase, 6-wire system was used, then each
line would have to carry only 200 A. Thus, the conductor csa would
only need to be 1/3 that for the single-phase system, but of course,
being six lines would entail using the same total amount of conductor
material. If a 4-wire, 3-phase system is used there will be a saving on
conductor costs in the ratio of 3.5:6 (the 0.5 being due to the neutral).
If the power has to be sent over long transmission lines, such as the
National Grid System, then the 3-phase, 4-wire system yields an
enormous saving in cable costs. This is one of the reasons why the
power generating companies use three-phase, star-connected generators
to supply the grid system.

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 91

3.3 Relationship between Line and Phase Quantities in a

Star-connected System
Consider Fig. 3.8, which represents the stator of a 3-phase alternator
connected to a 3-phase balanced load. The voltage generated by each
of the three phases is developed between the appropriate line and the
neutral. These are called the phase voltages, and may be referred to in
general terms as Vph, or specifically as VRN, VYN and VBN respectively.
However, there will also be a difference of potential between any pair
of lines. This is called a line voltage, which may be generally referred
to as VL, or specifically as VRY, VYB arid VBR respectively.

IL R

Iph
Vph

IN VL
N VL
Iph Vph
B
Iph
Vph
VL
IL
Y

Fig. 3.8

A line voltage is the phasor difference between the appropriate pair

of phase voltages. Thus, VRY is the phasor difference between VRN
and VYN. In terms of a phasor diagram, the simplest way to subtract
one phasor from another is to reverse one of them, and then find the
resulting phasor sum. This is, mathematically, the same process as
saying that a  b  a  (b). The corresponding phasor diagram is
shown in Fig. 3.9.

VYN
C
VBN
B
30

30

0 A
VRN

VYN

Fig. 3.9

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 92 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

Note: If VYN is reversed, it is denoted either as VYN or as VNY . We

shall use the first of these.
The phasor difference between VRN and VYN is simply the phasor sum
of VRN  (VYN). Geometrically this is obtained by completing the
parallelogram as shown in Fig. 3.9. This parallelogram consists of two
isosceles triangles, such as OCA. Another property of a parallelogram is
that its diagonals bisect each other at right angles. Thus, triangle OCA
consists of two equal right-angled triangles, OAB and ABC. This is
illustrated in Fig. 3.10. Since triangle OAB is a 30°, 60°, 90° triangle,
–
then the ratios of its sides AB:OA:OB will be 1:2:冪3 respectively.
C

30° 60°

O A

Fig. 3.10

OB 3
Hence, 
OA 2
3 .OA
so OB 
2
but OC  2  OB  3 .OA
and since OC  VRY , and OA  VRN
then VRY  3VRN

Using the same technique, it can be shown that:

VYB  3VYN and VBR  3VBN

Thus, in star configuration, VL  3Vph (3.1)

The complete phasor diagram for the line and phase voltages for a star
connection is shown in Fig. 3.11. Also, considering the circuit diagram
of Fig. 3.8, the line and phase currents must be the same.

Hence, in star configuration, I L  I ph (3.2)

We now have another advantage of a 3-phase system compared with

single-phase. The star-connected system provides two alternative
voltage outputs from a single machine. For this reason, the stators
of all alternators used in electricity power stations are connected in
star configuration. These machines normally generate a line voltage

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 93

VBN
VRY
VBR

30°
30°

VRN

30°

VYN

VYB

Fig. 3.11

of about 25 kV. By means of transformers, this voltage is stepped up

to 400 kV for long distance transmission over the National Grid. For
more localised distribution, transformers are used to step down the
line voltage to 132 kV, 33 kV, 11 kV, and 415 V. The last three of these
voltages are supplied to various industrial users. The phase voltage
derived from the 415 V lines is 240 V, and is used to supply both
commercial premises and households.

Worked Example 3.1

Q A 415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply is connected to a star-connected balanced load. Each phase of the load
consists of a resistance of 25
and inductance 0.1 H, connected in series. Calculate (a) phase voltage,
(b) the line current drawn from the supply, and (c) the power dissipated.

A
Whenever a three-phase supply is specified, the voltage quoted is always the
line voltage. Also, since we are dealing with a balanced load, then it is necessary
only to calculate values for one phase of the load. The figures for the other two
phases and lines will be identical to these.
VL  415 V; f  50 Hz; Rph  25
; Lph  0.1 H

IL  Iph

25 Ω

Vph
VL 0.1 H

Fig. 3.12

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 94 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

VL 415
(a) Vph  
3 3
so Vph  240 V Ans

(b) Since it is possible to determine the impedance of a phase of the load, and
we now know the phase voltage, then the phase current may be calculated:
X L  2fL ohm  2  50  0.1
hence X L  31.42

Z ph  Rph
2  X 2 ohm  252  3 1 . 422
L

Z ph  40.15

Vph 240
I ph  amp 
Z ph 40.15
so I ph  5.98 A

In a star-connected circuit, IL  IPh

therefore IL  5.98 A Ans

The power in one phase, Pph  I ph

2 R
ph watt

 5.982  25
Pph  893.29 W

and since there are three phases, then the total power is:

P  3  Pph watt  3  893.29

hence P  2.68 kW Ans

3.4 Delta or Mesh Connection

If the start end of one winding is connected to the finish end of the
next, and so on until all three windings are interconnected, the result
is the delta or mesh connection. This connection is shown in Fig. 3.13.
The delta connection is not reserved for machine windings only, since
a 3-phase load may also be connected in this way.
IL
F
S
Iph Iph

VL

S Iph F IL
F S

IL

Fig. 3.13

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 95

3.5 Relationship between Line and Phase Quantities in a

Delta-connected System
It is apparent from Fig. 3.13 that each pair of lines is connected across
a phase winding. Thus, for the delta connection:

VL  Vph (3.3)

It is also apparent that the current along each line is the phasor
difference of a pair of phase currents. The three phase currents are
mutually displaced by 120°, and the phasor diagram for these is shown
in Fig. 3.14. Using exactly the same geometrical technique as that for
the phase and line voltages in the star connection, it can be shown that:

I L  3 I ph (3.4)

IB(ph)

120°
120°
120° IR(ph)

IY(ph)

Fig. 3.14

The phasor diagram for the phase and line currents in delta connection
is as in Fig. 3.15. Note that the provision of a neutral wire is not
applicable with a delta connection. However, provided that the load

Iph
IL
IL

30°
30°

Iph

30°

Iph

IL

Fig. 3.15

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 96 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

is balanced, there is no requirement for one. Under balanced load

conditions the three phase currents will be equal, as will be the three
line currents. If the load is unbalanced, then these equalities do not
exist, and each phase or line current would have to be calculated
separately. This technique is beyond the scope of the syllabus you are
now studying.

Worked Example 3.2

Q A balanced load of phase impedance 120
is connected in delta. When this load is connected to a
600 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply, determine (a) the phase current, and (b) the line current drawn.

A
Zph  120
; VL  600 V; f  50 Hz

The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.16.

IL

Iph

VL  Vph Z
600 V 120 Ω

Fig. 3.16

(a) In delta, Vph  VL  600 V

Vph 600
I ph  amp 
Z ph 120
so, I ph  5 A Ans

(b) in delta, I L  3 I ph amp  3  5

therefore I L  8.66 A Ans

3.6 Power Dissipation in Star and Delta-connected Loads

We have seen in Example 3.1 that the power in a 3-phase balanced
load is obtained by multiplying the power in one phase by 3. In many
practical situations, it is more convenient to work with line quantities.
PphVphIph cos φ watt
where cos φ is the phase power factor.
total power, P  3  Pph
 3  Vph I ph cos φ watt.............[1]

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 97

Considering a STAR-connected load,

VL
Vph  , and I ph  IL
3

Substituting for Vph and Iph in eqn [1]:

VL
P  3 I L cos φ
3

therefore P  3VL I L cos φ watt (3.5)

For a delta-connected load,

I ph
Vph  VL and I ph 
3

and substituting these values into eqn [1] will yield the same result
as shown in (3.5) above. Thus, the equation for determining power
dissipation, in both star and delta-connected loads is exactly the
same. However, the value of power dissipated by a given load when
connected in star is not the same as when it is connected in delta. This
is demonstrated in the following example.

Worked Example 3.3

Q A balanced load of phase impedance 100
and power factor 0.8 is connected (a) in star, and (b) in
delta, to a 400 V, 3-phase supply. Calculate the power dissipation in each case.

A
Zph  100
; cos φ  0.8; VL  400 V

(a) the circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.17

IL  Iph

Z
VL
Vph 100 Ω
400 V

Fig. 3.17

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 98 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

VL 400
Vph  volt 
3 3
so Vph  231 V
Vph 231
I L  I ph  amp 
Z ph 100
and I L  2.31 A
P  3 VL I L cos φ watt  3  400  2.31  0.8
therefore P  1.28 kW Ans

(b) The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.18.

IL

Iph

VL  Vph Z
400 V 100 Ω

Fig. 3.18

Vph  VL  400 V
Vph 400
I ph  amp 
Z ph 100
so I ph  4 A
but I L  3 I ph  3  4
so I L  6.93 A
P  3 VL I L cos φ watt  3  400  6.93  0.8
therefore P  3.84 kW Ans

Comparing the two answers for the power dissipation in the above
example, it may be seen that:

Power in a delta-connected load is three times

(3.6)
that when i t is connected in star configuration.

Worked Example 3.4

Q A balanced star-connected load is fed from a 400 V, 50 Hz, three-phase supply. The resistance in each
phase of the load is 10
and the load draws a total power of 15 kW. Calculate (a) the line current
drawn, (b) the load power factor, and (c) the load inductance.

A
VL  400 V; f  50 Hz; R  10
; P  15 000 W

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 99

R 10 Ω

L
VL 400 V

Fig. 3.19

(a) The power in one phase will be one third of the total power, so

P 15 000
Pph  watt   5 kW
3 3
but, Pph  I ph
2 R watt

Pph 5000
so, I L  I ph  
R 10
I L  22.36 A Ans

(b) P  3 VL I L cos φ watt

P 15 000
so, cos φ  p.f.  
3 VL I L 3  400  22.36
h ence, p.f.  0.968 Ans

(c) φ  cos1 0.968  14.47

X ph
tan φ  0.2581 
Rph
so, X ph  10  0.2581  2.581
XL 2.581
L  ohm 
2f 100
and L  8.22 mH Ans

Rph

Xph
Zph

Fig. 3.20

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 100 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

Worked Example 3.5

Q A balanced delta-connected load takes a phase current of 15 A at a power factor of 0.7 lagging when
connected to a 115 V, 50 Hz, three-phase supply. Calculate (a) the power drawn from the supply, and
(b) the resistance in each phase of the load.

A
VL  Vph  115 V; f  50 Hz; Iph  15 A; cos φ  0.7
IL
Iph
15 A

R
VL Vph
115 V
L

Fig. 3.21

(a) I L  3 I ph amp  3  15
I L  25.98 A
P  3 VL I L cos φ watt  3  115  25.98  0.7
so P  3622.5 W Ans

P 3622.5
(b) Pph    1207.5 W
3 3
and Pph  I ph
2 R watt

Pph 1207.5
so R  2
ohm 
I ph 152
R  5.37
Ans

3.7 Star/Delta Supplies and Loads

As explained in Section 3.3, the distribution of 3-phase supplies is
normally at a much higher line voltage than that required for many
users. Hence, 3-phase transformers are used to step the voltage down
to the appropriate value. A three-phase transformer is basically three
single-phase transformers interconnected. The three primary windings
may be connected either in star or delta, as can the three secondary
windings. Similarly, the load connected to the transformer secondary
windings may be connected in either configuration. One important
point to bear in mind is that the transformation ratio (voltage or turns
ratio) refers to the ratio between the primary phase to the secondary
phase winding. The method of solution of this type of problem is
illustrated in the following worked example.

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 101

Worked Example 3.6

Q Figure 3.22 shows a balanced, star-connected load of phase impedance 25
and power factor
0.75, supplied from the delta-connected secondary of a 3-phase transformer. The turns ratio of the
transformer is 20:1, and the star-connected primary is supplied at 11 kV. Determine (a) the voltages
V2, V3 and V4, (b) the currents I1, I2, and I3, and (c) the power drawn from the supply.

I1 I3
20:1
I2

V2 V4 Z  25Ω
V1 cos φ  0.75
V3
11 kV

Fig. 3.22

A
V1  11 000 V; Np/Ns  20/1; Zph  25
; cos φ  0.75

V1 11 000
(a) V2  
3 3
V2  6.351 kV Ans
V3 N
 s
V2 Np
NsV2 6351
so V3  volt 
Np 20
hence V3  317.45 V Ans
V3 317.45
V4  
3 3
and V4  183.3 V Ans

(b) In order to calculate the currents, we shall have to start with the load, and
work ‘back’ through the circuit to the primary of the transformer:

V4 183.3
I3  amp 
Z ph 25
I 3  7.33 A Ans
I3 7.33
I2  
3 3
I 2  4.23 A Ans
I1 N
 s
I2 Np
Ns I 2 4.23
so I1  amp 
Np 20
hence I1  0.212 A Ans

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 102 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

(c) P  3 V1I1 cos φ watt

 3  11  103  0.212  0.75
therefore P  3.02 kW Ans

Worked Example 3.7

Q The star-connected stator of a three-phase, 50 Hz alternator supplies a balanced delta-connected
load. Each phase of the load consists of a coil of resistance 15
and inductance 36 mH, and the phase
voltage generated by the alternator is 231 V. Calculate (a) the phase and line currents, (b) the load
power factor, and (c) the power delivered to the load.

A
f  50 Hz; R  15
; L  36 mH; Vph  231 V

I1 I2
V1
231 V 15 Ω
V2 R

36 mH
L

Fig. 3.23

(a) For the alternator: V1  Vph  231 V

V2  VL  3 Vph
V2  400 V
I ph  I L  I1

For the load: V2  VL  Vph  400 V

X L  2fL ohm  100    36  103
X L  11.31

Z ph  R 2  X L2 ohm  152  11.3 12
Z ph  18.79

Vph 400
I ph  I 2  amp 
Z ph 18.79
I 2  21.29 A Ans
I L  I1  3 I 2  3  21.29
I1  36.88 A Ans

R
(b) p.f.  cos φ 
Z
15

18.79
p.f.  0.8 lagging Ans

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 103

(c) P  3VL I L cos φ watt  3  400  36.88  0.8

P  20.4 kW Ans
Alternatively, P  3  Pph  3  I 22R watt
 3  21.292  15
P  20.4 kW Ans

3.8 Measurement of Three-phase Power

In an a.c. circuit the true power may only be measured directly by
means of a wattmeter. The principle of operation of this instrument
is described in Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles,
Chapter 5. As a brief reminder, the instrument has a fixed coil through
which the load current flows, and a moving voltage coil (or pressure
coil) connected in parallel with the load. The deflection of the pointer,
carried by the moving coil, automatically takes into account the
phase angle (or power factor) of the load. Thus the wattmeter reading
indicates the true power, PVI cos φ watt.
If a three-phase load is balanced, then it is necessary only to measure
the power taken by one phase. The total power of the load is then
obtained by multiplying this figure by three. This technique can be
very simply applied to a balanced, star-connected system, where the
star point and/or the neutral line are easily accessible. This is illustrated
in Fig. 3.24.

W1
R

Fig. 3.24

In the situation where the star point is not accessible, then an artificial
star point needs to be created. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.25, where
the value of the two additional resistors is equal to the resistance of the
wattmeter voltage coil.
In the case of an unbalanced star-connected load, one or other of the
above procedures would have to be repeated for each phase in turn.
The total power P  P1  P2  P3, where P1, P2 and P3 represent the
three separate readings.

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 104 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

W1
R

R R

Fig. 3.25

For a delta-connected load, the procedure is not quite so simple.

The reason is that the phase current is not the same as the line current.
Thus, if possible, one of the phases must be disconnected to allow
the connection of the wattmeter current coil. This is shown in
Fig. 3.26. Again, if the load was unbalanced, this process would have
to be repeated for each phase.

R
W1

Fig. 3.26

3.9 The Two-Wattmeter Method

The measurement of three-phase power using the above methods can
be very awkward and time-consuming. In practical circuits, the power
is usually measured by using two wattmeters simultaneously, as shown
in Fig. 3.27.
The advantages of this method are:
(a) Access to the star point is not required.
(b) The power dissipated in both balanced and unbalanced loads is
obtained, without any modification to the connections.
(c) For balanced loads, the power factor may be determined.

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 105

W1 IR
R

VRB

IB
B

VYB

IY
Y
W2

Fig. 3.27

Considering Fig. 3.27, the following statements apply:

Instantaneous power for W1 , p1  vRB iR watt

and for W2 , p2  vYB iY watt
total instantaneous power  p1  p2
 vRB iR  vYB iY ………[1]

Now, any line voltage is the phasor difference between the appropriate
pair of phase voltages, hence:

vRB  vRN  vBN and vYB  vYN  vBN

and substituting these into eqn [1] yields:

p1  p2  iR (vRN  vBN )  iY (vYN  vBN )

 vRN iR  vYN iY  vBN (iR  iY )
but, iR  iY  iB

i.e. the phasor sum of three equal currents is zero.

therefore p1  p2  vRN iR  vYN iY  vBN iB

The instantaneous sum of the powers measured by the two wattmeters

is equal to the sum of instantaneous power in the three phases.
Hence, total power,

P  P1  P2  PR  PY  PB watt (3.7)

Consider now the phasor diagram for a resistive-inductive balanced

load, with the two wattmeters connected as in Fig. 3.27. This phasor
diagram appears as Fig. 3.28, below.

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 106 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

IB

VBR VBN VR
φ

VRN
φ

φ IR
(30°  φ)

IY (30°  φ) VRB
VYN

VYB

Fig. 3.28

The power indicated by W1,

P1  VL I L cos (30
 φ) (3.8)

and that for W2,

P2  VL I L cos (30
 φ) (3.9)

From these results, and using Fig. 3.29, the following points should be
noted:

wattmeter
 readings

90 30 30 90 150 (30°  φ)

Fig. 3.29

1 If the load p.f. 0.5 (i.e. φ  60°); both meters will give a positive
reading.
2 If the load p.f. 0.5 (i.e. φ  60°); W1 indicates the total power,
and W2 indicates zero.
3 If the load p.f. 0.5 (i.e. φ  60°); W2 attempts to indicate a
negative reading. In this case, the connections to the voltage coil

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 107

of W2 need to be reversed, and the resulting reading recorded as a

negative value. Under these circumstances, the total load power will
be P  P1P2.
4 The load power factor may be determined from the two wattmeter
readings from the equation:

⎛ P  P ⎞⎟
φ  tan1 3 ⎜⎜⎜ 2 1⎟
⎜⎝ P2  P1 ⎟⎟⎠
(3.10)

hence, power factor, cos φ can be determined.

Worked Example 3.8

Q The power in a 3-phase balanced load was measured, using the two-wattmeter method. The recorded
readings were 3.2 kW and 5 kW respectively. Determine the load power and power factor.

A
P1  3.2 kW; P2  5 kW
P  P1  P2 watt  (3.2  5) kW
therefore, P  8.2 kW Ans
⎛ P  P ⎞⎟
φ  tan1 3 ⎜⎜⎜ 2 1⎟
⎜⎝ P2  P1 ⎟⎟⎠
⎛ 5  3 .2 ⎞⎟
 tan1 3 ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 5  3 .2 ⎟⎠
hence, φ  20.82

and p.f.  cos φ  0.935 Ans

Worked Example 3.9

Q A 3-phase balanced load takes a line current of 24 A at a lagging power factor of 0.42, when connected
to a 415 V, 50 Hz supply. If the power dissipation is measured using the two-wattmeter method,
determine the two wattmeter readings, and the value of power dissipated. Comment on the results.

A
IL  24 A; cos φ  0.42; VL  415 V

φ  cos1 0.42  65.17

P1  VL I L cos (30
 φ ) watt
 415  24  cos (35.17
)
therefore, P1  8.142 kW Ans
P2  VL I L cos (30
 φ ) watt
 415  24  cos (95.17
)
therefore, P2 896.7 W Ans
P  P1  P2 watt  8142  ( 896.7)
hence, P  7.244 kW Ans

To obtain the negative reading on W2, the connections to its voltage coil must
have been reversed.

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 108 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

Worked Example 3.10

Q A delta-connected load has a phase impedance of 100
at a phase angle of 55°, and is connected to a
415 V three-phase supply. The total power consumed is measured using the two-wattmeter method.
Determine the readings on the two meters and hence calculate the power consumed.

A
Zph  100
; φ  55°; VL  415 V  Vph

W1 IL
Zph
VL 415 V 100 Ω

VL 415 V

IL
W2

Fig. 3.30

Vph 415
I ph  amp   4 .1 5 A
Z ph 100
I L  3 I ph  3  4 .15  7 .19 A
P1  VL I L c os (30
 φ ) watt  415  7.19  cos 25

P1  2.704 kW Ans
P2  VL I L cos (30
 φ ) watt  415  7.19  cos 85

P2  260 W Ans
P  P1  P2 watt  2704  260
P  2.964 kW Ans

3.10 Neutral Current in an Unbalanced Three-phase Load

We have seen that the neutral current for a balanced load is zero. This is
because the phasor sum of three equal currents, mutually displaced by
120°, is zero. If the load is unbalanced, then the three line (and phase)
currents will be unequal. In this case, the neutral has to carry the resulting
out-of-balance current. This current is simply obtained by calculating the
phasor sum of the line currents. The technique is basically the same as
that used previously, by resolving the phasors into horizontal and vertical
components, and applying Pythagoras’ theorem. The only additional fact
to bear in mind is that both horizontal and vertical components can have
negative values. This is illustrated by the following example.

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 109

Worked Example 3.11

Q An unbalanced, star-connected load is supplied from a 3-phase, 415 V source. The three phase loads
are purely resistive. These loads are 25
, 30
and 40
, and are connected in the red, yellow and
blue phases respectively. Determine the value of the neutral current, and its phase angle relative to
the red phase current.

A
VL  415 V; RR  25
; RY  30
; RB  40

The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.31.

IR
R

Vph 25 Ω
VL

IN 40 Ω
IY
30 Ω
Y

IB
B

Fig. 3.31

VL 415
Vph  volt   240 V
3 3
Vph Vph Vph
IR  amp; IY  amp; I B  amp
RR RY RB
240 240 240
  
25 30 40
I R  9.6 A IY  8 A IB  6 A

The corresponding phasor diagrams are shown in Fig. 3.32.

IB

60 °

IR
60 °
H.C.
φ

IY V.C. IN

Fig. 3.32

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 110 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

Horizontal components, H.C.  I R  IY cos 60
 I B cos 60

 9 . 6  ( 8  0 . 5)  ( 6  0 . 5)
so, H.C.  2.6 A
Vertical components, V.C.  I B sin 60
 IY sin 60

 (6  0.866 )  (8  0.866 )
so V.C. 1.732 A
The neutral current, I N  V.C.2  H.C.2 amp
 1.7322  2.62
hence, I N  3.124 A Ans
V.C. 1.732
φ  tan1  tan1
H.C. 2 .6
hence, φ 33.67
relative to I R Ans

3.11 Advantages of Three-phase Systems

In previous sections, some of the advantages of three-phase
systems, compared with single-phase systems, have been outlined.
These advantages, together with others not yet described, are listed
below. The advantages may be split into two distinct groups: those
concerned with the generation and distribution of power, and those
concerning a.c. motors. The last four of the advantages listed refer
to the second group, and their significance will be appreciated
when you have completed Chapter 5, which deals with a.c.
machines.
1 The whole of the stator of a three-phase machine is utilised.
A single phase alternator utilises only two thirds of the stator
slots.
2 A three-phase alternator has a better distribution factor.
3 A three-phase, four-wire system provides considerable savings
in cable costs, for the distribution of an equivalent amount of
power.
4 A three-phase, four-wire system provides alternative voltages for
industrial and domestic users.
5 For a given machine frame size, the power output from a
three-phase machine is greater than that from a single-phase
machine.
6 A three-phase supply produces a rotating magnetic field; whereas
a single-phase supply produces only a pulsating field.
7 Three-phase motors are inherently self-starting; whereas single-phase
motors are not.
8 The torque produced by a three-phase motor is smooth; whereas
that produced by a single-phase motor is pulsating.

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 111

Summary of Equations
Phase and line quantities: In star, IL  Iph; VL  3Vph
In delta, VL  Vph; IL  3I ph

Power dissipation: P  3VL I L cos φ watt

P  3  Pph  3  Vph I ph cos φ  3  I ph
2 R
ph watt

and for the same load, P(delta)  3  P (star)

Power measurement: For two wattmeter method: P  P1  P2 watt
⎛ P  P ⎞⎟
Load phase angle, φ  tan1 3 ⎜⎜⎜ 2 1⎟
⎜⎝ P2  P1 ⎟⎟⎠

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 112 Further Electrical
Fundamental and Electronic
Electrical Prinicples
and Electronic Principles
Assignment Questions
1 A three-phase load is connected in star to a
400 V, 50 Hz supply. Each phase of the load
consists of a coil, having inductance 0.2 H and
resistance 40
. Calculate the line current.
2 If the load specified in Question 1 above is now
connected in delta, determine the values for
phase and line currents.
3 A star-connected alternator stator generates
300 V in each of its stator windings. (a) Sketch
the waveform and phasor diagrams for the
phase voltages, and (b) calculate the p.d.
between any pair of lines.
4 A balanced three-phase, delta-connected
load consists of the stator windings of an a.c.
motor. Each winding has a resistance of 3.5

and inductance 0.015 H. If this machine is
connected to a 415 V, 50 Hz supply, calculate
(a) the stator phase current, (b) the line current
drawn from the supply, and (c) the total power
dissipated.
5 Repeat the calculations for Question 4, when
the stator windings are connected in star
configuration.
6 Three identical coils, connected in star, take
a total power of 1.8 kW at a power factor of
0.35, from a 415 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine the
resistance and inductance of each coil.
7 Three inductors, each of resistance 12
and
inductance 0.02 H, are connected in delta to a
400 V, 50 Hz, three-phase supply. Calculate (a)
the line current, (b) the power factor, and (c)
the power consumed.
8 The star-connected secondary of a three-phase
transformer supplies a delta-connected motor,
which takes a power of 80 kW, at a lagging
power factor of 0.85. If the line voltage is 600 V,
calculate (a) the current in the transformer
secondary windings, and (b) the current in the
motor windings.
9 A star-connected load, each phase of which
has an inductive reactance of 40
and
resistance of 25
, is fed from the secondary of
a three-phase, delta-connected transformer.
CH003-H8747.indd 112
If the transformer phase voltage is 600 V,
calculate (a) the p.d. across each phase of the
load, (b) the load phase current, (c) the current
in the transformer secondary windings, and (d)
the power and power factor.
10 Three coils are connected in delta to a 415 V,
50 Hz, three-phase supply, and take a line
current of 4.8 A at a lagging power factor
of 0.9. Determine (a) the resistance and
inductance of each coil, and (b) the power
consumed.
11 The power taken by a three-phase motor
was measured using the two-wattmeter
method. The readings were 850 W and
260 W respectively. Determine (a) the power
consumption and, (b) the power factor of the
motor.
12 Two wattmeters, connected to measure the
power in a three-phase system, supplying a
balanced load, indicate 10.6 kW and 2.4 kW
respectively. Calculate (a) the total power
consumed, and (b) the load phase angle and
power factor. State the significance of the
negative reading recorded.
13 Using the two-wattmeter method, the power
in a three-phase system was measured.
The meter readings were 120 W and 60 W
respectively. Calculate (a) the power, and (b)
the power factor.
14 Each branch of a three-phase, star-connected
load, consists of a coil of resistance 4
and
reactance 5
. This load is connected to a
400 V, 50 Hz supply. The power consumed
is measured using the two-wattmeter
method. Sketch a circuit diagram showing
the wattmeter connections, and calculate the
reading indicated by each meter.
15 A three-phase, 415 V, 50 Hz supply is connected
to an unbalanced, star-connected load, having
a power factor of 0.8 lagging in each phase.
The currents are 40 A in the red phase, 55 A in
the yellow phase, and 62 A in the blue phase.
Determine (a) the value of the neutral current,
and (b) the total power dissipated.
4/10/2008 3:24:59 PM
 Fundamental ElectricalThree-Phase
and ElectronicA.C.
Principles
Circuits 113
113

Suggested Practical Assignments

Assignment 1
To determine the relationship between line and phase quantities in three-phase
systems.

Apparatus:
Low voltage, 50 Hz, three-phase supply
3  1 k
rheostats
3  ammeters
3  voltmeters (preferably DMM)

Method:
1 Using a digital meter, adjust each rheostat to exactly the same value (1 k
).
2 Connect the rheostats, in star configuration, to the three-phase supply.
3 Measure the three line voltages and the corresponding phase voltages, and
record your results in Table 1.
4 Measure the three line currents, and record these in Table 1.
5 Check that the neutral current is zero.
6 Carefully unbalance the load by altering the resistance value of one or two
of the rheostats. ENSURE that you do not exceed the current ratings of the
rheostats.
7 Measure and record the values of the three line currents and the neutral
current, in Table 2.
8 Switch off the three-phase supply, and disconnect the circuit.
9 Carefully reset the three rheostats to their original settings, as in paragraph
1 of the Method.
10 Connect the rheostats, in delta configuration, to the three-phase supply,
with an ammeter in each line.
11 Switch on the supply, and measure the line voltages and line currents.
Record your values in Table 3.
12 Switch off the supply, and connect the three ammeters in the three phases
of the load, i.e. an ammeter in series with each rheostat. This will involve
opening each phase and inserting each ammeter.
13 Switch on and record the values of the three phase currents. Record values
in Table 3.
14 From your tabulated readings, determine the relationship between line and
phase quantities for both star and delta connections.
15 From your readings in Table 2, calculate the neutral current, and compare
this result with the measured value.
16 Write an assignment report. Include all circuit and phasor diagrams, and
calculations. State whether the line and phase relationships measured
conform to those expected (allowing for experimental error).

Assignment 2
To measure the power in three-phase systems, using both single and two-
wattmeter methods.

Apparatus:
Low voltage, 50 Hz, three-phase supply
3  1 k
rheostats
2  wattmeters
1  DMM

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 114 Further Electrical and Electronic Principles

Method:
1 As for Assignment 1, carefully adjust the three rheostats to the same value
(1 k
).
2 Connect the circuit shown in Fig. 3.33, and measure the power in the red
and yellow phases.

W1
R

Y
W2
B

Fig. 3.33

3 Transfer one of the wattmeters to the blue phase, and measure that power.
4 Add the three wattmeter readings to give the total power dissipation. Check
to see whether this is three times the individual phase power.
5 Switch off the power supply, and reconnect as in Fig. 3.34.

W1
R

Y
W2

Fig. 3.34

6 Record the two wattmeter readings, and check whether their sum is equal
to the total power recorded from paragraph 4 above.
7 Switch off the power supply and reconnect the circuit as in Fig. 3.35.
8 Record the two wattmeter readings.
9 Switch off the supply, and transfer one of the wattmeters to the third phase.
10 Record this reading. Add the three readings to give the total power, and
check that this is three times the phase power.
11 Switch off the supply and connect the circuit of Fig. 3.36.
12 Record the two wattmeter readings, and check that their sum equals the
total power obtained from paragraph 10 above.

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 Three-Phase A.C. Circuits 115

R W1

W2

Fig. 3.35

W1
R

Y
W2

Fig. 3.36

Assignment 3
Show how the two-wattmeter method of power measurement can be
accomplished by means of a single wattmeter, together with a suitable
switching arrangement. You may either devise your own system, or discover
an existing system through library research.

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