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Evolution of Indian Administration PDF
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CHAPTER 1
EVOLUTION OF INDIAN ADMINISTRATION
There are usually 3 phases of the evolution of Indian administration:
KAUTALIYA’S ARTHASHASTRA
The Mauryan era of ancient India history gave the world a significant treatise, the
Arthashastra of Kautilya. Kautilya Arthashastra is the most important work and landmark
India starts with the work of kautilya. His work, the Arthashastra contains his philosophy
of state administration.
variety of subjects and covers almost every aspect of theory and practice of government”.
Arthashastra means the science dealing with state affairs in the internal as
well as the External affairs. It is the science of statecraft or politics and administration.
Arthashastra can be studied in two ways. First , as a work throwing light on the state and
society at that time in India. Secondly as a treatise on state and government , thus claming
universal validity.
Kautilya’s arthashastra is unashamedly practical. The work is the loudest proof of the
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practical turn of the Indian mind. It is a manual of practical statecraft for the day to day
guidance of the ruler. The work emphasizes every now and then the close connection
between the art of administration and the science of public administration. Arthashastra
highlights that an administrator (king or ruler) must possess the knowledge of the science
The arthashastra is more a manual for the administrator than a theoretical work on polity
science. It is mainly concerned with the practical problems of government and describes its
Thus, this work which is major source of information about the administrative system of
Kautilya has not evolved any ideal theories regarding law, politics, justice or
administration. It does not directly concern itself with the question of the origin of state
and the government. It does not define any political concept. The primary concern of
Arthashastra is with the matters of practical administration of the state and administration.
Kautilya is not interested in the question as how the state has been brought up in existence
but with more urgent problem of how to make it mighty and vigorous state ready to face
In fact, the arthashastra is more of treatise on administration than on politics and state-
craft. The administrative principles are discussed with such insight as to make us wonder
there has been any real progress in the science of administration since then.
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It may also be noted that Kautilya’s Arthashastra does not describe in details the actual
administration set-up of the Mauryans. It at best describes an ideal system which should be
The original state of nature is imagined to be one of total anarchy, in which might was
right. When people were oppressed by matsyanyaya , the law of the fish, according to
which bigger fish swallows the smaller fish, they made Manu, the son of Vivasvat,king.
Thus in order to escape from anarchy, kautilya emphasizes the need for a strong ruler
Monarchy, rule by a single individual, was assumed to be accepted norm. What is more, he
believed in a centralizing state. Kautilya also attaches an element of divinity to the king
when he says: “divine punishment also falls on those who treat kings with disrespect”
kautilya also gave extensive powers to the king and provides for no direct checks on the
The king is the one who appoints or removes ministers and who assigns tasks to them. It is
the king who sets the tone of the whole administration. As he is , so do his subordinates
and subjects become. The supremacy of the ruler and his overpowering impact are brought
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CONCEPT OF IMMORALITY BY KAUTILYA:
Kautilya in his books suggests to the kings and to his successor so that the monarchy rule is
maintained. To the king he suggests queer remedies to get rid of an unworthy son and to
the successor , how to seize the empire from his father which includes the latter’s murder.
He even discusses conspiracies against the king and renders advice to the conspirators as
well.
The king was required to use the extensive powers for the welfare of the public. His
foremost duty is the protection of the subjects and their property. This is called
raksana or palana. Protection is from both , natural calamities and anti-social elements.
He is called to ensure their Yogaksema , a broad term implying the idea of welfare,
well being, prosperity and happiness. The text asserts: “in the happiness of the
subjects lies the happiness of the king and in what is beneficial to the subjects, lies
his own benefit,” he will consider that as good which pleases his subjects.
The king was to undertake several other public utility works such as setubandha,
building of bridges and irrigational works, providing pastures for livestock etc.
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When the subjects are struck by calamity, he could take care of them like their
father. Thus the idea set before ruler is that of paternalistic rule.
There is also a reference to those who have to be necessarily maintained by the state
There is also reference in arthashastra that villages in new settlements are to enjoy
certain privileges and concessions in the initial stages, though in the course of time
The fact that each activity has to be performed with the interests in mind may lead us to
believe that the cherished concept of welfare state existed even then. It can also be
justifiably maintained that arthashastra state that is state visualized by Kautilya is neither a
police state nor merely a tax-gathering state. Though kautilya supports the concept of one
man rule, it is by all means a benevolent monarchy due to its notion of welfare state.
Also though kautilya did not provided for any direct checks on king’s power but provides
for various indirect control. For instance , his entire training is expected to impress on him
the fact that he should use his powers in the interest of the public. The raj Purohit would
constantly be remanding him of his duties, though that advice would not be mandatory.
Then , there was the moral pressure of the mantris (ministers) and the mantrin parishad
who, if ignored constantly , would rise up in revolt. Lastly, if there is discontent among the
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subjects, there will be a similar revolt. Thus with these checks operating on the
governmental system, it was very difficult for any king to make himself absolute and weild
despotic authority.
It is even said that Kautilya reduced the position of a king to that of the servant of state. He
would not allow king to have personal likes or dislikes. “A king has no personal likes; it
is the likes of the subject that should be followed by him” . There is nothing more
important for a king than the concern for the welfare of his subjects.
2. The minister
5. The treasury
6. The army
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the principles of public administration, the machinery of government and the management
The machinery laid out was an elaborate one owing to great expanse of the empire as well
1. Centre
2. Provinces
3. Local areas
Central government:
The pivot of machinery was the monarch who was assisted by a body of ministers.
The system was highly centralised one. The king was bestowed with wide extensive
powers. He was the source and centre of authority , the head of administration, law and
justice. All the officials were subordinate and answerable to him.The central government
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Provincial government:
The empire was divided into a number of provinces with a viceroy in charge of each. The
provincial government had to maintain law and order, collect taxes, coordinate different
departments and keep a watch over the feudatories and frontier people.
Village was the basic unit of administration. Various example of urban bodies are
mentioned like in city of patliputra, taxila etc were urban local bodies worked.
REVENUE ADMINISTRATION:
Kautaliya lays great significance to finance. Treasury was a part of saptangas of state. Kosa
was important than danda ( army) . The arthashastra recognises 3 principal vacations as
Most important tax was on agriculture. Other taxes include toll tax, octroi, fines and
present to kings etc. expenditure shown in the budget and accounts under 15 heads .
PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION:
Kautilya recognizes that the personnel who man the organisations are as important as
organization themselves.
Concept of recruitment, training, pay and service condition, promotion, transfer, tenure and
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Though the machinery of the government designed in Kautilya’s arthashastra does not
closely resemble our modern day polity, it reflects clearly some of the principles which
form part of the science of public administration.
These are like principle of unity of command, division of labour, coordination, job
classification, hierarchy etc.
CONCLUSIONS:
valuable as an indigenous text and reference to the administration of those times. It can be
R C Majumdar considers the arthashastra as the classical work on the study of political
science and administration and as the high watermark of Indian political thought.
It would be a mistake to regard kautilya’s model of state confined to time and place rather,
it is a model on the basis of which a very strong state can be organised irrespective of the
time and place. So it is a model of permanent value and its relevance exists even in the
context of modern political system also. Professor dikshitar has rightly stated that
“Kautilya wrote a book on polity for all time and for all kings and for all places”
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MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION
The period of Mughal administration existed in India between 1526 and 1707 A.D from
Babar to Aurangzeb. Babar historic victory in the battle of Panipath in 1526 enabled him to
establish Mughal rule in India. However he did not live longer. He died in 1530 and
Humayun , his eldest son , ascended to throne of Agra. However it was rule of Akbar
Had major impact on administration and Akbar’s successors, with slight variation here and
The MUGHAL upheld the earlier traditions in political and administrative matters.
The MUGHAL emperor was a perfect autocrat and the administration was 'a
centralised autarchy'. The king symbolized the state and was the source and centre
administration'.
When compared to the Mauryas, the MUGHAL moved in the direction of greater
centralisation. They did not pay much attention to social services of health and
welfare as also morals which were areas of special concern for the Mauryan
kings. But the MUGHAL had an efficient civil service They recognised merit and
accepted Hindu intelligentsia in the higher civil service. Its only drawback was
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Role of the King
entire administrative machinery revolved around the king who was viewed as a
'father figure' or a 'despot' by his people. Most of the time the king was seen as a
benevolent despot who worked for the welfare of his people. The theory upheld
was that of absolute monarchy based on the divine right to rule. The king was
everything to his people. He was the source of all authority and the fountain-head
Everything, therefore, depended on the character and person of the king. Hence,
persecution of the worst kind, while indulging in endless wars in the South, central
Marathas, Jats, Sikhs and other local elements sought their independence and thus
Bureaucracy
whims and fancies of the king. Recruitment was on the basis of caste, kin, heredity
and personal loyalty to the king. Administration was based on fear of force. In the
name of the king, the officials struck terror in the hearts of people, They wielded
Officials were primarily engaged to maintain law and order, safeguard the
interests of the king from internal uprisings and revolts, defend and extend the
profit and was expected to supply a certain number of troops for the military
of pay, out of which its holder had to provide a quota of horses, elephants, etc.
Officers received their salaries either in cash or through jagirs for a temporary
period. The officers did not have ownership of lands in their jagirs, but only the
right to collect the revenue equivalent to his salary. The jagir system provided
scope for exploitation of the masses and gave undue power and independence to
the holders of ja6rs. These evils were difficult to check when the Emperor was
weak.
Army
The army must b;e understood largely in terms of the Mansabdari system. In
"gentlemen troops" who were horsemen owing exclusive allegiance to the king.
The army had cavalry which was the most important unit, the infantry, made up of
became too heterogeneous to be manageable. The soldiers did not owe direct
allegiance to the Emperor but were more attached to their immediate recruiters or
bosses and as such were b ~y with their bitter rivalries and jealousies. Above all,
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the pomp and splendor ot the army proved to be its undoing. The army on the
move was like a huge moving city, with all its paraphernalia of elephants,
camels, harem, workshops, etc. Soon indiscipline set in and the inevitable
deterioration was fully manifest at the hype of Jahangir. .No longer capable of
swift action, the' Marathas, under Shivaji, could score over the MUGHAL in
battles.
Police
In the rural areas, policing was undertaken by the village headman and his
subordinate watchmen. This system continued well into the 19' century. In the
cities and towns police duties were entrusted to Kotwals. Among their many
duties Kotwals had to artest burglars, undertake watch and ward duties, regulate
prices and check weights and measures. They had to employ and supervise work
However, the Kowal's main job was to preserve peace and public security in
urban areas. In the districts, law and order functions were entrusted to Faujdars.
Central Administration
The system operated with a fair degree of efficiency as long as the king was able to
exercise control from above. As soon as his grip loosened, the system fell to
The two highest officials were the 'Vakil' and the 'Wazir'. The Vakil, in fact,
was higher of the two. He functioned as regent of State and was in over all
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charge of the State. The 'Wazir' or high diwan was the highest officer of the
Minister.
The Chief Diwan supervised revenue collection and expenditure. He was head of
the administrative wing of Government. He supervised the work of all the high
officials. He controlled and guided provincial diwans who along with their
subordinates were in touch with him. He signed all kinds of documents and put
The MUGHAL had many diwans. Under the high diwan, that is, diwan-e-ala, there
State (crown) lands. 'At times, the diwans were also successful military
commanders. There was also the 'mustaufi' who audited income and expenditure
Among other officials there was the 'Khan-e-sama' or the high steward in charge
Apart from the major officials of the central government, there were several
others of minor importance who kept the system going. The administrative
Provincial Administration
was the subedar' or Governor. He was appointed by imperial order and was
given the insignia of office and instrument of instructions which defined his
the provincial administrative staff and ensured law and order in the province. He '
tackled local civil and intelligence staff with a firm hand and realised tributes
from the local chiefs under him. He also controlled the local Zamindars and
The provincial diwan was supported by the imperial diwan. Though next in
government dues in time. The diwan also exercised functions of an auditor and .
exercised full control over public expenditure. His establishment included the
The provincial 'bakshi' performed a role similar to that of the 'bakshi' at the
Centre. He was responsible for the maintenance and control of troops and kept an
account of the salaries and emoluments of all provincial officers in terms of their
'mansabs'.
The 'Sadr' and the 'Qazi' were the two officers at the provincial level which
were sometimes united in the same person though there was a distinction in the
jurisdiction of the two. 'Sadr' was exclusively a civil judge, but did not handle all
civil cases. 'Qazi' was concerned with civil suits in general and also with
criminal cases. .
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The 'Suba' or province was divided into 'Sarkars' which were of two types. There
were those ruled by officers appointed by the emperor and those under the tributary
rajas. At the head of each sarkar was the Faujdar who was the executive head.
Although Faujdars were subordinate to the provincial governors, they could have
'Faujdar' received advice regarding policy and conduct. He was also in charge of a
military force and saw to it that rebellions were put down and crimes investigated.
Apart from the 'Faujdar', the other head of the 'sarkar' was the 'amalguzar'. He
was in charge of revenue. Each of them had their own set of subordinate
officials. The 'kotwal' did policing of the town and its suburbs.
A barkar' was divided into 'parganas'. Each 'pargana' had a 'shiqqdar', and
'amil' and 'qazi'. The 'shiqqdar' was executive head and combined in himself
the functions of the 'Faujdar' and 'kotwal' of the 'sarkar'. He took care of law
and order, criminal justice and general administration. The 'amil's' duties were
The 'parganas' were further divided into 'Chaklas', which were creatred to
facilitate and improve the realisation and assessment of-revenue and had their
own set of local iofficials like the 'Chakladars'. Each of the officials was
REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
The Revenue system needs to be closely studied &cause land revenue has been
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traditionally, the primary source of income of the State. The State and the cultivator
were two parties to the contract. The right of the State to a share of the
immemorial. What was disputed and had to be determined periodically was the
In ancient times, the State's share was defined by law-givers as one-twelfth, one-
eighth or even one-fourth. However, about one-sixth was realised. While in the
ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE
The MUGHAL State, being a Muslim State was based on Quranic law. The judges
followed the Quranic precepts, the 'Fatwas' or previous interpretations of the Holy '
Law by eminent jurists and the ordinances of the Emperors. They did not disregard
interpretations prevailed, provided they did not run counter to the sacred laws.
For the dispensation of justice, there were two types of tribunals. There was the
Chief 'Qazi' with subordinate 'Qazi' who followed the Islamic law, both civil ad
criminal. The other was the ‘mir’adl’, a secular officer who took care of suits not
specifically provided for by the religious laws of the two communities. The king
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The British administration in India started with the establishment of East India Company in
1600. India remained under British domination and control for a very long time. During
this period of supremacy the Britisers had their own administrative set up. The
administrative policy of British was to strengthen the British rule over India. It was done to
streamline their self centered interest, which they wanted to draw from colonial India.
After independence several administrative changes have been introduced to suit new needs
and requirements. Yet on the whole the influence of the British administrative system
altogether has not been wiped out. There are many areas in which influence of British rule
It is often said that among the several legacies of the British rule in the country, one that is
recognised as an asset was the administrative system. Even after more than 60 years of our
independence and various reforms and changes, the core of administrative machinery still
remains intact.
The forces of British Indian history have a lasting imprint on the now prevailing
administrative system.
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Parliamentary democracy and federalism was first of all introduced by the British in India
at the level of provinces in the form of diarchy system introduced through government of
India act, 1919 and later at central level through the government of India act, 1935.
Lord Canning introduced the portfolio system in 1861 under which each member of
his council was placed in charge of particular department. The present system of
The concept of central secretariat system was introduced by the British in 1784.
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The split system of administration that is separation between policy making institutions
and policy implementation institutions is also a contribution of British.
The present form of state administration also owes their existence to the British.
Also in 1860 central revenue department was created to integrate and coordinate the
activities of all the revenue authorities.
Post of CAG was also created was British which was made responsible to central
legislature.
Standing finance committee was created which had the function of Public Estimates
Committee.
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The 1935 GOI act established the reserve bank.
The post of District collector was created by warren Hasting in 1772 and is
The office of district collector has survived the historic role of change and the
The need for establishing local level administration was emphasized especially by
Ripon through Ripon resolution 1882 creating rural and urban local government.
After resolution municipal councils were established in major cities and rural local bodies
Legislation like police act 1861, Indian penal code 1860, and Indian evidence act 1872 are
still the major legislation of our police administration and criminal justice system.
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8. LEGACY IN PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION
The most important legacy of the British rule in India was the creation of civil
Service. Civil service represented the visible presence of the British in India and it was
through its expanded network that authority was wielded. The members of ICS constituted
the essence of British power in India and, without them; one would not be able to speak of
a British empire in India.
The idea of merit based service originated in India for the first time with the
submission of the Macaulay report in 1954.
The idea of specific age limit to compete in the examination also evolved in 1854.
Another important contribution was the idea that the competitive examinations be
conducted by an independent agency. Accordingly, the Federal public Service Commission
was created in 1926 and entrusted with the task of recruiting civil servants.
A well developed pay structure for civil servants was also devised by the British.
The system of promotion also brought about an onslaught on the tradition bound
indian society. The condition of service provided for promotional opportunities according
to seniority, conduct, and quality of performance. Even as early as 1834, the system of
annual returns existed wherein the merit and conduct of the subordinate officers were
graded by the superior officers.
Thus the contemporary Indian administrative system has been built on its British
heritage. All India services, civil service recruitment, administrative training, the
secretarial system, office procedures, management of district, revenue administration
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, police system, budgeting, accounting, auditing and a number of other structural and
functional areas of Indian administration have their roots in the British rule and
forms the backbone of present Indian administrative system.
However there is another point also. There was a large part of India which was partially or
just marginally affected by the British rule and its administrative initiatives. More than five
hundred and fifty princely states of the country did not experience the same kind of
administrative innovation which the British India did. Despite the progressive policies of
some of the princely rulers, the chasm in the structure and working of the administrative
systems of these “two indias” was significant.
Until the Mauryan period in Indian history beginning around 321 B.C., there is
insufficient data on the structure of Indian public services or their management. Kautilya's
administrative functionaries during the Mauryan period. There were kthanlkas’ who used
hierarchy were the 'mantrins' who were chosen from amongst the 'Amatyas'.
During the Mughal period the administrative system was centralised. No distinction was
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made between the civil and military administration. Civil Service was organised on a
Civil Services in an organised form, as existing now, evolved through various stages
during the rule of the East India Company and the British Crown.
The development of the civil services in India dates back to the first quarter of the 17th
century, when some British merchants, under the banner of the East India Company, came
to India for the purposes of trade. The earliest organised civil service in British India was
the 'Covenanted Civil Service' which constituted a group of men who carried on the trade
of the East India Company and were known as its 'civil servants'. These were distinct from
the naval and military officers of the company. The servants of the company were purely
commercial agents, known as 'factors' and were incharge of the trading stations which
were established along the sea coasts. These 'factors' were neither statesmen nor
In 1675, the company established a regular gradation of posts..Thus a young man was
recruited first as an 'apprentice' to later become a 'writer' and, after serving in this
capacity for five years, could be promoted as a 'factor'. The 'factors' after putting in three
years service could be promoted as 'Junior Merchants' who usually after a period of three
years of service could become 'Senior Merchants'. The business transacted by these
officials was commercial in nature. Initially, the power of appointment to these posts
vested with the Court of Committees but, in 17 14, it was laid down that appointments in
the company were to be made through the recommendatory nomination of the members of
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the Court of Directors. Every writer had to enter into a covenant or indenture with the
company. It was a long document which contained many conditions including faithful,
honest, diligent and careful service and bound the writers to observe, keep and fulfill each
and every order of the company and the Court of Directors. Hence they were known as
The other category was the uncovenanted civil service which included Indians, parsis,
Englishmen and the Portuguese.
Thus civil service under company was divided into two categories.
For over a century and a half, the service remained a purely commercial service. Later,
from 1760 onwards, as trade expanded administrative tasks increased and the civil service
of the company started assuming more administrative responsibilities. By 1765 the term
'civil servant' came to be used in the records of the company. The grant of Diwani to the
Company by the Moghuls in 1765, was another landmark in the territorial acquisition of
the company and consequent increase in the administrative duties of the civil servants of
the company. In 1772, the directors of the company decided to function as diwans
themselves and took over the administration. Besides the civil service needed to be
streamlined, as there was the problem of the covenanted servants being engaged in private
trade and bribery. The Regulating Act of 1773 made a clear distinction between the civil
classification. The commercial transactions of the company were to be kept separate from
servants. The Act also prohibited private trading by all those civil servants responsible for
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engaged in commercial transactions. It forbade civil servants from accepting any gifts
It is said that during Hasting, the civil service began to transcend its trading activity.
During his regime, the civil service changed from “being a brand of commercial
adventures and fortune hunters to a public service in the modern sense of the world.”
The Pitt's India Act of 1784 with regard to civil service laid down that the vacancies in
the Governor General's Council were to be filled by the covenanted civil servants. The
Crown was given the power of removing or recalling any servant of the company. The
Act for the first time laid down age limits for new entrants in the service of the company.
It fixed the minimum age for appointment to the post of writer at fifteen years and
It can be said that the Charter Act of 1793 made a significant contribution to the
development of civil services in India. It laid down that any vacancy occurring in any of
the civil offices in India "shall be filled from amongst the civil servants of the company
belonging to the Presidency in which such vacancies occurred". The Act excluded
outsiders from entering the service even though they enjoyed patronage in England. The
Act tried to improve the morale of the civil service by making it a closed and exclusive
service. The maximum age limit for appointment to the post of writer was raised to 22
years.
In 1800, Govemor General Wellesley, established the college at Fort WiIliams with the
objective of training civil servants. But this was not favoured by the Court of Directors.
Haileybury in England which was accorded a statutory status by the Charter Act of 1813.
The writers nominated by the Court of Directors of the Company were required to
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undergo two years of training at the institution and pass an examination before they were
confirmed as writers. The areas of training included European classical languages, law,
politrcal economy, general history, oriental languages etc. This College was abolished
later in 1857. The designations of merchants, factors etc., continued till 1842 even
though they did not perform any commercial functions after the Charter Act of 1833. This
Act, which completely prohibited trade and commerce, proposed a significant change in
the civil services. It proposed the introduction of a limited competitive examination as the
need for a strong bureaucracy was felt as a replacement for the patronage exercised by the
Company.
Lord Macaulay, speaking in the British Parliament on 10th July, 1833 on the Charter Act
said 'it is intended to introduce the principle of competition in the disposal of writerships
and from this change I cannot but anticipate the happiest results". A clause was inserted in
the Charter Act granted to the company declaring that henceforth fitness was to be the
criterion of eligibiIity to the civil services irrespective of caste, creed or colour. The
proposal of having open competition did not come into effect till 1853, though the
The old powers, rights, of the Court of Directors to nominate candidates for admission to
the College of Haileybury were to cease in regard to all vacancies which occurred on or
after April 1854. The Act provided for appointment of members of the covenanted civil
service of India on the basis of a suitable competitive examination which was to be held
in London and thus abolished the system of patronage. The President of Board of ControI,
Sir Charles Wood appointed a five- member Committee headed by Lord Macaulay to
advice on the measures to be adopted to give effect to the Act of 1853, which, at least in
theory, threw open appointments in the Indian Civil Service to competition without any
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discrimination. The committee (popularly known as Committee on the Indian Civil
Service) laid down certain age limits for admission to the college of Haileybury. It desired
that the minimum age limit be raised to eighteen and the maximum to twenty-five. It was
in favour of civil servants entering the service at a young age but also specified, that they
should have received the best, the most liberal, the most finished education that the country
which precedes special education or training in any skill. The Committee recommended the
selection of candidates on the results of a competitive examination, and also laid stress on
the need for completion of a period of probation before the final appointment of the
candidates. It was not in favour of continuance of the College at Haileybury. It also laid
down that the examination should be so conducted as to ensure the selection of candidates
with thorough and not superficial knowledge. These recommendations were accepted by
the Board of Control and regulations were framed governing the examination and selection
of candidates to the civil service. The first examination under the Board of Control was
held in 1855 at London, on the basis of the report of the Macaulay committee , by a civil
With 1858, started a new era in the history of public services in India.
under the Crown. The Government of India Act, 1858 vested the power of superior
appointments of a political nature with Her Majesty. Her powers, in actual practice, were
exercisable by the Secretary of State for India, a Minister of Cabinet rank, who was to be
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assisted by an under secretary and a council of fifteen members. The powers and function
exercised by the Board of Control and Court of Directors were transferred to the
examinations for appointment to her Majesty's civil service was transferred to the Civil
The system of reserving certain posts for the members of the covenanted service was
introduced. This continued upto Independence and still to some extent is a part of the
successor service i.e the Indian Administrative Service. The Indian Civil Service Act,
1861 reserved certain principal posts to be filled from the covenanted service. All these
posts were put in a schedule. It also laid down that any person, Indian or European, could
be appointed to any of the offices specified in the schedule annexed to the Act provided
he had resided for at least seven years in India. A person appointed under it had to pass an
examination in the vernacular language of the district in which he was employed and also
remain subject to such departmental tests and other qualifications as the authorities might
impose. All appointments were to be reported to the Secretary of State and unless
approved by him within twelve months, were declared void. The provisions of this Act
did not obviously satisfy the Indian public opinion and its growing demand for
Indianisation of services. The Act virtually remained a 'dead letter' partly on account of
the disinclination of authorities to give effect to it and largely because of the basic
There was growing demand by educated Indians to secure employment in the Covenanted
Civil Service. There was failure on the part of British to fulfil the assurance given in the
Government of India Act, 1833 and Queen's Proclamation of 1858. The Act provided that
no Indian 'shall by reason of his religion, place of birth, descent, colour, or any of them,
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be disabled from holding. any place, or employment' under the Government of the East
India Company. The selection based on patronage prevented Indians from getting into the
service. Though open competition was introduced under the Charter Act of 1853, the
The British Parliament passed an Act in 1870 authorizing the appointment of any Indian
(of proved merit and ability) to any office or the civil service without reference to the Act
of 1861 which reserved specific appointments to the covenanted service. It also did not
make the desired headway, as the opinion was divided on throwing open all civil
higher offices. New rules were framed in 1879, which established the Statutory Civil
Service; it provided that a fifth of covenanted civil service posts was to be filled by the
natives. Only Indians were eligible to be appointed to this by the local government subject
statutory system also failed to achieve the purpose for which it was created. With the
Indian National Congress, passing in its very first session; in December, 1885, a
resolution for simultaneous civil service examination in England and India, the pressure
The British government decided to consider the question of admission of Indians either to
the covenanted civil service or to the offices formerly reserved exclusively to the members
of the service.
Aitchison Commission
look into the question of employment of Indians not only in appointments, ordinarily
reserved by law for members of the covenanted civil service but also in the uncovenanted
service covering lower level administrative appointments. The Commission rejected the
idea of altering the system of recruitment to the covenanted civil service. It advised the
abolition of the Statutory Civil Service and advocated a three-fold classification of civil
The provincial service was an exclusive sphere of extended Indian employment in the
public service. It also proposed a reduction of the list of the scheduled posts reserved by
the Act of 1861 for the members of the covenanted civil service and the transfer of a
As recommended by the Commission, the Statutory Civil Service was abolished. The
designation covenanted civil service was also done away with and the civil services of the
country were divided into three grades-the imperial, provincial and subordinate civil
service. The superior posts were included in the imperial civil service and recruitment to it
was to be made by the Secretary for State in Council. The provincial civil service was
designated after the name of the particular province to which it belonged. The lower level
Thus on his recommendation the covenanted civil service was named the Indian civil
service and the uncovenanted civil service was styled as the provincial civil service.
The practice of holding examinations for entry to the civil service in England, continued as
the Commission strongly advocated it. It was of the view that since the Indian Civil
Service represented the only permanent English official element in India, examinations in
England become essential to maintain the English principles and methods of the
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government.
The demand for Indianisation however became persistent and there was mounting pressure
and India. Once again, the question of Indianisation was examined by a Public Service
Commission in 1912 under the chairmanship of Lord Islington, the then Governor of New
Zealand. The Commission observed that at that time Indians constituted only 5% of the
civil service. The Commission supported "two separate channels of access to the Indian
Civil Service itself, one in England (open to all alike) and one in India (open to statutory
natives of India only)". It sought to apply a method for inducting Indians to the higher
offices by reserving twenty-five per cent posts for them, i.e. 189 out of 755 posts were to
India into Class I and 11. But no radical change in the structure of the organisation of the
civil service was envisaged by the Commission. Also it took nearly four years for it to
submit the report. As a result, due to lapse of time, the proposed measures came to be
On 20th August 1917, E.S. Montague, the then Secretary of State in India, issued the
historic declaration in the House of Commons announcing the British Government's new
responsible Government in India as an integral part of British Empire". A year later, i.e.
in 1918, Montague and Chelmsford (the then Viceroy), both in their joint report on
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Constitutional changes, expressed supplementing the recruitment to civil services in
England by fixing a definite percentage of recruits from India. The percentage was fixed
at thirty-three per cent for superior posts with an annual increase of one-and-a-half per
They were in favour of appointments to be open to all branches of public services without
classification of services into All India, provincial and subordinate. All the Imperial
departments, were designated as the 'All India Services'. Special safeguards were
guaranteed to the members of All India Services in regard to dismissal, salaries, pensions
and other rights. The Act proposed as a safeguard against political influence the
constitution bf a Public Service Commission entrusted with the task of recruitment to the
service.
In 1922, the first competitive examination was held under the supervision of the Civil
Service Commission. The Indian candidates selected on the basis of its results were put
In the midst of great political furore in India over the negative British response towards
the public service matters, in 1923 a Royal Commission on Superior Civil Services in
India under the chairmanship of Lord Lee was appointed. The Commission recommended
the division of main services into three classes : (a) All India (b) central and (c) provincial.
The central services were those which dealt with the Indian states and foreign affairs, with
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administration of the state railways, posts and telegraphs, customs, audit and accounts,
scientific and technical departments. The Commission recommended that the Secretary of
State should retain the powers of appointment and control of the All India Services
(mainly Indian Civil Service, Indian Police Service, Indian Medical Service, Indian Forest
regarding services operating in the transferred fields (e.g. Indian Educational Service,
Indian Agricultural Service, Indian Veterinary Services eic.), whose further recruitment
and appointments were to be made by the concerned local governments. Thus those
services were to be provincialised. The existing members of the All India Services were to
retain all rights of the officers of All India Services, but the provincial governments were
In regard to the central services, the Commission limited the power of appointment of
Secretary of State to the Political Department, Imperial Customs Department and the
Ecclesiastical Department. Appointments to all the other central services were to be made
by the Government of India. The Commission recommended twenty per cent of superior
the Commission urged the establishment of the Statutory Public Service Commission (as
recommended by the Government of India Act, 1919). This Public Service Commission
was to perform the functions of recruitment of personnel for the All India, central and
provincial services, and also other quasi-judicial functions connected with discipline,
control and protection of the services. It also made detailed recommendations about the
various conditions of service like pay, pension, leave, passage, housing etc. As regards
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Indianisation, it suggested that out of every hundred posts of Indian Civil Service, fourty
Indians and twenty by promotion from the provincial service so that in fifteen years i.e.
The recommendations of the Lee Commission were accepted by the British Government.
With the discontinuance of the All India Services in the transferred departments, the only
All India Services which survived were the Indian Civil Service, Indian Police, Indian
Service of Engineers (Irrigation Branch), Indian Medical Service (Civil Branch) and
Indian Forest Service (except in the provinces of Burma and Bombay). The Public Service
Commission in India was set up in 1926 and the examination for recruitment to civil
England.
The Government of India Act, 1935 (Indianisation of Higher Civil Services etc.)
As the Act of 1935 introduced provincial autonomy under responsible Indian Ministers,
the rights and privileges of the members of the civil services were carefully protected. The
protection of the rights and privileges of the civil service was a special responsibility of
It was provided that a civil servant was not to be dismissed from service by an authority
below the rank of the officers who had appointed him. The salaries, pensions,
emoluments were not subject to the vote of the legislature. The Act also provided for the
setting up of a Public Service Commission for the federation and a Public Service
Commission for each of the provinces, though two or more provinces could agree to have
As a result of introduction of provincial autonomy under the Act, only three services i.e.
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Indian Civil Service, the Indian Police Service and Indian Medical Service were to
continue as All India Services. Recruitment to other All India Services (Indian
Forest) were provincialised, their recruitment and control coming under the provincial
government. The serving members continued on existing terms and the conditions of
Indianisation of the civil services though regulated was considered policy of the colonial
This process helped greatly when the country became independent in 1947 as in its
composition, the civil service in India was reasonably Indian in personnel by the time the
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