UNIT-I

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: ITS MEANING, NATURE AND

PRACTICE
In modern times, the world has greatly shrunk as a result of scientific and
technological development. Events in one part have an immediate impact on the
rest of the world. The study of international relations started in 17 th century. The
improvements in means of transport and communication and the industrial
revolution further brought the states closer. ‘Jeremy Bentham’ used the term
‘International’ for the first time.
VIEWS REGARDING INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Narrow view includes only the ‘official relations conducted by the authorized
leaders of the state.’ Broad view included apart from the official relations between
states, all intercourse among states and all movements of people, goods and ideas
across the national frontiers within its purview. The latter view has found wider
favor with various authorities on the subject.
INTERNATIONAL POLITICS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
The term ‘international politics’ and ‘international relations’ are very often used
interchangeably both by laymen and scholars. E.H. Carr and Quincy Wright treat
the two as identical. Some scholars, however, object to such a confusing usage of
the term, as ‘politics’ and ‘relations’ have distinct connotations in social science.
Those belonging to the behaviorist school contend that ‘international politics’ is
much narrower in its scope than ‘international relations’. The term ‘International
Politics’ connotes the politics of international community in a rather narrow sense
concerning mainly diplomacy and the relations among states and other political
units.’ International relations’, on the other hand, is wider in scope and include in
its study the totality of relations of any people and group in the world society. To
put it more succinctly by Palmer and Perkins, International politics deals mainly
with the ‘official actions’ of the government acting on behalf of these states.
However, International Relations embrace all sorts of relations among people and
groups in the world society operating both at the official and non-official levels.
SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
The scope of international relations has been greatly expanded. It concentrated on
the study of contemporary foreign affairs with a view to draw certain lessons.
Emphasis laid on the study of international law and international relations began to
be studied within the framework of international law. The scope was widened with
the establishment of the League of Nations and the study of international
organizations and institutions was also included. Scope during II world war period
further widened due to significant changes viz. the Emergence of USA and USSR
as two superpowers, the entry of large no. non-European countries into the United
Nations, the danger of thermo-nuclear war, increasing interdependence of states
and rising expectations of the people in the underdeveloped world. In
contemporary period the scope of international relations includes:
A. State as Actors: International relations studies relations between two or
more states, which are very often complex and influenced by a variety of
geopolitical, historical, religious, ideological, strategic and leadership
factors. International relations studies inter-state relationship and regional
affairs and such an academic concern is also known as area studies.
B. Power: It studies elements of national power that contribute to the state’s
strength internally and balance of power situation that conditions its power
position externally. It is the business of the statesmanship to weigh the
internal and external components of power of one’s own state carefully
compare them with those of the adversary state judiciously before opting for
such a course of action as war.
C. Conflict Management and Conflict Resolution: International arena has
been full of conflicts and to live perpetually in these situations is potentially
dangerous for the nations. International relations analyse the factors that
contribute to the growth of conflict situation in the international community
and channels to resolve such conflicts.
D. Disarmament and Arms Control: War in an atomic age is no longer
viewed as an inevitable occurrence. Its devastating nature is compelling
many statesmen to pool their efforts in the direction of armaments control
and disarmament.
E. Foreign Policy Making: The content of foreign policy, or the foreign
policies of nation states, has always engaged the attention of the statesmen
 and scholars. Various agencies contribute to the shaping of a country’s
foreign policy.
F. International Political Groupings and Military Alliances: Politics is a
divisive process as it divides the international community into different
groups on the basis of ideology, race, culture and regional or economic
interests. The communist countries, the ‘free world’, non-aligned countries,
the Arab World, African countries, etc. are the prominent political
groupings in the post-war period, which function unitedly on many issues in
the UNO and outside. The uniting factors, and the degree of their unity as
well as their conflicts and confrontations with other group, form the subject
matter of international politics.
G. International Trade and International Economic Organizations:
Economic interests affect political transaction among the nation-states and
become the factors for unity or disunity among them. Foreign trade is an
important instrument to forge political ties among the trading nations.
Various international regulations affect foreign trade one way or the other.
Economic aid policies and practices of the developed countries vis-à-vis the
developing countries, commodity agreements, tariff barriers, exchange
regulations, international economic agencies like the World Bank, IMF,etc.,
are some such concerns of international relations.
At present, its scope includes the study of diplomatic history, international politics,
international organization and administration, international law, area study as well
as psychological study of the motives of member states in their mutual relations.
Some writers hold that international relations are a poor relation of History and
Political Science and are still far from being a well-organized discipline. It lacks
clear-cut conceptual framework and a systematic body of applicable theory. It is
heavily dependent upon other better-organized disciplines. It is not an independent
discipline because discipline implies some sort of unity in subject matter and
unanimity regarding its scope as well as a good degree of objectivity. These
requisites of discipline are lacking in international relations. It does not possess
clear boundaries, which separates it from political science because both are
concerned with the study of sovereign state and their behavior. Besides, it also
lacks objectivity and more often than not assumes subjective character1.

1
U.R.Ghai, International Relations, p.10
IMPORTANCE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
International relations and its study enable us to understand the basic motives
underlying the policies of various countries in the international sphere and the
reasons which contribute to their ultimate success and failure. Its study also
highlighted the fact that narrow nationalism is a bane of humanity and poses a
threat to the world peace. The concept of national sovereignty becomes outmoded.
No state can claim full authority to act as it likes and has to operate within several
constraints inherent in the world. The principle of collective security and
disarmament is a clear indication of this change. Through International Relations,
we have come to realize that we must avoid the policy of cooperation and co-
existence. This change in attitude is likely to go a long way in promoting feeling of
universal brotherhood and elimination of wars.
APPROCHES TO THE STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
A. IDEALIST AND REALIST APPROACH
It is a scholarly approach where an idealist starts his discussion with a goal, an
ideal or an objective. The discussion tends to be how international relations
should be ordered or conducted so that the goal or an ideal may be attained. The
method is very similar to the one adopted by the Plato.
Realists take the position that it is not of any use to talk of ideals or moral goals.
One must take the reality as it exists. On crucial issues, the rulers of each state
gave and ought to give primary importance to their own national interests. It is
necessary to follow what actually happens and how nations behave rather than
to elaborate the goals or ideals to which statesman pays lip service but do not
follow. Realist theory regards International politics as struggle for power among
nations whereby each nation tries to secure its national interest. It seeks to build
a rational and realistic theory of international politics and for this regards the
concept of interest defined as power as the sign-post.
Morgenthau’s six principle of ‘Realism’:
In his famous book, Politics among Nations, Hans J Morgenthau propounded a
theory of international politics which he termed as a ‘realist theory’. He
describes international politics as struggle for power among nations. He
observes, “International politics, like all politics, is the struggle for power,
whatever the ultimate aim of international politics, power is always the
immediate aim.”He says that his theory is based on empirical facts and is
logically consistent and helps us to understand the political actions of all times.
Morgenthau has explained six principles of his realist theory which together
constitute the essence of ‘political realism’.
I. The first principle of political realism is that politics is governed by
objective laws which have their roots in human nature. The realist
theory takes into account the story of human history as it has unfolded
itself and tries to present it in a coherent and rational manner. The
theory, as Morgenthau puts it, is subjected to the dual test of ‘reason and
experience’. It presents a rational account of a statesman’s actions. It
assumes that in the given circumstances, the statesman would behave in
a manner that is essential to the safeguard his country’s interests.
II. Political action is distinct from other kinds of actions by virtue of the
fact that it is designed to protect the interests of the state which are
conceived in termed of power. International politics, therefore, is the
concept of interest defined in terms of power. The principal function of
statesmen is to protect national interest ‘in terms of power’.
Prof. Morgenthau, however, guard against two popular fallacies in this
respect: the concern with motives and the concern with ideological
preferences. History is full of instances where politicians have followed
wrong policies with good motives and achieved exactly the opposite
result from what they originally intended.
III. Interest and power are no doubt the key concepts in Morgenthau’s
theory, but the meaning attached to them is not static and fixed once and
for all. The state’s interests are fluid and change with ever –changing
situations in the world at large. Not only are interests fluid in the
dynamic international situation, but the power position of most
countries also undergoes changes.
IV. Morgenthau’s theory is not devoid of moral content or concern, since
political action is very often guided by moral principles and the extent
to which they influence the actions of statesmen, political realism is
guided by such morality.
V. As political realism does not identify national interests with universal
morality and defeats its own purpose, it does not treat what is right and
 justifiable for a certain nation as good for all countries. It refuses to
identify the moral aspirations of a particular nation with moral laws that
govern the universe.
VI. The difference between political realism and other schools of thought is
‘real and profound’. The question of the political realist is:’how does
this policy affect the power of the nation?’This does not mean that the
political realist is not aware of other standards of human behavior.
Political realism, in essence, is based upon a pluralistic conception of
human society which consists of ‘economic man’, ‘moral man’ and
‘political man’ too.
Evaluation of Realist theory: Although he has termed his theory as ‘realist’, the
rational statesman he had envisaged exists more in theory than in reality. As
Stanley Hoffmann has pointed out irrational factors too influence statesman’s
decisions and it would be unrealistic to brush them aside as ‘irrelevant intrusions’
or ‘pathological deviations’. History is replete with fanatic leaders who saw no
other social good and morality except the one they had cherished. To say that such
fanatics were not rational is to admit the limitations of his realist model. Despite
such limitations, which are inherent in any general theory, it must be said to the
credit of Prof. Morgenthau that by emphasizing power and interest as key concepts
in international politics, he has made the understanding of international politics
easier and brought in a sense of realism in its study.
Neo Realism: Kenneth Waltz
Realism encompasses a variety of approaches and claims a long theoretical
tradition. Among its founding fathers, Thucydides, Machiavelli and Hobbes are the
names most usually mentioned. Twentieth-century classical realism has today been
largely replaced by neorealist, which is an attempt to construct a more scientific
approach to the study of international relations. Both classical realism and
neorealist have been subjected to criticism from IR theorists representing liberal,
critical, and post-modern perspectives.
Neo-realism :Kenneth Waltz is credited to have popularized it.According to him
the classical Realists fail to develop a serious account of the international system
abstracted/bereft from the wider socio-political domains leading to fallacious and
even misleading analysis of the foreign policies.
Neo realists especially the theory formulated by Kenneth Waltz helps explain as to
why States behave in similar ways despite having different forms of Governments
and ideologies.

B. DETERMINISTIC AND ‘FREE WILL’ APPROACH

Philosophers have long debated whether human events occur according to their
pre-determined course, or whether they take place according to action planned
by man. The 18th century economist Adam Smith in his ‘ Wealth of Nations’
put forward the view that human beings, acting as free individuals, carry on
their economic activity and thereby contribute to their own prosperity and that
of the nation.
Events in a society do not indeed occur strictly according to plans and actions
of human agents. On the other hand, the events are not pre-determined.
International events are partly the result of policies deliberately adopted by
nations and partly the result of historical and other factors.

C. MECHANISTIC AND ORGANIC APPROACHES

Some political philosophers of the 18th century compared the state to a machine,
which moved under checks and balances. On the other hand, some view states
as a living organism. A human being does not behave like a machine. He acts
under the influence of his perception of the current situation, his past
experience, his acquired culture and tradition. In the same manner, states react
to current situations in the light of their historical experience, culture and
tradition.
D. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS AND SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Contextual analysis is a method of analytical study of international relations. It
enables us to unravel the complexity of international relations. Generally,
analytical study describes the actors, their objectives, the measures taken by
them to attain the objectives and the results attained. The scholar addresses
himself to the question, which with what objective, did what, and gained what
outcome for him, and with what effect to others.
A system may be understood as a collection of factors, which are so connected
with each other that when one is affected the others are also affected. A system
may have sub-systems. In a study of international relations employing the
system analysis method, attention is drawn to the factors, which are
prominently or significantly interdependent and the range of interdependence of
such factors. Morton Kaplan is the chief exponent of system theory. He
advocates that international politics offers the best sphere for the application of
the concept of system as a tool for investigating all phenomena. He believes
that the behavior of national actor in the field of international affairs is always
governed by main consideration of national interest.
E. DESCRIPTIVE SCIENCE AND VALUE AND POLICY SCIENCE
Some social scientists take the view that if the method of study is to be really
scientific, one must only accurately describe facts and the relations between the
facts. An analytical study should be strictly descriptive and value free.
Other scholars take the position that, while studying social sciences one cannot
ignore value judgments, and particularly so if the scholar takes up the task of
making suggestions for the future.
F. MATHEMATICAL METHODS, FIELD STUDIES AND
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTATION
Some scholars in mathematics initiated the application of mathematical
techniques for the study of political, social and economic problems and
problems of international relations. Lewis Richardson applied this method to
study the arms race between nations and outbreak of wars.
Game theory: It is one of the most recently developed techniques for the study
of international relations. Martin Shubik says about the game theory as a
“mathematical method for the study of some aspects of decision making in
situations involving the possibilities of conflict/or cooperation. Morgenstern
and Neumann developed the game theory using mathematical matrices. An
action and reaction by two states is seen as a game played by two players. A
game may be a zero sum game i.e., a game which is usually so played that the
gain of one party is equal to the loss of the other and the sum of what both get
from the game is zero. It deals with the processes in which the individual
decision unit has only partial control over the strategic factors affecting its
 environment. The decision unit may be individual, a firm, a government, or any
formal or informal institution.”In essence, the game theory has five important
factors. These are - conflict, rules of the game, national behavior, strategy and
pay off.
Decision-making approach: it is associated with the names of
R.S.Synder,H.W. Bruck and Borton Spain. These writers tried to provide a
theoretical explanation of the behavior of the actors in international relations.
On the basis of decision making analysis they tried to find out as to why and
how do the actors behave. It may be observed that “decision making is a
process or a sequence of activities involving stages of problem recognition,
search or information, definition of alternatives consistent with the ranked
preferences identified in the first three stages that will maximize or satisfy the
actors’ goals. The object of the decision-making approach is to devise a
conceptual framework that could help us in the reconstruction of the situation as
identified by the decision makers.
Synders proposed two fundamental purposes of decision making approach.
These are:
I. To help identify and isolate the “crucial structures” in the political
realm, where action is initiated and carried out, where decisions must be
made; and
II. To help analyze systematically the decision making behavior “which
leads to action and which sustains actions”?
Synder’s decision making approach involves the study of the following variables-
decision actions; decision makers as actors in a situation; the setting; decision-
situation; decision process.
Marxian View of International politics, says prof. Arun Bose, has four features.
These are-Proletarian Internationalism; anti imperialism; self-determination and
peaceful coexistence.
The above are the most commonly used methods of study of international relations.
In actual practice we find no author employing any single method of study. Rather
one uses a combination of two or more methods2.

2
B.S.Murthy, International Relations and Organizations, p.7
National Interest: Meaning
National Interest forms the basis on which foreign policy of each nation is
formulated. The conduct of its foreign relations by a nation is always governed by
the consideration of the national interest. Alfred T. Mahan has observed that,
“National interest is not only a legitimate, but a fundamental cause for national
policy; one which needs no cloak of hypocrisy.”
DEFINITIONS -
 Charles Lerche and Abdul Said “It is the general, long term and continuous
purpose which the state, the nation and the government all see themselves as
serving.”
 V.V. Dyke “It is that which state seeks to protect or achieve in relation to
each other. It means desires on the part of sovereign states.”
 Brookings Institution “It reflects the general and continuing ends for which
a nation acts.”

COMPONENTS OF NATIONAL INTEREST

Primary Interest
These are those interests which no nation can compromise like the preservation of
physical, political and cultural identity.
Secondary Interest
They are the less important interest which includes the protection of citizens
abroad and ensuring of diplomatic immunities.
Permanent Interest
These refer to the relatively constant long term interest of the nation like the
American interest to maintain hegemony over the world.
Variable Interest
They are considered vital for national good in a given set of circumstances which
are largely determined by the cross current of personalities, public opinion,
sectional interest, partisan politics, and political and moral folkways.
General Interest
Such interests of a nation refer to those positive conditions which apply to a large
number of nations like to maintain international peace which is a general interest of
all the nations.
Specific Interest
These are the logical outgrowth of general interests like to establish New
International Economic Order is a specific interest of the developing countries.
METHODS FOR THE PROMOTION OF NATIONAL INTEREST
A. Diplomacy
The art of diplomacy involves the presentation of the goals and objectives of
national interest in such a way as can persuade the others to accept these as just
and rightful demands of the nation. It is a recognized means of furthering
national interest.
B. Propaganda
It is the art of convincing others about the justness of the goals and objectives of
ends, which are desired to be secured. Its aim is always to secure the selfish
interests – which are governed exclusively by the national interest of the
propagandist. The revolutionary progress in the means of communication in the
recent years has increased the scope of propaganda as a means
C. Economic Aids and Loans
The rich and developed nations are using economic aid and loans as the means
for securing their interests in the international relations. The USA has always
used the grant of loans and aid as means for securing goals of its national
interest.
D. Alliances and Treaties
The alliances may be concluded for serving a particular specific interest of foe
securing a number of common interests. The alliances are either military or
economic in nature. The need for securing the security of capitalist democratic
states against the expanding communist menace led to the creation of military
alliances like NATO, SEATO, and CENTO etc.
E. Coercive Means
 Intervention, non-intercourse, embargoes, boycotts, reprisals, retortion,
retaliation, severance of relations and pacific blockades are the popular coercive
means which are used by a nation to force others to accept a particular course of
behavior or to refrain from a course which is considered harmful by the nation
using force. The extreme form of coercive method is war, whereby a state uses
its military power for securing the desired objectives from the other state.
Role of Ideology in International Politics
Ideology is used as a means for projecting one’s ideas and desires as just, moral,
legal and rightful and for criticizing and rejecting the demands and policies of
opponents. They are used by nations for promoting friendship and cooperation
with other like-minded states. Internally these are used for raising the morale of the
people. It is set of ideas that seek to explain some or all aspects of reality, lays
down value preferences in respect of both ends and means.
Definitions of ‘ideology’
 Padelford and Lincoln “a body of ideas concerning economic, social and
political values and goals which posits action programs for attaining these
goals.”
 Charles.P.Schleicher “it is a system of abstract ideas held by an individual or
group which purports to explain reality, express value goals and contains
programs of action for the retention or attainment of the kind of social order in
which its proponents believe the goals can best be realized.”
 Morganthau “ideologies are the cover to conceal the true nature of political
actions…it is the very nature of politics to compel the actor on the political
scene to use ideologies in order to disguise the immediate goals of his action”
A. ROLE OF GENERAL IDEOLOGY
1. THE IDEOLOGY OF LIBERALISM
This affirms full faith in the rights, liberties and individuality of the individual
as the supreme values and as such advocates policies and actions designed to
safeguard and promote these values. The state is expected to have as little
control over the individual as possible. It regards free competition, free trade,
and freedom of choice as the three cardinal principles of a free and happy
society and the keys to progress.
2. THE IDEOLOGY OF COMMUNISM
 Based upon Marxism-Leninism, it regards equality as a key value. It gives
primacy to the economic factors and regards it as the determinant all kinds of
behavior-social, political, cultural etc. it seeks to end the class divisions
between the rich and poor. It regards state as the instrument of exploitation in
the hands of the rich. Hence it stands for the stateless society, which can be
attained through a system of government full controlled by the workers.
However, in this era, communism came to incorporate a big dose of liberalism
resulting into its virtual conversion into Democratic- liberal –socialism.
B. ROLE OF PARTICULAR IDEOLOGIES
1. IDEOLOGY OF STATUS QUO
Nations seeking the preservation of the existing power status pursue the policy
of status quo like the policies followed by the countries of Denmark, Norway,
and Sweden.
2. IDEOLOGY OF IMPERIALISM
A policy that seeks to alter the existing status quo or a given power distribution
is regarded as imperialist policy. The policy of imperialism is always in need of
some justification for altering the existing territorial arrangement.
3. AMBIGUOUS IDEOLOGIES OR THE IDEOLOGIES OF ANTI-
IMPERIALISM
For securing their desired goals many nations use such particular ideologies as
are quite vague and ambiguous but which carry an appeal to the heart and head
and thus help them to secure their desired objectives in international relations.
The following are the three ambiguous ideologies:
A. THE IDEOLOGY OF NATIONAL SELF DETERMINATION
It was used by Woodrow Wilson for justifying the liberation of central and
East European nationalities from foreign domination and Hitler for justifying
his policy of territorial expansionism and recently witnessed the
disintegration of USSR, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
B. THE IDEOLOGY OF UNITED NATIONS
The principles and objectives of international relations as contained in the
Charter of the UN are used by almost all the countries for justifying their
 policies and actions. The five permanent members of the Security Council of
the UN quote the UN Charter for maintaining their superior status.
C. THE IDEOLOGY OF PEACE
It is used by a nation for criticizing the policies of other nations as anti-peace
policies. Even when a nation is engaged in a military action or is intervening
in the affairs of another state, it attempts to explain and justify its actions as
necessary for maintaining durable peace and stability in international
relations as was done by US in Gulf war.
To sum up we can say that ideology plays an important role in international
relations. They are the cl0aks used by the nations for hiding their real intentions.
Each foreign policy uses a number of ideologies as ideological weapon of defense
as well as offence. Even in this era of ideological unipolarism, ‘ideologies’
continue to color the decision-making in al the nation states.3

DIPLOMACY
MEANING
It is mainly through diplomacy that a nation communicates its wishes, desires,
objectives and goals to other nations and again it is through diplomatic
negotiations that it attempts to secure these objectives. In fact, establishment of
diplomatic relations forms the first major step towards the establishment of
relations between the two nations. Morganthau describes diplomacy as the best
means for promoting international peace in the best way – peace through
accommodation. It was at the Vienna conference on Diplomatic Intercourse and
Immunities (1961) that a comprehensive agreement covering nearly all aspects of
diplomatic activity was signed.
Sometimes, it is described as the art of telling lies on behalf of the nation and as
such an instrument for employing deceit and duplicity in international relations. A
diplomat has observed, “When a diplomat says yes, he means perhaps; when he
says perhaps, it means no; and when he says no, he is not a diplomat.” No doubt,
diplomacy always attempts to cloak the real goals of national interest with several
idealistic principles or morality or rule of international behavior, yet it cannot be

3
U.R. Ghai, International Politics, Pg.217
described as the art of deceit and concealment. In general, diplomacy can be
described as the art of negotiations and conduct of foreign relations or the means of
implementing foreign policy.
DEFINITIONS
 Padelford and Lincoln, “diplomacy is the process of representation and
negotiation by which states customarily deal with one another in times of
peace.”
 Sir Earnest Satow, “diplomacy is the application of intelligence and tact to
the conduct of official relations between governments of independent state.”
 The Oxford English Dictionary defines diplomacy as “the method by which
international relations are adjusted and managed.”
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DIPLOMACY
 Diplomacy is not immoral
 It is an instrument of conducting international relations
 It is machinery for action in international relations. Its use and value depends
upon the intentions and abilities of those who practice it.
 It works through organized networks and set procedures like foreign offices,
embassies, consulates and special missions all over the world.
 Diplomacy is both bilateral as well as multilateral in form.
 It handles all types of matters from the simplest matter of detail in the
relations between the two states to vital issues of war and peace.
 Breakdown of diplomacy always leads to crisis of war.
 Diplomacy operates both in times of peace and war.
 Diplomacy works in an environment in which conflict and cooperation both
are simultaneously present. It becomes irrelevant when there are all
agreements; likewise it becomes ineffective when there are all
disagreements.
 Diplomacy always works for securing the national interest of the nation it
represents.
 Diplomacy is compatible with international law. Sometimes it is held that
diplomacy seeks to uphold national interest and international law seeks to
secure international objectives of peace and security. But this is an erroneous
 view because diplomatic practices have been one of the richest sources of
international law.
 Diplomacy is backed by national power. Diplomacy uses persuasion and
influence as the means for exercising power in international relations just
like USA.
OBJECTIVES OF DIPLOMACY
THE POLITICAL OBJECTIVE
Diplomacy, as such, always works for increasing the influence of the state over
other states. It uses persuasion and promises of rewards and aids for this purpose.
Through rational negotiations, it seeks to justify the objectives of the foreign policy
as compatible and just objectives. It seeks to promote the goal of security by
working for the promotion of friendship and cooperation with other nations.
NON-POLITICAL OBJECTIVES
Diplomacy always seeks to promote the economic, commercial and cultural links
of one action with other nations. In this age of science, technology and
industrialization, economic diplomacy has come to be a vitally essential aspect of
diplomacy. The role of Oil Diplomacy and Dollar Diplomacy in contemporary
international relations illustrates the importance of economic diplomacy in
international relations. Diplomacy depends upon economic means for promoting
the interest of the nation and this is indeed an important non-political objective of
diplomacy4.
TYPES OF DIPLOMACY
OLD DIPLOMACY
The diplomacy practice which originated somewhere at the close of 16 th century
and continued up to 1919 has come to be popularly called the old diplomacy. In the
words of Harold Nicholson, “it was courteous and dignified and was supposed to
be best adapted to the conduct of relations between civilized states.”
FEATURES OF OLD DIPLOMACY
 It was primary confined to Europe. Hence it is called as European
diplomacy.
 Being confined to Europe, it was limited in scope.
4
Jordan, World Politics in Our Times,p.67
It was conducted by a professional class of diplomats and was
characterized by an air of aristocracy, nobility and class consciousness. It
was both formal and elitist in nature and approach.

 Special emphasis upon virtues like honesty, integrity, truthfulness,

politeness, fairness, strict conformity to protocol, secrecy and total
commitment to national interest.
 More secretive
 Freedom of action for ambassadors. The lack of speedy and continuous
means of communication made it essential for the state to give wide powers
to its ambassadors.
NEW DIPLOMACY
Diplomacy in the 20th century, more particularly diplomacy in the post-war period
is characterized by new techniques, new practices and new types of diplomats.
The emergence of multilateral negotiations as well as various other forms of
diplomacy coupled with the increase in the sphere of relations subject to
diplomatic negotiations-the addition of cultural and educational field to
international relations: have all given a new dimension to diplomacy and that is
why modern diplomacy has came to be known as new diplomacy.

FEATURES OF NEW DIPLOMACY

 It is global. The rise of Asia, Africa and Latin America, as reflected in the
emergence of large number of sovereign independent states, has changed the
character of post war international relations.
 New diplomacy is multilateral which we have seen in multilateral
negotiations in international conferences, institutionalized diplomacy at the
UN and the emergence of direct personal contact among the statesman.
 It is less formal and flexible.
 It is mostly open. Diplomatic negotiations are given full coverage over the
radio, press, television and other means of mass-media.
 Democratic nature of new diplomacy. At present, the increased influence of
public opinion, political parties, pressure groups, world public opinion, the
rise of a more democratic class of civil servants have all given a new
dimension to new diplomacy.
  It depends more on propaganda.
 The role of a diplomat has suffered a decline. It has reduced the role of
diplomats to glorified representatives who really act as highly dignified
messengers and actors with the responsibility of faithfully carrying out the
instructions of the foreign office.
OTHER FORMS OR STYLES OF DIPLOMACY
 DEMOCATIC DIPLOMACY – In this type of old form of diplomacy, the
diplomats have to take into account the factors of political ideology, public
opinion and policies of the party in power. They have to keep the people
informed of the nature and progress of negotiations and the people have the
right to express their opinion over the agreements reached. It works for the
promotion of the collective and general interest of all the people of the states
and it is ultimately accountable to the people of the state.
But at the same time the people may not accept the harmful consequences
that might crop up as a result of popular interferences in diplomatic
negotiations because the common man is not competent enough to
understand the complexities and intricacies of international relations. It also
makes the process of decision making and diplomatic negotiations slow and
less fruitful.
 TOTALITARIAN DIPLOMACY- the rise of several totalitarian regimes
in the 20th century led to the development of totalitarian diplomacy. These
states subordinated the individual the glorified war, conquest and
expansionism as the natural rights of the states. They used diplomacy for
exporting their views and for attempting an imposition of their selfish
interests upon others in the process; they paid scant attention to the norms,
procedures and protocols of old diplomacy. Its object is to create and
maintain bad and tense relations. It looks upon all gestures of friendship by
other nations as evidences of weaknesses.
 SHOPKEEPER DIPLOMACY – It is characterized by a spirit of
toleration, compromise, reconciliation, adjustment and devoid of all
sensational extremes. Like a shopkeeper who is never prepared to annoy his
customers, but who is always committed to earn his profit through the skill
of salesmanship, diplomats practicing shopkeeper diplomacy always act and
negotiate with all warmth and goodwill and in the spirit of give and take.
They depend upon reason, norms, conventions, traditions and rules of
 international intercourse for securing the desired national objective. For ex,
the British model of diplomacy.
 WARRIOR DIPLOMACY – It is characterized by emotions, arrogance,
high handedness and is not open to reason and tolerance. It pays scant
attention to the rules of behaviour and diplomatic protocols. It is aggressive
and expansionist in approach and style. It seeks to impose its interest upon
others through threats, intimidations, pressures, force and subversion.
 SECRET DIPLOMACY – The term is used to designate the diplomatic
practice of conducting secret negotiations and making secret pacts, alliances
and treaties. No attempt is made to take people into confidence and little
information about diplomatic activity is provided to the public. Secrecy is
considered vital. The underlying assumption is that people in general, have
neither the interest nor the ability to understand foreign affairs and that
involvement of general public in foreign affairs can lead to unwanted and
unhealthy pressures on the functioning of diplomacy.
 OPEN DIPLOMACY – In the age of democracy, it is argued that the
people have the right and duty to know and to participate in foreign policy
decision making. Being the sovereign people, they have the right to secure
accountability of all the personnel of governments including the diplomats.

 PARLIAMENTARY DIPLOMACY – In this style of diplomacy, nations

create permanent commissions or agencies for conducting negotiate
“ ions in respect of specified spheres, issues or problems. It has been
customary with nations to organize joint commissions, for conducting their
economic, trade, cultural and educational relations. A continuing
organization, regular public debate exposed to mass media, a set of rules
governing the procedures and formal conclusions expressed explicitly in the
form of resolutions passed by majority are the four essential features of
parliamentary diplomacy. It offers a useful institutionalized and democratic
way of conducting negotiations, effecting bargains and arriving at shared
decisions.
 CONFERENCE DIPLOMACY – Conference diplomacy provide
opportunity for direct multilateral diplomacy among nations and have in a
big way, supplemented the normal channels of diplomacy through foreign
office and diplomatic and consular missions. It is multilateral and open. It
leads to personal contact among world leaders; it successfully combines
 secrecy with openness, formality with informality and deliberations with
pleasure.
 PERSONAL DIPLOMACY – Palmer and Perkins have described Personal
diplomacy as Summit or Near-Summit Diplomacy because it involves direct
personal talks and negotiations among the top leaders of several
nations. It usually comes into operations when certain major political issues
or problems are to be discussed and resolved. Its emergence has been a
factor in the decline of the role of diplomats and has been responsible for
politicizing negotiations which previously used to be characterized by
professional bargaining by diplomats.
FUTURE OF DIPLOMACY
Since the end of the second world war, diplomacy has suffered a substantial
decline because of the following factors highlighted by Morganthau :
 Speedy communications
 The depreciation of diplomacy: The feeling that diplomacy is a source of
secret underhand, double dealing and undesirable power politics has been
the factor responsible for its decline.
 Advent of new diplomacy: The new diplomacy offers a middle way of
combining secrecy with openness, formality with informality, deliberations
with leisure and business with increased personal contact and hence has
made traditional diplomacy less popular.
 The changed nature of contemporary international system which include the
end of cold war, the emergence of a single superpower, nuclear weapons, the
concept of total war, the UN, the rise of new states etc. have seriously
affected the role of diplomacy in international relations.5
However, it does not mean the diplomacy stands rejected as an instrument of
national interest. So long as the need to eliminate or at least reduce the chances of
war remains the dependence on diplomacy as a means for the conduct of relations
is bound to be felt by all the nations as a normal and a natural necessity.
Morganthau believes that diplomacy can become effective by observing nine rules:
 It must be divested of the crusading spirit.
 The objectives of foreign policy must be defined in terms of national interest
and must be supported with adequate power.
5
Palmer and Perkins, International Relations
  It must look at political scene from the point of view of other nations.
 Nations must be willing to compromise on all issues that are not vital to them
 Give up the shadow of worthless rights for the substance of real advance.
 Never put yourself in a position from which you cannot retreat and from
which you cannot advance without grave risks.
 Never follow a weak ally (even a strong one) to make decisions for you.
 The armed forces are the instruments of foreign policy, not its masters.
 The government is the leader of the public opinion and not its slave.

BALANCE OF POWER (BOP): Meaning

It has been traditionally the most powerful device of power management. In
Kautilya’s Arthashastra, we find a full fledged development of the concept of
balance of power.
DEFINITIONS
 Sidney B.Fay, “ it is such a ‘just equilibrium’ in power among the family of
nations as will prevent any one of them from becoming sufficiently strong to
enforce its will upon the others.”
 George Schwarzenberger, “it is‘equilibrium’ or ‘a certain amount of stability
in power relations’ that under favorable conditions is produced by an
alliance of states or by other devices. Balance of Power is of universal
application wherever a number of sovereign and armed states co-exist.”
 Hans J.Morganthau, “it refers to an actual state of affairs in which power is
distributed among nations with approximate equality.”

NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS
 It signifies some sort of equilibrium in power relations which is subject to
constant ceaseless change.
 It is temporary and unstable
 It is to be achieved by the active intervention of men.
 Favors status quo
  A real balance of power seldom exists. It comes to an end when war breaks
out.
 The objective view of historians holds balance of power as a situation in
which the opposing nations or groups of nations are almost equal in power.
The subjective view of a statesman holds BOP as a situation involving
freedom to join one side other according to its own interests.
 It is not a device of peace but admits war as the means for securing balance.
 In it, the big powers are the actors and the small powers are either the
spectators or the victims of the game.
 Multiplicity of states and not eliminating anyone in a war are the two
fundamental features of the BoP.
 National interest is its basis.
 Security and peace are the main purposes of the BoP.
METHODS OF BALANCE OF POWER
 COMPENSATION – it usually entails the annexation or division of the
territory of the state whose power is considered dangerous for the balance.
 ALLIANCES – it is a device by which a combination of nations creates a
favorable BoP by concluding military or security pacts or treaties aimed at
augmenting their own strength vis-à-vis the power of their opponents. An
offensive alliance seeks to upset the balance in favor of its embers whereas;
the defensive alliance seeks to maintain balance which is in favor of its
members.
 INTERVENTION AND NON-INTERVENTION – intervention is a
dictatorial interference into the internal affairs of states with a view to
change or maintain a particular desired situation. Non-intervention involves
deliberate non-action in a particular situation which is considered to be
harmful to the other competing opponents.
 DIVIDE AND RULE – it has been resorted to by all such nations who try
to make or keep their competitors weak by keeping them divided or by
dividing them.
 BUFFER STATES OR ZONES – the major function of a buffer is to keep
the two powerful nations apart and thus minimize the chances of clash and
hence to help the maintenance of balance.
  ARMAMENTS AND DISARMAMENTS – armaments are used as the
means for maintaining or securing the favorable position in power relations
in the world. Now-a-days, disarmaments and arms control are regarded as
ideal devices for maintaining world peace and security.
 THE BALANCER – the balancer is a nation or group of nations which
remains aloof from the policies of the two rivals and the opponents and plays
the role of ‘the laughing third party’. Each contending party tries to win over
the support of the balancer. If any party to the balance becomes unduly weak
resulting into a threat to the balance, the balancer joins it and helps the
restoration of balance.
MERITS OF BALANCE OF POWER
 It is a source of stability in international relations
 It helps continuous adjustments and readjustments in relations without any
grave risk of war among nations.
 It ensures multiplicity of states.
 It guarantees the freedom of small states.
 It discourages war.
 It checks imperialism
 It is a source of peace in international relations
DEMERITS OF BALANCE OF POWER
 BOP cannot ensure peace. In fact several wars were fought in the name of
preservation of BOP.
 Preponderance of one power can also secure peace.
 It has a narrow basis. It fails to give proper weight age to other socio-
economic, cultural and moral factors.
 Equality of number of states is a myth
 Nations are not free to break alliances at their will.
 It is uncertain6.
RELEVANCE OF BALANCE OF POWER

6
Bull, The Anarchical Society, p.58
The following structural changes in the international relations have adversely
affected the role of BOP –
 End of European domination of international politics
 The rise of propaganda, psychological and political warfare as instruments
of national policy
 Emergence of ideology as a key factor in post war international relations
 Reduction in the number of major powers.
 The emergence of bipolarity and its recent transformation into unipolarity
 The disappearance of imperialism and colonialism
 Disappearance of the ‘balancer’
 The change in the concept of war like ‘total war’.
 Emergence of global actors’ like UN.
Many of its critics like Earnest Haas7, Arjun Appadorai and others go to the extent
of describing it as a totally obsolete concept. But the concept of BOP despite
having lost much of its validity is still a meaningful concept. Palmer and Perkins
make an optimistic prediction about the continuance of BOP. To quote them, “as
long as the nation states system is the prevailing pattern of international society,
BOP policies will be followed in practice, however roundly they are damned in
theory.”
COLLECTIVE SECURITY: Meaning
It postulates a commitment on the part of all the nations to collectively meet an
aggression that may be committed by any state against another. War and
aggression is viewed as a breach of international peace a security and hence, it
calls for collective action by all the nations in defense of peace. Its purpose was
stated to be: “to prevent the outbreak of war, or failing that, to protect the intended
victim.” Morgenthau has observed the principle of “one for all and all for one” is
the watch word of collective security
DEFINITIONS
 George Schwarzenberger, “it is machinery for joint action in order to prevent or
counter any attack against an established international order.”
7
Haas and Whiting, Dynamics of International Relations
 Palmer and Perkins, “it clearly implies collective measures for dealing with
threats to peace.”
 Schliecher, “in essence, it is an arrangement among states in which all promise,
in the event any member of the system engages in certain prohibited acts
against another member, to come to latter’s assistance.”
NATURE/FEATURES OF COLLECTIVE SECURITY
 A devise of power management
 It accepts universality of aggressions
 All nations are committed to pool their power and eliminate aggression
 It involves the concept of an ad hoc global preponderance of power. It rules
out the policy of isolationism
 It postulates the presence of international organization.
 Collective security is a mid way between the concepts of balance of power
and world government.
 It acts as a deterrent
 Aggression/war is the enemy and not the nation state which commits it. The
action is limited to the elimination of war. It does not stand for the
elimination of the state which commits it.
Collective Security System and its Functioning
 The Collective Security Under the League of Nations
In the Manchurian crisis of 1931-1932 the League branded Japan as the aggressor
but the decision proved counter productive in so far as it led to the withdrawal of
Japan from the League.
In 1935-1936, another bold attempt was made to operationalise collective security
system in the Ethiopian crisis by branding Italy as aggressor. But the members of
league did not apply sanctions automatically, simultaneously and comprehensively
but haltingly, gradually and piecemeal which defeats the very purpose of the
sanctions.
The Nazi conquest of Austria followed by the obliteration of Czechoslovakia and
finally the invasion of Poland that led to the outbreak of war and hence to end to
the collective security system and the league.
The failure of the USA to join, the rise of the Soviet Union outside the League, the
reluctance of Britain to assume international obligation, the French quest for her
own security and the open defiance of the system by Japan, Italy and Germany, all
these combined to wreck the collective security under the League.
Methodically, the collective security system, as laid down by the League was
defined in Article 10, 11, and 16 of the Covenant.
Article 10 – to respect and preserve territorial integrity of all the members of the
League.
Article 11(1) – any war or threat of war is hereby declared a matter of concern of
the whole League and the League shall take any action that may be deemed wise
an effectual to safeguard the peace of the nations.
Article 11(2) – it is also declared to be the friendly right of each member of the
League to bring to the attention of the Assembly or of the Council circumstanced
affecting international peace.
Article 12, 13, and 15 of the Covenant listed the peaceful means which the
members could use for the settlement of their disputes.
Article 16 – it is the bedrock of the collective security system of the league.
Article 16(1) - should any member of the League resort to war, it shall be deemed
to have committed an act of war against the league which undertakes immediately
to subject it to the severance of trade and financial relation.
Article 16(2) – it shall be the duty of the council to recommend to the several
governments concerned what effective military, naval or air force shall be
necessary and the members of the League shall severally contribute to the armed
forces.
Article 16(3) – the members of the League agreed further that they will mutually
support one another in the financial and economic measures taken against the
aggressor and in resisting any special measures aimed at one of their members by
the covenant breaking state and to afford passage through their territory to the
league forces.
Article 16(4) – any member of the league which has violated the covenant may be
declared to be no longer a member of the league.
Article 17 – tried to cover the non-members also.
 Collective Security under the United Nations Organisations (UNO)
The charter of the UNO laid down elaborate architecture of protection to give
nprimacy to the task of maintaining international peace and security as the most
major objective of international relations. The collective security has been laid
down in chapter 7 of the UN charter. It contains 13 articles from Article 39-51,
which together provide for detailed measures in respect of the collective action
which the Security Council can initiate and which all the members are duty bound
to uphold and undertake.
Article 39 – makes it the responsibility of the Security Council to determine the
existence of any threat to the peace
Article 40, 41 and 42 specify the nature of measures that Security Council is called
upon to undertake. Article 40 lays down Security Council can take provisional
measures. Article 41 refers to the enforcement action which includes complete or
partial interruption of economic relations and of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic,
radio and other means of communication and severance of diplomatic relations.
Article 42 empowers the Security Council to take military action.
Article 43 – makes it the responsibility of all the members of the UN to contribute
their efforts, support, resources and forces.
The next four articles of the UN charter (44-47) lay down the procedure for raising,
maintaining and using the UN peace keeping force.
Article 48 – the action required to carry out the decision of the Security Council
shall be taken by all the members of the UN or by some of them as the Security
Council may determine.
Article 49 – the members of the UN shall join in affording mutual assistance in
carrying out measures decided upon by the Security Council.
Article 50 – relates to the possible ways in which non-member states or members
can adjust their policies and actions towards the decision that may be taken up by
the Security Council under article 41 and 42.
Article 51 – accepts the right of the states to individual and collective self-defense.
WORKING OF THE COLLECTIVE SECURITY SYSTEM UNDER THE
UN
Since 1945, the collective security system has been tried in a number of cases but
due to several reasons its working has not been satisfactory.
 Korean crisis (1950)
 Suez crisis (1956)
 Iraqi aggression by USA on account of Iraqi’s occupation of Kuwait (1991)
CRITICAL EVALUATION OF COLLECTIVE SECURITY SYSTEM
 It is idealistic in nature and scope
 At times it is not possible to identify the aggressor
 It admits war
 Rules out ‘neutrality’ in times of war
 A limited concept
 Absence of a permanent international peace keeping force
 Lack of provisions for the termination of collective security system
 Unhelpful environment of the cold war era
 Dependence of the system on powerful states
The weakness of the UN further made its operation difficult. The nuclear age
further rendered its application very difficult. Morganthau holds that collective
security is not only unworkable but also an unwise and dangerous principle which
can lead to extension of a local war into a world war8.

8
Morganthau, Politics Among Nations, p.30
 UNIT II

UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATIONS AND ITS ORGANS

INTRODUCTION
The United Nations officially came into existence on the 24 th October, 1945, when
the charter had been ratified by China, France, USA, USSR and Great Britain. The
24th Oct. each year is now universally celebrated as the UN Day.
Prelude to the formation of UNO
 Atlantic Charter of 1941 – where President Roosevelt and Churchill made
some efforts and discussed a future possibility of forming international
organization.
 United Nations Declarations of January, 1942 – the members of the
declaration agreed to a common programme for purposes and principles
given in the Atlantic Charter.
 The Casablanca Conference of January 1943 – the conference agreed on a
formula of unconditional surrender over terms of peace.
 The Food and Agriculture Conference, 1943 – the conference studied the
problem of feeding millions of displaced persons which led to the formation
of Food and Agriculture Organization in late 1945.
 The Moscow Conference, October 30, 1943 – USSR, US, China and Great
Britain declared that they wanted at the earliest a general international
organization based on sovereign equality of all peace loving nations.
 Teheran Conference, 1943 – it was decided that there should be an end of
tyranny, slavery, oppression and intolerance. It was said that members
welcome the other states into the family of democratic nations.
 Bretton woods Conference, July, 1944 – this conference tried to establish
some international financial agencies to improve international economic
relations. An agreement was reached by which IBRD (World Bank) and
IMF was established.
 Dumbarton Oaks Proposal, August-October 1944 – the main outline of the
proposed international organization was chalked out and got published.
 Yalta Conference, 1945 – the question of the voting procedure in the
Security Council, the matter regarding the occupation and control of
 Germany, the ‘veto’ formula embodied in the UN Charter etc. were finalized
at the Yalta conference. It was also provided that a full scale UN conference
should be called at San Francisco on April 25, 1945.
 The San Francisco Conference, 25 April-26 June, 1945 – it marked the
culmination point in the emergence of the UN. 51 states signed the UN
Charter. It was also decided ultimately that the five big powers should be
given permanent seats in the Security Council and the veto power should be
given to them.
 Signing of the Charter – the charter containing 10,000 words in 111 Articles
divided in 19 chapters was finally prepared in 5 official languages – French,
Russian, Spanish, English and Chinese.

OBJECTIVES OF THE UN
 To save the succeeding generations from the scourge of war.
 To maintain faith in fundamental human rights.
 Justice and respect for the obligations arising from the treaties.
 To promote social progress and better standard of life.
PURPOSES OF THE UN
 To maintain international peace and security.
 To achieve international cooperation in solving international problems.
 To develop friendly relations among national.
 To be a center for harmonizing the actions to achieve the above ends.
PRINCIPLES OF UN
 Sovereign equality of all its members.
 To fulfill in good faith the obligations in accordance with the Charter.
 To ensure that the non-members will act in accordance of the principles of
the UN.
 To refrain its members from the threat or use of force against territorial
integrity of other nations.
 To give assistance to UN in any action it takes.
  Non-interference in the internal affairs of other states9.
The total membership of the UN at present is 199 nations.
Major Organs of the United Nations Organizations
 GENERAL ASSEMBLY
It is the most popular and the largest body of the UN. It acts as the Legislature of
the UN. All the members of the UN are the members of the General Assembly.
The Chapter IV of the Charter provides that each member shall have not more than
5 representatives in the General Assembly. Every state has only one vote in it. It
provides for the forum for raising matters of grievances and injustice.
OFFICIALS OF GENERAL ASSEMBLY
General Assembly elects its own President for one year by secret ballot. There are
17 Vice Presidents representing different regions and areas.
SESSIONS OF GENERAL ASSEMBLY
It meets in regular session annually on third Tuesday of September. But its special
session can be called by Secretary General at the request of the Security Council.
Emergency Sessions can be called.
DECISIONS OF THE GENRAL ASSEMBLY
It takes all decisions by voting. Two-third majority of the present and voting
members can take the important decisions.
POWER AND FUNCTIONS
 Deliberative Functions – This implies that it can discuss any question or
matter within the scope of the Charter.
 Supervisory Function – it receives and considers reports and special reports
from the Security Council. It supervises the work of Trusteeship council.
The Economic and Social Council has to take the approval of General
Assembly for calling international conferences. It also makes rules for the
appointments of the staff of the secretariat. It coordinates the policies and
activities of the specialized agencies like WHO, ILO, FAO, IMF etc.

9
Goodrich and Hambro, Charter of the United Nations, p.20
  Financial Function – Article 17 provides that it has the power to consider
and approve the budget of the UN. It can review the work of the organs of
the UN when their expenditure estimates are presented.
 Electoral Functions – it admits the new states on the recommendation of the
Security Council. It elects non-permanent members of the Security Council,
18 members of ECOSOC, and judges of the International Court of Justice
(ICJ). It also appoints the Secretary General of UN on the recommendation
of the Security Council.
 Constituent Function – Amendment to the UN Charter may be valid only
when it has been adopted by a vote of two third members of the Assembly.
The Assembly can call general conference for the review of the Charter.
POSITION OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
The resolution of 1950 lay down that if the Security Council fails to exercise its
primary duty for the maintenance of international peace and security, the General
Assembly shall consider the matter with a view to making appropriate
recommendations to members for collective measures. This is called ‘Uniting for
Peace Resolution’. But this resolution strengthened the position of General
Assembly in theory only. In actual practice, it has failed in its role as the custodian
of collective security of the UN.
 SECURITY COUNCIL
IF General Assembly is the deliberative organ, the Security Council is the
enforcement organ of the UN. From 1 st January, 1966, the membership of the
Security Council has increased to 15 members, 5 permanent (USA, Soviet Union,
Great Britain, France and China) and 10 non-permanent elected for two years. The
non-permanent members are not eligible for immediate re-election.
PRESIDING OFFICER
There is one president of the Security Council, every member’s holds presidency in
alphabetical order for one month.
VOTING PROCEDURE
Each member has one vote. The decisions are divided into two parts: (a) decisions
on procedural matters which shall be taken by an affirmative vote of 9 members.
(b) Decision on substantial matters which must require the affirmative vote of 5
permanent members.
SESSION
The Security Council is always in session.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS

 Deliberative Powers – It can discuss, investigate and make recommendation
on matters of international peace and security. It can call upon the members
of the UN to settle their disputes peacefully. It also determines the existence
of any threat to international peace and security. It can formulate plans to
regulate armaments. It supervises the working of UN Atomic Energy
Commission.
 Enforcement Functions – it decides what measures either military or
otherwise should be taken to maintain international peace and security.
 Electoral Functions – it recommends the admission of new states to the UN.
It participates in the appointment of the Secretary General. It can
recommend to the General Assembly for suspending any member of UN for
persistently violating the Charter. It also participates in the election of the
judges of the ICJ.
 Peaceful settlement of disputes between nations
POSITION OF SECURITY COUNCIL
Following factors have been responsible for reducing the importance of the
Security Council and making it less effective:
 Veto power
 Uniting for Peace Resolution
 Regional Security Alliances
In spite of various drawbacks, it still is a powerful institution enjoying the faith of
world community and responsible for maintaining world peace.
 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE (ICJ)
On April 18, 1946, International Court of Justice was established under Article 92
of the UN Charter. The members of the UN are under obligation to comply with
the decisions of the ICJ in cases to which they are parties.
COMPOSITION
All members of the UN are de facto members of the court. There would be the 16
judges of the ICJ. They would be elected regardless of their nationality from
among the persons of high moral character who possess the qualifications required
in their respective countries for the appointment to the highest judicial offices. Sri
Nagendra Singh of India has been appointed as judge of ICJ.
ELECTION OF JUDGES
At least three months before the date of election, the Secretary General of the UN
addresses a written request to the members of the court belonging to the states
asking them to nominate persons in a position to accept the duties of a member of
the court. After nomination, the Secretary General prepares the list of the
nominated persons in the alphabetical order. The General Assemble and Security
Council then proceed independently of one another to elect the required candidates
to become the members of the court. The candidate who secured the absolute
majority of votes in both the organs are considered elected.
TENURE OF JUDGES
The judges of the ICJ are elected for the period of 9 years and five judges retire
after every 3 years. They are eligible for reelection.
SEAT OF THE COURT
It has a permanent seat at Hague and it remains permanently in session.
PRESIDING OFFICERS
The court elects its president and Vice President for 3 years. Both of them are
eligible for re-election. The salaries, allowances and compensation are fixed by the
General Assembly and they cannot be decreased during their term of office.
METHODS OF TAKING DECISIONS
The court takes all decisions by majority of the judges present. In case of tie,
President of the court has casting vote. The decisions taken by the court are
binding only on the parties to disputes. Regarding the enforcement of the
decisions, if any state does not obey the decision of the court then the Security
Council can take enforcement action.
POWERS AND JURISDICTION OF THE ICJ
The court has to hear and decide disputes arising between the states.
  Voluntary Jurisdiction – it has voluntary jurisdiction over the cases of the
states. It means that its cases comprise of such disputes which parties refer to
it by agreement.
 Compulsory Jurisdiction – in following matters –
(a) the interpretation of treaty
(b) any question of international law
(c) the existence of any fact which is established, would constitute a branch
of an international obligation
(d) The nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach of an
international obligation.
 Advisory Jurisdiction – it gives advisory opinion on legal question to the
General Assembly, Security Council and other specialized agencies
authorized by the General Assembly. The advice of ICJ is taken by a written
request. Its advice is not binding on the agency soliciting it.
POSITION OF THE ICJ
This court has definitely done more work than its predecessors in deciding several
cases successfully like cases relating to the French nuclear tests in 1973, Anglo-
Norwegian Fisheries case, Indo-Portuguese Disputes etc. but the defective method
of election of judges and lack of compulsory jurisdiction makes its functioning
weak. The only way out is to depoliticize the election of judges, increase the
number of the judges, modifying the procedure of the court and avoid politics in
the international judicial process.
 TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL
Article 7 of the UN Charter includes the Trusteeship Council as an auxiliary organ
of the General Assembly in supervising the administration of the non-strategic trust
territories and to the Security Council in case of strategic areas.
COMPOSITION
It gives representation to all states administering trust territories. It was felt that an
equal number of members should be taken from the non-administering states to
maintain a proper balance. Provision had to be made for all the great powers.
DECISION AND VOTING PROCESS
Its decisions shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting. Each
member shall have one vote.
SESSION
This council holds two meetings in a year, one in January and other one in June. Its
special session can be called any time on the request of majority of members.
PRESIDING OFFICER
The council elects a President and a Vice-President by secret ballot from amongst
its own members.
POWERS AND FUNCTIONS
 Examination of reports – each administering authority has to submit its
annual report for each of its territory. These reports contain the brief survey
of political, economic and educational achievement in that territory.
 Examination of petitions – it can examine petitions from individuals and
organizations in the trust territories. They generally relate to human rights,
social discrimination, poor education, property claims etc.
 Visit to trust territories – the council arranged a visit to trust territories to
acquire first hand information about their conditions and problems.
POSITION OF TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL
It has brought about a lot of development in various spheres and devoted most of
its attention to the political advancement of the trust territories. In the words of
Goodspeed, “it cannot claim exclusive credit for the demise of colonial system, it
nevertheless has played an outstanding role in this accomplishment and has been
and still is the central focus and primary mechanism for anti-colonial movement.”
 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL (ECOSOC)
Its aim is to look after the social and economic welfare of the states because
international peace and security cannot be achieved without uniform social and
economic progress of the world.
COMPOSITION
According to Article 61 of the UN charter, the membership of the ECOSOC is 54
nations. Its members are elected by the General Assembly for the period of three
years. The retired members are eligible for reelection. Each member of the council
shall have one vote and one representative. Several provisions are also made to
provide wide representation to all the regions of the world.
MEETINGS
The ECOSOC holds two meetings in a year, one in April and second in July.
Sometimes special meetings can also be called.
VOTING PROCEDURE
Decisions are taken by a majority of the members present and voting and each state
shall have one vote. Its decisions have non-obligatory character.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS

 The ECOSOC (under Art.62) may make or initiate studies and reports with
respect to international economic, social, cultural, educational and health
matters and can make recommendations to General Assembly regarding
human rights and fundamental freedoms to all people.
 The council (Article 63) can enter into agreements with any of the
specialized agencies subject to the approval of the General Assembly can
also coordinate their activities.
 The council (Article 64) may obtain regular reports from the specialized
agencies.
 The ECOSOC (Article 65) may give information to the Security Council on
economic and social matters and assist the Security Council upon its
request.
 The General Assembly can assign any other function to ECOSOC as
prescribed in the Charter.
POSITION OF THE ECOSOC
Though the ECOSOC has been criticized for an apparent lack of concrete
achievement and for delays in considering important problems and for a lot of
politics yet it cannot be denied that the council has definitely popularized the
human rights and fundamental freedoms among the backward people. It has also
achieved success in improving the international economic order. It has also worked
extensively for the welfare of the workers and the laborers.
  THE SECRETARIAT AND THE SECRETARY GENERAL
The secretariat is one of the chief organs of the UN. It is the headquarters of the
UN which administers and coordinates the policies and programs. Secretary
General is the Chief Administrative Officer of the UN. Being the in charge of the
secretariat, his main function is to keep the record of the UN and to act in cases in
which the Charter expressly confers function upon the UN. He appointed the entire
staff of the UN. Due consideration is also given to wide geographical basis in
recruitment. Mr. Trygve Lie from Norway was the first Secretary General of the
UN. The current incumbent to this post is Mr. Ban Ki Moon from South Korea.
APPOINTMENT OF THE SECRETARY GENERAL
He is appointed by General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security
Council.
TERM
The Secretary General has come to assume a term of five years which can be
renewed or extended.
QUALIFICATIONS
 He should be acceptable to both General Assembly and Security Council
 A good statesman.
 Prepared to take risk.
 A good administrator
 A trusted consultant of all sides.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS

Administrative Powers
 Responsible for organizing and directing the activities of the UN
 Ensures the effective working of organs and committees of UN
 Controls the secretariat
 Helps in drafting the documents, resolutions and reports
 Takes action on the resolution passed by the General Assembly
  Gives technical and legal advice
 Brings the specialized agencies into the relationship with the UN
 May submit proposals regarding special conferences.
Financial Functions
 Prepares the budget of the UN
 Allocates funds and controls the expenditure
 Makes collection of the contributions from the UN members
 Controls specialized agencies for common financial problems and practices
 Retains a special authority to enter in commitments not provided for in the
budget.
Political Functions
 He may bring to attention of Security Council any matter which, in his
opinion, may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security.
 He has the power to exercise discretion and influence in the formulation of
policy.
 He can give his opinion on matters already under consideration of Security
Council.
 He highlights the achievements of the UN and also submits annual report on
the work of the UN.
 He pays visit to various countries to settle any dispute which may arise
between them.
Representation Functions
 He acts as agent or representative of the UN.
 He represents the UN if negotiations are conducted with any other
specialized agency.
 Agreements are concluded by the Secretary General at the request of one of
the UN organs.
 He represents the interest of the UN before International Court of Justice on
several occasions.
Registration Functions
  Secretary General registers every treaty and every international agreement
entered into by any members of the UN.
POSITION OF THE SECRETARY GENERAL
Thus it revealed that besides all those powers granted to the Secretary General, the
status and prestige of this office is enforced by Secretary’s General’s by using
extra extensive powers which they have assumed. It can be said that the expanding
role of this office has been one of the most important developments in the history
of the international organizations. Recently, we are witnessing the increasingly
growing influence of USA over the office of the Secretary General. This
development might render the office of the UN Secretary General weak.
CONCLUSION
Today the UN is 61 years old. In the present scenario, there is a need for
reformation and modernization of the UN for firmly dealing with terrorism and
other transnational organized crimes including drug trafficking and for ensuring a
nuclear weapon-free world. It also gave a call for removing economic and trade
imbalances and for preventing the growing economic bankruptcy and ecological
degradation. The need for securing adequate presence of developing countries on
the basis of objective criteria was emphasized by India and several other countries.

THE CONCEPT OF WORLD COMMUNITY AND WORLD

GOVERNMENT
WORLD COMMUNITY
According to a section of sociologists, a community results when people live
together and develop a condition of interdependence. Governments and non-
officials around the world are aware of the interdependence 10. They are also aware
of the dangers arising from wars, a general economic depression, ecological
disasters and diseases that spread from continent to continent. However, decision
to meet global problems cannot be taken collectively except to a very small extent.
On most of the problems affecting people all over the world, decisions have to be
taken by governments, independently of each other. When governments made
decisions the factor that weighs most with them is national interest.

10
Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Community
The tendency on the part of governments of states to give their respective national
interests priority over the competing national interests of other states, in a context
in which each has to take decisions to protect its interests, and cannot look to
others for protection, supplies the rationale for the realist approach to the study of
international relations. It makes some deny the existence of a world community.
On the other hand, governments are often willing to take measures which are of the
same kind to safeguard the common interests of all states. To give some non-
controversial examples, all states were equally interested some time back in
eradicating the disease of small pox and all governments cooperated with the world
Health Organization in eradicating it. For centuries states operated in making the
sea safe for navigation by all taking strong action against pirates. To the extent that
the common interests of all people inhabiting the globe receive recognition and
protection by common, collective or parallel, action of governments, the existence
of a world community cannot be denied. The expression, “world community,”
gives us a picture of the mankind as a whole and conveys more prominently the
common interests of all states rather than their individuals, separate interests.
It is conceded by all that international community has its own law, and state
sovereignty is sovereignty under and not above the law of the international
community. State sovereignty is subject to legal limitations and limitations arising
from the facts of life in the international community. Legal limitations indeed
follow from the facts of life. There cannot be any community life without some
law.
In the international community there are around 199 states, and they are the most
important groups in the community. They are sovereign, independent of each other
and equal, in legal theory. They are unequal in fact, just as the richest individual
and the poorest, and the most powerful politician and an ordinary citizen, are
unequal in fact. The order of importance among the different members of the
international community is: states, international governmental organizations,
international non-governmental organizations, and individuals. This is so in law as
well as in fact.
The international community has no organization which can be called in any sense
“government”. There is no legislature, and the law in the international community
is derived from the agreements or treaties which are entered into by the states, by
the practices or customs arising from the conduct of states, and the general
principles of law followed within states.
The international community has no body comparable to the state’s executive.
There is no policeman. States are the most important entities called upon to
observe the law; and they are left themselves to find out violations of the law and
take measures.
The international community has no judiciary comparable to the state’s judiciary.
The International Court of Justice has jurisdiction which can arise only from the
consent given by the parties to the dispute. Arbitration and judicial settlement of
disputes are exceptional in the international community. The most common
method of settlement is negotiation. Sometimes, mediation and conciliation are
also employed. No states can be compelled to accept any particular method of
settlement of a dispute which it has with another.
Thus we see the international community standing in the marked contrast with the
state. It is however, misleading to compare the international community with a
primitive community. Culturally, technologically, communication-wise and
economically, the international community is far more advanced than any primitive
community.
In the international community, at the beginning of this century, it was not possible
to make any meaningful distinction between lawful uses of violence ad unlawful
use, as states regarded themselves to be free to declare war on others at their
choice. Gradually, the Covenant of League of Nations and later the United Nations
Charter established the distinction between lawful use of force and unlawful use,
though the distinction is not quite precise.
The absence of a governmental machinery and effective means to control violence
notwithstanding, the international community is far from a community of conflict
and violence. There is much collaborative activity among the actors, principle
states, and many conflicts that arise are resolved peaceful. Governments take
decisions with full awareness that each state’s sovereignty must co-exist with the
sovereignty of other states. If there is recourse to violence it is with the hope that
the violent conflict is temporary and will achieve the intended purpose, even if it
be only partial.
On a close observation we find in the interactions among the members of the world
community the participants engage themselves in two most significant processes –
the social process and the regulatory process. A process may be understood as a
sequence of events which usually happen to produce a consequence, or are
required to happen to produce such consequence. There is a process, for example,
for two states to enter into an agreement. The interactions in the social process may
give rise to some loss of values to a participant or a threat of loss. The participant
may than claim before an appropriate authority that the causing of such loss must
be regarded as impermissible and illegal. The authority to which such a claim is
presented may accept the claim and prescribe a regulation prohibiting certain
actions; it may reject the claim and take no action; or it may take some other
action. The decision which the authority takes is a part of the regulatory process.
The peculiarity of the world community is that the two processes taking place
within the community, social and regulatory, get intermixed, ad the participants in
the two processes are usually the same. This peculiar feature results from the
absence of a centralized authority in the community.
WORLD GOVERNMENT
World government’ refers to the idea of all humankind united under one common
political authority. Arguably, it has not existed so far in human history, yet
proposals for a unified global political authority have existed since ancient times—
in the ambition of kings, popes and emperors, and the dreams of poets and
philosophers. The suggestion that a more integrated world order than the present
inter-state or international order should be promoted has comes at least from the
18th century. Of course, the world which was perceived in that project was only
Europe, and the plan went no further than providing something resembling the
League of Nations. There was no question of surrender of any part of state
sovereignty. In the 19th century, Krause prophesied the emergence of a world
federation.
There are many arguments that may be advanced in favor of a world government.
No nation lives now under conditions of security from violence. Nations spend a
good portion of their resources on armaments, withdrawing them from programs of
welfare. Poor nations also spend as much proportion of their GNP on defense as
rich nations. When poor states cannot satisfy the demands for welfare from people
and unrest results, the state may have to resort to repressive measures to the
detriment of human rights.
In recent years, the world bio-sphere also has attracted attention. Industrialization
has the side effect of causing discharges of wastes, in the form of gas, particles and
dirty fluids, which contaminate the world environment. Over a period of time, it is
feared, severe, irreversible damage will occur to the world ecological system, and
changes in climate, flooding of coastal areas due to the melting of polar ice caps
etc. will follow. It is argued persuasively by some that environmental problems can
be dealt with only on a global basis as pollution processes do not stop at state
boundaries. The present inter-state is not; it is pointed out, capable enough to deal
with these global environmental problems
Proponents of world government offer distinct reasons for why it is an ideal of
political organization. Some are motivated negatively and see world government
as the definitive solution to old and new human problems such as war and the
development of weapons of mass destruction, global poverty and inequality, and
environmental degradation. More positively, some have advocated world
government as a proper reflection of the unity of the cosmos, under reason or God.
Proponents have also differed historically in their views of the form that a world
government should take. While medieval thinkers advocated world government
under a single monarch or emperor who would possess supreme authority over all
other lesser rulers, modern proponents generally do not advocate a wholesale
dismantling of the sovereign states system but incremental innovations in global
institutional design to move humanity toward world federalism or cosmopolitan
democracy.
Critics of world government have offered three main kinds of objections—to do
with the feasibility, desirability and necessity of establishing a common global
political authority.
First, a realist argument, advanced by contemporary international ‘realist’
theorists, holds that world government is infeasible; ideas of world government
constitute exercises in utopian thinking, and are utterly impractical as a goal for
human political organization. Assuming that world government would lead to
desirable outcomes such as perpetual peace, realists are skeptical that world
government will ever materialize as an institutional reality, given the problems of
egoistic or corrupted human nature, or the logic of international anarchy that
characterizes a world of states, all jealously guarding their own sovereignty or
claims to supreme authority. World government is thus infeasible as a solution to
global problems because of the unsurpassable difficulties of establishing
“authoritative hierarchies” at the global or international level (Krasner 1999, 42). A
related consequentialist argument speculates that even if world government were
desirable, the process of creating a world government may produce more harm
than good; the necessary evils committed on the road to establishing a world
government would outweigh whatever benefits might result from its achievement
(Rousseau 1756/1917).
Second, even if world government were shown to be a feasible political project, it
may be an undesirable one. One set of reasons for its undesirability emphasizes the
potential power and oppressiveness of a global political authority. In one version of
this objection—the tyranny argument—world government would descend into a
global tyranny, hindering rather than enhancing the ideal of human autonomy
(Kant 1991). Instead of delivering impartial global justice and peace, a world
government may form an inescapable tyranny that would have the power to make
humanity serve its own interests, and opposition against which might engender
incessant and intractable civil wars (Waltz 1979). In another version of this
objection—the homogeneity argument—world government may be so strong and
pervasive as to create a homogenizing effect, obliterating distinct cultures and
communities that are intrinsically valuable. The institution of a world government
would thus destroy the rich social pluralism that animates human life (Walzer
2004). While the preceding two arguments stem from fear of the potential power of
a world government, another set of concerns that make world government
undesirable focuses on its potential weakness as a form of political organization.
The objections on this account are that the inevitable remoteness of a global
political authority would dilute the laws, making them ineffectual and meaningless.
The posited weakness of world government thus leads to objections based on its
potential inefficiency and soullessness (Kant 1991).
Third, contemporary liberal theorists argue mainly that world government, in the
form of a global leviathan with supreme legislative, executive, adjudicative and
enforcement powers, is largely unnecessary to solve problems such as war, global
poverty, and environmental catastrophe. World government so conceived is neither
necessary nor sufficient to achieve the aims of a liberal agenda. Even cosmopolitan
liberals do not argue that moral cosmopolitanism necessarily entails political
cosmopolitanism in the form of a world government. The liberal rejection of world
government, however, does not amount to an endorsement of the conventional
system of sovereign states or the contemporary international order, “with its
extreme injustices, crippling poverty, and inequalities” (Rawls 1999, 117). Instead,
most liberal theorists envision the need for authoritative international and global
institutions that modify significantly the powers and prerogatives traditionally
attributed to the sovereign state.
.
However, many difficult problems appear to stand in the way of a world
government coming into existence. First, one might ask questions such as what is
the constitution of such a world state, how democratic it is, how can one be sure
that it does not fall under a dictator, to what extent will such a state be able to
protect the human rights which people in well – administered states are now
enjoying, and so on. Further more; is it conceivable that governments currently in
existence will one fine morning surrender the sovereign authority and military
power which they have? A big power finds it difficult to surrender the enormous
power it has to an external body; the govt. of a small power is likely to say that a
world government implies surrender of a freedom it has in dealing with the
resources and people of the other state under its sovereignty. Sovereignty is for a
small power a means of protecting itself from interference by more powerful
outside agencies.
Many scholars have prepared blue prints for a future world order. Some have even
world out a set of transitions measures. But a world govt. may have to remain for a
long time an aspiration people deeply concerned about the welfare of the mankind
as a whole.
DISARMAMENT AND ARMS CONTROL
The idea underlying disarmament is that if states are not in a position of armed
preparedness, there is less likelihood of an outbreak of violence. It involves the
decision to liquidate the existing stockpiles of armaments and the concept of arms
control seeks to regulate the future production of armaments with a view to prevent
their expansion and misuse. The subject of disarmament has been under sustained
consideration from the days of the League of Nations. After an intensive
preparation for several years, the disarmament Conference convened by the League
of Nations met in 1932. The Conference discussed the issues for over a year, and
then Germany withdrew from the conference. Thereafter, the conference ended
without results.
There are 2 very appealing arguments in favor of disarmament. The first is that war
is more likely when states are fully armed than when they are not. Disarmament
may prevent such a situation.
The second argument is that all expenditures in arms are a waste of resources,
which could be beneficially used for human welfare. But there are arguments
against disarmament also. Armaments industry provide jobs for the unemployed
people, promotes scientific research and development useful for civilian purposes
as well.
On disarmament, no state would like to be reduced to a lower rank than what it
presently occupies. It is assumed in all discussions on disarmament that its plan
should not affect the current relative positions regarding military power.
After the establishment of the UN there were many sessions of discussion of
disarmament regarding conventional weapons but the result had been no different
than at the conference of 1932 which failed. On the other hand, the technology
regarding conventional weapons is rapidly advancing in the direction of fire power
and miniaturization. The missile technology is advancing to increase the range of
missiles, their accuracy and the explosive power of war heads. Radars are being
developed both to sense distant objects and to evade detection by radars.
Technology permits guiding of missiles from the place of firing to multiple targets,
with almost zero circular error probability. Surveillance sensors placed on earth, in
airplanes and in outer space can detect the placement and the movement of
weapons and the launching of a ballistic missile before the missile reaches its
target. The surveillance systems are capable of transmitting messages to weapon
systems to fire at missiles in flight. High power lasers, i.e. high frequency light
wave, carry tremendous power and are capable of destroying an airborne or space-
based vehicle. Thus, missiles, computers, micro-electronics, sensors and outer
space technology, have made and are making conventional weapons highly
dangerous and destructive. Some go to the extent of predicting that advances in
conventional weapons will in due course make nuclear weapons superfluous and
unnecessary.11
The developments in strategic weapons, nuclear, chemical and biological have
been most terrifying. Strategic weapons do not include smaller size weapons for
tactical purposes. In view of the development of strategic weapons of such scale of
destruction, there have been some advances in the direction of imposing
restrictions on the placing and testing of the weapons, requiring reduction in the

11
Buzan, Peoples, States and Fear, p.78
number of some small and medium size strategic weapons and accepting on spot
inspections.
The Antarctic Treaty, 1959, banned military uses of the continent and placing of
nuclear weapons on it. The Outer Space Treaty, 1967, likewise banned the placing
of nuclear weapons in outer space. The Latin American Nuclear Free Zone Treaty,
1967, to which 25 states are parties, banned the testing and deployment of nuclear
weapons in the territories of the parties and possession of nuclear weapons by
them. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, 1968, prohibits transfer of nuclear
weapons and weapon technology to those states that do not possess nuclear
weapons. The Sea-Bed Treaty of 1971 requires that no nuclear weapon shall be
placed on the sea bed beyond 12 miles from the coast. The South Pacific Nuclear
Free Zone Treaty, 1985, is similar to the Latin American Treaty of 1967. The
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 1963, to which 113 states are parties, permits only
underground testing of weapons and requires that the debris should not all un
neighboring states. The Threshold test Ban Treaty, 1974, between the US and
USSR, imposed a limit on the size of the permitted underground tests of nuclear
weapons.
The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I),
1972, (and the ungratified SALT II, 1974), between USA and USSR imposed
limits on nuclear weapons delivery vehicles. The Intermediate Range Nuclear
Force Treaty (INF), 1987, between the USA and the USSR required the parties to
destroy some of their intermediate and short range missiles with nuclear war-
heads. There is currently a move to extend the obligations to strategic weapons i.e.
towards a strategic arms reduction treaty (START).
The Geneva Gas Protocol, 1925, prohibited the use of poisonous gas in warfare.
There are currently moves to expand the scope of the prohibition. Chemical
weapons technology has advanced very much since 1925. The Biological Weapons
Convention, 1972, prohibited the development, production and stockpiling of
biological weapons. The Environmental Modification Convention, 1977, banned
military or hostile use of the techniques of changing weather and climate patterns.
The Inhuman weapons Convention, 1981, banned the use of certain types of
bombs. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) of September 1996 which bans
all types of nuclear weapon tests barring computer simulated and sub critical tests.
FUTURE OF DISARMAMENT
On the whole, is cannot be said that there has been appreciable progress towards
disarmament. The super powers are taking small and cautious steps towards
reduction of armaments, which do not seriously affect their strategic positions or
advantages. Conventional weapons remain unregulated. Between 1970 till today,
the arms imports of developing countries from developed countries have risen
almost six times. India and Pakistan have become nuclear powers and a sort of
Balance of Terror is prevalent in the contemporary world. Continued faith in
armaments, the problem of agreement of ratios of strength, the problem of
implementing disarmament and arms control agreement, the problem of distrust,
insecurity and political rivalry and disputes have made the concept of Disarmament
a distant proposition.
 UNIT III
COLD WAR: ORIGIN, CAUSE, NATURE AND IMPACT ON
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
MEANING
The term cold war was for the first time used by Bernard Baruch, an American
Statesman, but was popularize by Prof. Lippman. The term cold war came to be
used for describing the situation in which war was not actually fought but a war
like hysteria or as Nehru described “a brain war, a nerve war and propaganda war”
was kept in operation. It can be defined as a state of intensive unhealthy
competition – political, economic and ideological- which falls short of an armed
conflict between the states. As a concept in international relations, it denotes a state
of constant conflict, strains, tensions and strife maintained and perpetuated by
political and psychological warfare but without a direct war between the opposing
sides.
In the words of K.P.S. Menon, “Cold war as the world has experienced was a war
between two ideologies (capitalism and communism), two systems (bourgeoisie
democracy and proletarian dictatorship), two block systems (NATO and Warsaw
pact), two states (USA and USSR) and two personalities (John Foster Dulles and
Stalin).”
CAUSES OF COLD WAR
The causes of cold war between communist east and democratic west can be
conveniently studied in two parts –
(A) The Western Grievances against the East12
 Western fear of growing soviet power in the World Politics
 The ideological conflict between communism and capitalism
 Western fear of growing socialist Movement as a really subversive
movement.
 USSR was guilty of violating Yalta agreement
 Soviet interferences in Poland and arrest of Polish democratic leaders
 Conversion of Eastern Europe to Communism
12
U.R. Ghai, International Politics
  The Soviet reluctance to join war against Japan
 Soviet help to Chinese Communists
 Soviet refusal to withdraw its forces from Northern Iran on account of its oil
reserves
 Soviet pressures on Greece
 Soviet attempts to tame Turkey
 Soviet pressures on Germany like transportation of heavy machinery from
Germany to USSR, imprisonment of German leaders, separation of East
Germany, Soviet control over German Socialist Party, non-acceptance of a
single economic zone.
 The differences over Berlin with USA
 Frequent use of Soviet veto in UN security Council
 Differences over the implementation of the peace treaties.
 Communist activities in USA and Canada
(B) Soviet Grievances against the West
 Soviet displeasure over several Western policies
 Soviet apprehension of Western intentions
 The delay in the opening of Second Front against Germany when Germany
attacked USSR during second world war
 Western policy of appeasement of Fascist Italy
 Inadequate western aid to the Soviet Union
 Abrupt end of lend-lease agreement
 The American secrecy over the Atom Bomb
 Anti-soviet propaganda by Western Press and Leadership
 Soviet disapproval of several western decisions

NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE COLD WAR

THE PREPARATORY STAGE OF COLD WAR (1945-47)
 Mutual fear and distrust between USA and USSR
  Conflicting ideologies of communism and capitalism
 Churchill’s Fulton speech, popularly known as Iron Curtain Speech (March
1946)
 Growing fear of Soviet expansionism
 End of US Isolationist policy
 The Truman doctrine according to which the US commits itself to support
free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or
outside pressures.
 Marshall plan to help the socio-economic reconstruction of the war-torn
Europe. It was an attempt to win over the European states and keep them
away from communism.
 Soviet reaction and counter moves like Sovietization of Eastern Europe,
establishment of COMECON in response to the Marshall Plan
THE FIRST ROUND OF COLD WAR (1947-1953)
 Germany as the centre of cold war
 Berlin issue and cold war
 Organization of NATO and Division of Germany
 Rise of communist China
 Korean crisis
 Issue of Peace Treaty with Japan

THE SECOND ROUND OF COLD WAR (1953-1963)

 SEATO and Warsaw Pact
 Nuclear arms race
 Civil war in Indo-China
 Hungarian crisis
 Suez crisis
 Eisenhower Doctrine which is a plan to send US forces anywhere for
checking the danger of communism
 Khrushchev’s visit to USA – a hope for peace
  U-2 ( a US spy plane in USSR) incident and renewal of cold war
 Failure of Paris Summit
 The construction of Berlin wall by USSR for separating the soviet sectors
from the Western sectors of Berlin city in 1961, was strongly opposed by the
USA
 Cold war towards Hot war – Cuban Missile crisis of 1962
COLD WAR (1963-1970)
 Change of US leadership with Johnson as its president and USSR leadership
also with Brezhnev and Kosygin as its two powerful leaders.
 Indo-Pak war of 1965
 1967 Arab-Israel war
 An attempt to reduce tension – The Glassbrough Summit, 1067
 Berlin Blockade
 The thinking towards Détente
EMERGENCE OF DÉTENTE (1970-1979)
 Moscow-Bonn agreement 1970
 Berlin agreement 1971
 Korea agreement, 1972
 East Germany-West Germany Agreement, 1972
 Helsinki Conference (1973) and Helsinki Agreement (1975) for the
promotion of mutual cooperation in the entire European continent without
any consideration for the communist and non-communist nature of political
systems of the states.
 End of war in Cambodia, 1975
 End of Vietnam war, 1975
 US China rapprochement which paved the way for China’s entry into UN
 Third European Security Conference, 1977
 Camp David Accord between Egypt and Israel, 1979
 American Soviet Détente.
NEW COLD WAR: NATURE AND HISTORY (1980-1990)
 US decision to counter the increasing soviet influence in Ethiopia
 Changes in US foreign policy under President Reagan
 Irresponsible Soviet view
 US attempts to cultivate relations with Eastern Europe and China with a
view to check soviet influence
 US role in Nicaragua, El Salvador and Grenada
 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan
 The failure of Non-alignment Movement towards disarmament
 The destabilization of peace in West Asia as a result of Iran-Iraq war
 The increasing arms race between the two super powers
 The extensive militarization of Pakistan by the US
 Inability of the rich nations to accommodate the poor developing nations
IMPACT AND DECLINE OF COLD WAR
Fortunately within 7 years of its emergence, the New Cold War began diluting.
The welcome break came in the form of bold initiative taken by the Soviet leader
Gorbachev in the form of Perestroika (reconstruction) and Glasnost (openness).
Finally it came to an end with the disintegration of USSR in 1991. Undoubtedly, it
divided the world into two parts and hampered the smooth functioning of the world
processes.

TERRORISM IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

International terrorism can be described as a major menace being faced by the
international community in contemporary times. It has been adversely effecting the
resources and power of the states which are directly suffering due to the activities
of the foreign based terrorist groups, cross border terrorism i.e. terrorism which has
its roots and bases in a particular states but which is indulging in terrorist activities
in a neighboring states or narco-terrorism under which smuggling of narcotics is
undertaken to finance the organization and operation of terrorist groups in various
parts of the world and international terrorism which uses kidnapping or hijacking
for highlighting its professed views and demands as well for putting pressure for
securing the release of terrorists being detained by some states. Intense rivalry,
arms race, nuclear arms race, alliance politics and unhealthy competition between
USA and USSR in international relations came to be developed during the era of
cold war. All this made the international system stressful and conflict in which
local wars, proxy wars, ethnic wars and terrorism came to be the order of the day.
The spread of arms trade and transfer of arms provided a good ground for the birth
of international terrorism as these arms easily found their way into the hands of the
terrorists. It was also observed that one of the causes behind the emergence of
terrorism was the continued suppression being faced by those people of Asia and
Africa who were reeling under the after effects of colonial regime and suffering
exploitation at the hands of the alien masters.
The birth of international terrorism can be traced back to as early as 1948 when
Israel was created through a partition of Palestine and Palestinian leaders refused
to accept the creation of the two states. During 1960’s terrorist groups surfaced in
Europe – Red Brigades in Italy and Red Army Faction in West Germany. In
Northern Ireland, Roman Catholic and Protestant Catholics started using violence
to secure their desired objectives. In 1980’s a new dimension came to be added to
international terrorism with the emergence of Islamic Jehadis. They adopted the
goal of librating regions which were once ruled by Muslims and of securing the
rights of Muslims living in several secular non-Muslims states. The Afghan Jihadis
organized, trained, armed, funded and supported by the USA, some Western
Christian countries and Pakistan for fighting the evil forces of the Soviets. They
became the force behind the emergence of military and fundamentalism in the
Indian states of Punjab and J&K. during 1990’s the world witnessed with grave
concern the spread of terrorism to various parts of the world. Kyrgyzstan, Russia,
China, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Algeria, India and other
regions of the world became victims of international terrorism. Terrorist outfits
like Harkat ul-Ansar, Lashkar-i-Toiba and the Talibans of Afghanistan has
emerged as highly motivated and highly organized terrorist groups and Osama Bin
Laden has emerged as the most wanted patron of terrorism in the world. All over
the world nearly 50 terrorist groups are currently engaged in using terrorism,
killing of innocents, indulging in proxy wars, over throwing of govt. gaining of
strategic influence and control of certain areas, cross-border terrorism, ethnic wars,
religious wars for achieving their objectives and goals. The main target of terrorists
has been civilians but the real victim has been the state which is to provide security
to its citizens.
The danger of international terrorism can be listed as under –
 Terrorism being a translational enterprise is much prone to spreading the
bacillus of conflict and violence into other countries.
 Terrorist’s incidents may lead to open conventional war with very little
warning time.
 The blurring of line between what is terrorism and what is war may also lead
to rapid escalation into war.
 The closer cooperation apparent between terrorism and organized crime also
points to a further erosion of authority of the state
 These kinds of activities may spread into areas of low development and
literacy levels.
 Terrorist groups can use the ideologies of rights of determinism, national
liberation war, and freedom movement, ethnic interest of minorities and
human rights of a particular ethnic group for justifying their resort to
terrorism.
 A major power can use the opportunity provided by the operation of the
terrorist groups against states in the form of a war against the states as a
cloak to intervene in the situation, in the name of preserving peace, security
and stability in the regions13.
EFFORTS BEING MADE BY THE UN TO MEET THE MENACE OF
INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM
The UN adopted a text on international terrorism on 18 th December, 1972 in the
2114th plenary meeting of the General Assembly. In 1978 the Convention against
taking the Hostages as adopted by the General Assembly came into effect on 29 th
November 1978. in the last decade of the 20th century, the world witnessed a big
increase in the acts of international terrorism. On 9 th December, 1994, the UN
General Assembly adopted a declaration on Measures to Eliminate Terrorism. On
19th October, 1999 the UN Security Council also adopted a resolution and called
for cooperation among the members nations against international terrorism. On 9th

13
W. Laquer, “Terrorism”, Boston, Little Brown and Company, 1977
December 1999, the UN General Assembly adopted in its resolution, the
International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism.
DETERRENCE: ITS MEANING AND IMPACT ON INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS
MEANING
That a resort to war or aggression can lead to a full scale totally destructive war has
acted as a deterrent in international relations. However, this has not checked the
production of nuclear weapons. The overkill capacities of the nuclear powers and
their ability to destroy each other have forced them to maintain a balance in their
power relations. This balance is different from the traditional balance of power. As
such, nuclear deterrence and Balance of terror are intimately related concepts.
It is the fear of nuclear punishment that acts as deterrence. In essence, it means that
a state which could otherwise attack is restrained from doing so because it believes
that the gains would not be worth the cost. Nuclear or strategic deterrence is a
condition in which the nations has the means to attack and destroy the opponent
but in actual practice does not attempt such a move as it fears its own destruction
in the process. It is a peace in the shadow of war. It is a negative peace. It involves
two key concepts –
(a) Deterrence – When the abilities of the two nations are roughly equal and
each is equipped with the ability to present certain threat and action from
others with equivalent or greater threat, the situation can be described as a
strategic balance or deterrence. Deterrence, in order to be effective, covers
both the “first strike power” and “second strike capacity”, the latter is
considered even more important than the first.
(b) Unacceptable Damage – the second key concept in balance of terror is the
concept of unacceptable damage. It refers to casualties and physical
destruction to an extent that a government will not willingly risk the
suffering of such damage.
Further, the era of balance of terror involves the concept of “finite
deterrence” and “counter force strategy”. The former stands for preventing
nuclear war through the production of new nuclear weapons and the latter
involves the demonstration of capacity to wage/withstand a war.
 BALANCE OF TERROR (BOT)
The balance of terror, or mutual deterrence, means that two (or more)
opposing nations are sufficiently frightened of one another, but neither is
willing to risk any action that would provoke a military attack by the other.
It is said to be caused by the fact that each side possesses nuclear weapons in
sufficient quantity to inflict unacceptable damage upon the other even after
having absorbed a surprise attack.Therfore no aggressor can hope to escape
punishment. It is the fear of the nuclear punishment that acts as a deterrent,
i.e balance of fear. There are two important elements:
1. Retaliatory force or “second strike capability”
2. Unacceptable damage
Difference between Balance of Power (BOP) and Balance of Terror (BOT):
In the Balance of Power system unconventional weapon and its possession
was the concern whereas in the Balance of Terror thrust was on the nuclear
weapon. It is true that arms eventually became unlimited in the BOP system
and possession of nuclear reached up to a point of ‘overkill’. Alliance with
the other was the mainstay of BOP System and it was not so significant in
BOT system.
 UNIT IV
NEW INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ORDER(NIEO) AND ROLE OF
IMF, WTO AND WORLD BANK
NIEO :MEANING
The commitment and determination of the Third world countries to secure NIEO
versus the attempts of the developed countries to torpedo the demand have together
made the issue of NIEO a burning issue of contemporary international relations. It
stands for making the international system fairer, just and equitable by adopting a
code of conduct for developed countries and by accepting the due rights of the
underdeveloped countries. In early 1970’s, international relations came to be
dominated by economic issues. As a result, new economic consciousness and the
conflict between the developed and the underdeveloped countries in international
relations together found manifestation in the form of North-south controversy over
the issue of a New International Economic Order (NIEO).
FACTORS THAT HAVE INFLUENCED THE DEMAND FOR NIEO
 The Big North-South Gap – the energy crisis, the falling exports, the stiff
competition in world market, the monopolistic role of the MNC’s, the
inadequacy of the Breton wood system in contemporary times, the
inadequate and limited foreign aid to the developing countries etc. all
combined to perpetuate and increase the gap between the North and the
South.
 Increased global interdependence but continued low role of the South
 Neo-colonial control of the North over South
 Excessive and one-sided exploitation of world income and resources by the
developed countries
 The inglorious and hegemonious role of the MNC’s
 The inadequacy of the new GATT and WTO
MAJOR THEMES AND ISSUES OF NEW INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC
ORDER
 Restructuring of World Economic relations
  Institutional changes – the World Bank, IMF, the conventions governing
Intellectual Property and other economic institutions stand dominated by the
developed nations. This has to be corrected.
 End of Protectionism in International Economy and Trade
 Transfer of technology
 Control over the growing menace of Multinational Corporations
 Recognition and Protection of the Interest of the Commodity producers
 A greater and fixed share in International Exports and a total revision of the
Breton Woods system
 Self-reliance
 Mini-income targets
For achieving this, the Third World countries want a comprehensive North-South
dialogue. They are also trying to develop through the promotion of South-South
Cooperation for mutual development. The July 1985 conference of G-77 countries
agreed to work out a General scheme of Tariff Preferences (GSTP). The lukewarm
and almost evasive attitude of the developed countries has forced the Third World
countries to go in for South-South cooperation. But the success in this direction has
also been limited. The hope for a global North-South Dialogue has also faded into
background in the post cold war era.
EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT OF NIEO
The evolution of the concept of NIEO can be traced from mid-70’s, more
particularly from 1 May, 1974, because on this day, the 6 th special session of the
UN General assembly adopted a “Declaration on the Establishment of NIEO” and
thereafter several steps were initiated towards its achievement which are as follows
–
 Lima conference, 1975
 Paris dialogue, 1975
 Colombo Summit of the non-aligned
 UN General Assembly Special session, 1980
 Cancun Summit, 1981
After the failure of these initiatives, no meaningful progress has been possible
towards the securing of a North-South dialogue over NIEO. Naturally, therefore,
the developing countries opted for south-south Cooperation. Several initiatives
were taken which are as follows –
 South-south meet at New Delhi, 1982
 South-south Cooperation GSTP, July, 1982
 Non-aligned Foreign ministers conference on South-South cooperation,
1987
 Meeting of South-South Commission
 Kuala Lumpur meeting of G-15
 Caracas meeting of G-15, 1991
 Dakar (Senegal) G-15 Summit , 1992
 New Delhi Summit of G-15
 Buenos Aires Summit of G-15 nations
 Zimbabwe summit of G-15, 1996.
INTERNATIONAL MONETORY FUND (IMF)
The IMF is concerned with problems which relate to foreign exchange. A state
whose import exceeds its exports faces the difficulty of adverse balance of
payments, and at some state it will have to cut down its imports. As a result of such
cutting down, the internal economy may suffer and consequently the state’s
exports may fall, rendering the problem of adverse balance of payments more
severe. At the international level, if the imports and exports of many countries go
down, it is a situation of slump in international trade and economy. Foreign
exchange problems may arise also for reasons other than low exports. Each state
has its own system of currency and has authority to enforce within its territory any
exchange rates it chooses in relation to foreign trade transactions. In the world of
competition in trade, in order to gain advantage over others, a state may proceed to
increase or decrease exchange rates with other currencies at short intervals. This
will cause instability in foreign exchange rates and international trade. The
principal objective of the IMF is to introduce some system of order in exchange
rates of different countries.
During World War II, as a result of the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, two
organizations were established, the IMF, the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (IBRD), or better known as the World Bank. The treaty by
which the IMF was established is called the “Articles of Agreement”. Under this
agreement, states surrendered a part of their sovereign power to fix the rates of
exchange within their respective territories as they chose in return for the IMF
regulating the exchange rates and meeting their short term needs.
The plenary organ in both the IMF and the World Bank is called the Board of
Governors. All members are automatically members of the Board. There is a
smaller body which functions continuously called the Board of Executive
Directors. This body has far reaching powers. Its members are elected by the Board
of Governors in accordance with the system of weighted voting. Additionally, in
the Board of Executive Directors, some decisions can be taken only by a four-fifths
majority. This gives in effect a member like the USA a power of veto. The USSR
and Eastern European states have not been members of the IMF.
The essential purposes of the IMF were stated as –
 To provide a framework that facilitates exchange of goods, services and
capital among countries.
 To provide a framework that sustains sound economic growth
 To assist continuing development of orderly underlying conditions necessary
for financial and economic stability
The obligations of each member of the IMF are stated as –
 To endeavor to direct its economic and financial policies towards the
objective of promoting orderly economic growth.
 To seek to promote stability by fostering orderly underlying economic and
financial conditions and a monetary system that does not produce economic
disruptions.
 To avoid manipulating exchange rates or to gain an unfair competitive
advantage over others
 To follow policies compatible with these undertakings
The IMF has the means to help members to get over short term foreign exchange
difficulties. Assistance will be forthcoming only if the suggestions made, or the
conditionality lay down, are accepted by the assistance seeking member.
THE INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND
DEVELOPMENT (IBRD) OR WORLD BANK
The World Bank is the twin institution born with the IMF. Both have the same
structure. The contribution to the capital of the bank by a member is based upon its
quota in the IMF. Developed countries have 63.8% of the voting strength in the
bank. The plenary organ is the Board of Governors and the smaller body which
exercises considerable power is the Executive Board. The same system of
weighted voting is followed in both the organs. The bank lends money, or
guarantees loans given by private lenders; borrows money from the capital market
by selling bonds. The bank examines applications for loans, and sometimes takes
the assistance of the IMF staff for this purpose. The bank and the IMF have
frequently joint meetings.
The World Bank has two subsidiaries, the International Development Association
(IDA) and the International Finance Corporation (IFC). Their organizational
structure is similar to that of the bank. The IDA provides loans for development
purposes on easier terms than on which the bank lends. The IFC invests in a wide
range of private institutions in member countries. The capital of both is derived
from subscriptions by members.
THE WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO)
After going on for 7 years the multilateral trade negotiations reached their final
destination on 15 December, 1993 when delegations of 117 countries gave their
approval by consensus to a new GATT agreement. The purpose of this agreement
was to secure through liberalized global markets rapid economic development. For
GATT agreement, popularly known as Dunkel Agreement, the negotiations were
initiated by 108 countries in 1985 in Uruguay. By this few agreement changes
were effected in the first GATT agreement of 1947 with a view to make global
trade truly global and thereby to secure rapid economic development.
After the consensus agreement of December, 1993, the representatives of 125
countries including India signed the new treaty on 15 April, 1994 at Marakkesh,
Morocco. This gave rise to hope that by it international economic order will
witness the century of justice, equality and cooperation. The international tariffs
shall be lessened by 40%. After the signing of this treaty a joint declaration was
issued in which it was hoped that by the introduction of trade liberalization and by
a definite building of rules of economic order, the international trade would show a
rapid progress. It was decided to establish a world Trade Organization and for this
a new committee was established. The WTO came into existence on 1 st January,
1995. The GATT got replaced by WTO and it emerged as an agency for
monitoring the progress of new GATT. It was given a status equal to those of the
World Bank and IMF. The WTO has opened a new era of liberalized international
trade. However, it has also given rise to the possibility of an increased pressure of
the developed countries over the developing countries. It has to be checked and
negotiated by the developing countries.
The WTO founded on January 1, 1995 as a successor to the General Agreement on
Trade and Tariff (GATT) IS BASED IN Geneva. While GATT focused primarily
on trade in goods, the WTO covers cross-border trade in service and ideas and the
movement of personnel.
The underlying principle of WTO is to create an international environment that
enables the free flow of goods, services and ideas. The 4 main WTO guidelines are
trade without discrimination, predictable and growing market access, promoting
fair competition and encouraging development and economic reform.
The WTO has full time representatives from member countries. The WTO
functions on the basis of one member-one vote. It has a full time Secretary General
with tenure of 4 years. The WTO countries together accounted for over 90% of the
total global trade.
The highest WTO authority is the ministerial conference which meets every two
years. The main concerns and agreements are briefly considered below –
 Market Access
 Reduction of Tariff levels
 General Agreement on Trade in Services(GATS)
 Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights(TRIPS) – TRIPS covers patents,
copyrights, trademarks, integrated circuits, industrial designs, geographical
indication and plant variety protection
  Trade Related Investment Measures(TRIMS)
 Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures
 Procedure Oriented Councils – the WTO has recognized that vast
differences in procedures related to trade can constitute barriers in trade
themselves. This has to be corrected.
 Anti Dumping
 Regional Trading arrangements
REGIONAL ORGANISATIONS – OAS, SAARC, ASEAN AND EU
ORGANISATION OF AMERICAN STATES
The organization of American States evolved from 1890.The charter of the
organization was adopted at Bogotá in 1948. Membership of the organization is
open to all American states. The objectives of the organization are -
 Peace and security in the American continent
 Ensuring peaceful settlement of disputes among its members
 Solving by cooperative action common social, political, economic and juridical
problems
 Contributing to cultural development.
Peaceful settlement of disputes is covered by a separate treaty called the Pact of
Bogotá., 1948, which provides for extending good offices, mediation,
investigation, conciliation, arbitration and judicial settlement by the ICJ. Provision
is made for collective security under the Inter-American treaty of Reciprocal
Assistance in 1947 usually called the Rio Treaty.
The organs of the organization are firstly, the general Assembly. It is the plenary
body of the organization and all members have equal voting strength in it. It
decides the general policy of the organization. Second, there is the Meeting of
Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs. It may determine where there has
been aggression and discuss the measures to be adopted to stop the aggression and
restore normalcy.
It has a Permanent Council, which supervises the secretariat, the Pan-American
Union, located at Washington D.C. it is mostly concerned with commercial matters
and cultural matters and promotes collaboration with the UN. There are several
subsidiary organs to look after economic, social, juridical and cultural matters and
also committees set up for different purposes. Generally, the council employs
peaceful methods of settlement of disputes.
The OAS constituted the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights as one of
its principle organ in 1969 and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in 1979.
THE SOUTH ASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION
(SAARC)
The first step towards the establishment of SAARC was taken in 1983 by the
declaration of the foreign ministers assembling at Delhi, of Bangladesh, Bhutan,
Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Maldives. The decisive step was taken
at the meeting of the heads of state and governments of these states at Dhaka in
1985. SAARC is a loose organization. Its objectives are set out to be –
 To promote the welfare of the people of South Asia and improve the quality of
their life.
 To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural developments
in these states.
 To promote and strengthen collective self reliance among members
 To contribute to mutual trust among them and understanding and appreciation
of one another’s problems
 To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance among the states in
economic, social cultural, technical and scientific fields
 To strengthen cooperation among them in international forums on matters of
common interest.
 To cooperate with regional and international organizations with similar aims
and purposes.
It would be seen that the scope of the activity is mostly in economic, social,
cultural fields and political goals do not find any mention. On the other hand, it is
expressly provided that bilateral and contentious issues should be excluded from
the deliberations in the organization14.
The organization has the following organs – (a) Technical Committee (b) Action
Committee and (c) Standing Committee.
14
R.S. Kher, SAARC : Political and Economic Aspects
In fact, the very purpose of SAARC has been to promote regional cooperation
among the South Asian states. At the 6th SAARC Summit, the leaders tried to
realize this objective by agreeing to remove trade barriers for gradually evolving
the SAARC into a collective economic system.
However, to translate this into a reality appeared to be a distant dream. The
existence of political differences between India and Pakistan and the attempts of
the latter to sow seeds of discontent between India and Sri Lanka and between
India and Bangladesh are bound to keep limited the SAARC attempt at increased
economic cooperation. Frankly seeking the future is bound to remain dark for so
loans as the SAARC nations do not really come out of their prejudices and biases.
ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH EAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN)
Origin:
The alarming situation in Vietnam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos and Burma
prompted the South-East Asian countries to be united. As per the ‘Bangkok
Declaration’ of 1967, the five countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Singapore and Thailand formed ‘Association of South East Asian Nations’
(ASEAN) on 8 August, 1967.
Later on, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia joined this organisation.
Now the number of the member countries of ASEAN is ten. India is trying its best
to be a member of ASEAN which may be fulfilled in near future.
Formation:
The ASEAN is a well-organised organisation. It has a Permanent Secretariat. The
Headquarters of the ASEAN is located at Jakarta in Indonesia. Its ‘Permanent
Committee’ is located in Singapore. It has eight adhoc committees. Besides, it has
ten ‘Special Committees’, viz. Navigation, Trade and Tourism, Industrial Minerals
and Energy, Food, Agriculture and forestry Finance and Banking, Science and
Technology; social development, etc.
The Ministers Conference is held when the Foreign Ministers of the Member
nations meet together. It has a court of Justice. Its members are appointed for a
period of six years. The court ensures the observance of rule of law of the member
countries.
Aims and Objectives:
In the Summit of ASEAN at Bali in 1976, the aims and objectives of this
Organisation were clearly spelt out.
Accordingly, the ASEAN has adopted the following aims and objectives:
1. To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development of
the region.
2. To promote regional peace and stability.
3. To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common
interest.
4. To provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facility
in the field of educational, technical and administrative fields.
5. To promote South-East Asian Studies.
6. To collaborate for greater utilisation of their agriculture and industries and
expansion of trade.
7. To maintain close and beneficial co-operation with existing regional and
international organisations for excellence indifferent fields.
Activities:
With the march of time, the ASEAN has undertaken many activities. Those
activities have earned popularity for ASEAN.
At first, the member nations of ASEAN are trying to make their own country
progressive by the help of one another. This has enhanced prestige and co-
operation for each other.
Secondly, this is helping the member nations to gain political minority. The
Foreign Ministers in different summits are discussing about economic progress,
trade and commerce, environment, urban development, development of NGOs etc.
These discussions influence each other in accepting concrete steps in these fields.
Thirdly, the Principle of equality has made ASEAN great. All the member nations
are equal before the ASEAN. Nobody can dominate in the meeting. The member,
of this organisation is prepared to solve every problem through discussion.
Fourthly, in 1994 ‘ASEAN Regional Forum’ (ARF) has been formed. This has
created an atmosphere of trust, purity and creativity which binds the member
countries together.
Fifthly, in 1997 the ASEAN has taken new step in economic field. I he members
have formed ‘ASEAN Free Trade Area’ (AFTA). By this, trade and commerce
have been galvanised. The ASEAN Countries have tried to bring economic
reforms by co-operation among each other.
Sixthly, by crossing regional barriers, the ASEAN Countries are now maintaining
relation with America and Latin America. By the effort of ASI AN, the ‘Zone of
Peace, Freedom and Neutrality’ (ZOPFAN) has been mated. It is also trying for
‘Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation’ (APEC), and ‘Asia-Europe Meeting’
(ASEM). Thus, in the twenty-first Century, the ASEAN is going to play a vital
role.
Seventhly, now the ASEAN is now establishing good relation with countries like
China, Japan and South Korea. By this step, the ASEAN is creating new avenues
for its member countries.
Eighthly, the ASEAN is undertaking many voluntary programmes. The NGOs,
leaders, industrialisation and common people are being attracted towards its
popular programmes. It aims at realising its goal by 2020.
Last but not least, the ASEAN wants the co-operation of public in its activities.
Further, it aims at the development of human resources of its countries. It also
wants to put an end to poverty.
Analysis:
By evaluating the works of ASEAN, it can be stated that from the very beginning it
was dormant. It made little progress in regional cooperation. After 1975, it
underwent transformation and galvanised its activities. New resolutions were
adopted in different meetings held at Bali and Mahila. It has adopted certain
principles in choosing members. It fights against poverty, illeteracy, blockade in
case of trade and commerce etc.
It has adopted globalisation and information technology (IT). It is determined
today to promote scientific research and culture. The resources of the ASEAN are
scanty. However, it cannot be an impediment on the way of the ASEAN.
Hopefully, success will kiss its feet after a decade or two.
Now everybody has cast its glance on the progress of ASEAN. The world is
evaluating its achievements. The steps taken by ASEAN for the progress of this
region are going to be successful. At any one decade of the twenty-first century,
the ASEAN may reach the pinnacle of glory.

The Vietnamese crisis, the US imperialistic role in Vietnam, the political crisis in
Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos and Burma, and the realization of need for
development through mutual efforts encouraged the South East Asian nations to
establish a regional economic association. In 1967, the ASEAN was created by
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. In 1984 Brunei, in 1995
Vietnam and in July 1997 Laos and Myanmar joined it and in 1999 Cambodia also
joined the ASEAN. India, Japan and China are dialogue partners and regional
partners of ASEAN.
The ASEAN is a non-military and non-security economic and cultural regional
association of the south East Asian states. Its main objectives are –
 To accelerate economic growth, cultural development and social progress in
the region.
 To promote regional peace and stability
 To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in matters of
common interests
 To promote mutual collaboration and assistance in providing training and
research facilities to their people
 To promote south East Asian studies.
 To collaborate in the development of agriculture, trade and industries
 To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing international and
regional organization with similar aims and purposes.
The organizational structure of the ASEAN consists of the Ministerial Conference,
the Standing Committee, the Secretariat and a number of permanent and adhoc
committees.
The meetings are held in all the countries by rotation. In 1976, a secretariat was
added to its organization. Its headquarters are at Jakarta and it looks after the
administrative affairs of ASEAN.
ASEAN is currently developing as an important, active and useful agency of
regional cooperation for development among the member countries.
EUROPEAN UNION (EU)
Three European communities have done, and are still doing now under the name of
EU wonderful job in maintaining and developing the economic integration of
Western Europe. These three communities have been –
 The European Coal and Steel Community(ECSC)
 The European Economic Community(EEC)
 The European Atomic Energy Community(Euratom)
Until 1967 there was given a united organizational structure.
After the historic Maastricht (Netherlands), the European communities got united
with the European Union and adopted the objective of securing a real and effective
Monetary Union and Political Union. It was further decided to cooperate for
integration in new areas including European Union Education, public health,
culture, consumer protection, industry, research and development, environment,
social affairs etc.
The objectives of ECSC are both economic and political. It is designed as a means
for integrating the economies of member states. The general purpose of ECSC is to
establish a single market in coal and steel and eliminate trade barriers as well as
obstacles to the free movement of workers.
Since 1958, EEC and now EU have been operating as a major agency of economic
integration of Western Europe. Its main objective has been to develop a common
economic market of the member countries. Other objectives are –
 Consolidation of the tariff schedules of the 6 countries into a single system
applicable to imports from the Third countries.
 Progressive reduction and removal of all fiscal and physical restrictions on the
free movement of goods, capital and labor between member countries.
 Harmonization of the economic policies of the member states.
It was also agreed by the member states to create a European Investment Fund for
facilitating the economic development of the community. Members of the ECM
were asked to eliminate mutual competition and to undertake production of
commodities for the entire community. Each member was further asked to
concentrate on the production of specified items. A European Investment Bank
was floated to help the members raise the necessary capital and resources.
The Treaty creating the EURATOM described the main task of the community to
create conditions necessary for the speedy establishment and growth of nuclear
industries. It provides for joint research in the development of nuclear technology.
The institutions and the organs of the European Communities are as under –
 The Commission – it acts independently in the interest of the community as a
whole. It has a mandate for the implementation and the guardian ship of the
treaties. It executes the decision of the Council. In case any member ignore its
duties, the Commission can take the matter to the European Court of Justice.
 The Council of Ministers – it represents the nation’s interests instead of that of
the community. It takes decisions under the treaties and all decisions are taken
by unanimity.
 The European Parliament – it has the right to be consulted on a wide range of
legislative proposals. It forms one arm of the Community’s Budgetary
Authority
 The Economic and Social Committee.
 The European Court of Justice – it is responsible for the adjudication of
disputes arising out of the application of the treaties. Its judgment is
enforceable in all member countries.
 The Court of Auditors – it audits all income and current and past expenditure
of the European countries.
 The European Investment Bank – its main task is to contribute to the balanced
development of the common market in the interest of the community by
financing projects, developing less developed regions, for modernizing and
converting undertakings, developing new activities etc.
The EU has emerged over the years a developed economic community with an
integrated economic base. It now has a single currency and a single banking union.
It is also now trying to supplement the existing economic integration with a viable
political integration of the European Community.
 UNIT V
NON-ALIGNMENT: IT’S MEANING, IT’S ROLE IN PRESENT
INTERNATIONAL SCENARIO
MEANING
Non-alignment as the principle of foreign policy stand for the policy of keeping
away from power politics, super power rivalry, cold war and the alliance systems
of the hostile blocks it stands for independent action on the part of the non-aligned
states in international relations. Its membership is 120 member nations. Non-
alignment together with its offshoot – panchsheel and beneficial bilateralism and
multilateralism constitute a model for a New World order. The credit for using for
the first time the term “non-alignment” goes to George Lisca 15. Nehru also termed
non-alignment as Independent Foreign Policy.
FEATURES OF NON-ALIGNMENT
 Opposition to Cold War
 Opposition to Military and Political Alliances
 Non-involvement in Power Politics
 Peaceful Co-existence and non-interference
 Independent foreign policy
 A policy of action and not isolationism
 It stands for distinguishing between the right and wrong and supporting the
right
 Non-alignment is not alignment of the non-aligned
 Non-alignment is the policy of peaceful international intercourse and
cooperation for development
ESSENTIALS OF NON-ALIGNMENT
 Independent foreign policy based upon non-alignment and peaceful co-
existence
 Opposition to colonialism and support for liberation movements
 Non-membership of any military alliances or blocs

15
George Lisca, “Nations In Alliance, p.202
 Absence of bilateral military alliance with any big power
 Absence of foreign military base on the territory of the state
CRITICAL EVALUATION OF NON-ALIGNMENT
 It is an unrealistic and idealistic principle
 It has been a source of friendlessness
 It is a principle of inaction and pacifism
 It is really double alignment
 It has ceased to be a relevant principle

JUSTIFICATION OF NON-ALIGNMENT
 It is a realistic and a pragmatic concept
 In involves full action and participation in international relations
 It has helped the new states to act out their desired roles in international
relations
 It acted as a source of influence on the policies of USA and USSR
 It is not double alignment
 It has played the positive role in ending the cold war
MERITS OF NON-ALIGNMENT
For the non-aligned nations, the policy of non-alignment has helped to –
 Maintain their independence of action
 To secure economic aid
 To concentrate upon the task of internal reconstruction and development
 To play an active role in international relations
 To consolidate the unity and solidarity of the third world
 To raise their voice against neo-colonialism and to work for securing a NIEO
 To establish cooperative and friendly relations with both the communist and
non-communist states
 To check the spread of cold war
 Preventing a third world war
 Securing of peaceful co-existence and cooperative interaction among all states
 Making the UNO a stable international organization
 Helping and strengthening of international consciousness in favor of peace,
security and prosperity and against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism
and apartheid16

SUMMITS OF NON-ALIGNED COUNTRIES

Nearly two-third of the total members of the international community regards non-
alignment as the fundamental principle of their foreign policies. It has been
instrumental in transforming nationalism into internationalism and bipolarity into
polycentrism. The first stage of emergence of NAM came in the form of adoption
of non-alignment as a fundamental principle of their foreign policy by several
states such as India, Burma, Indonesia, Egypt, Yugoslavia and Ghana. Nehru,
Nasser and Tito become the torchbearers of this movement. The lead that India
took in holding the Asians Relations Conference in New Delhi 1947 and the
success, with which the prominent leaders of Asia and Africa could organize the
Bandung Conference in April 1955, went a long way in preparing the ground work
for the emergence of the movement of the non-alignment in international relations.

The following summits of non-alignment are as follows –

 The Belgrade summit 1961
 The Cairo summit 1964
 The Lusaka Summit 1970
 The Algiers summit 1973
 The Colombo summit 1976
 The Havana summit 1979
 The new Delhi summit 1983
 The Harare summit 1986
 The Belgrade summit 1989

16
George Schwarzenberger, “The Scope for Neutralism”, Year Book of World Affairs, 1961, P.233
  The Jakarta summit 1992
 The Cartagena (Colombia) summit 1995
 The Durban summit 1998
 The Kuala Lumpur summit 2003
 Havana Summit,2006
 Tehran Summit,2012
 Venezuela summit 2015
RELEVANCE OF NAM IN CONTEMPORARY TIMES
Over the years NAM has developed into a movement for the independence,
political and economic, of all the countries. As such it continues to be a fully
relevant movement. The successful movements in Eastern Europe towards
democracy, multiparty system, exercise of human rights, opening up of economies
and their integration with the global economy have been in unison with the spirit of
non-alignment. The new emphasis upon peaceful coexistence, cooperation and
peaceful resolution of conflicts doubly vindicate the principle of NAM.
Many of the important objectives of the NAM are of a long-term nature, such as
establishing the NIEO and the democratization of the international system and its
functioning. Surely, no one can expect the achievement of these large worldwide
objectives in the foreseeable future. Hence NAM is destined to remain alive, active
and relevant in the 21st century also. The 10th and 11th NAM summits have
exhibited the resolve of the member countries to keep up and strengthen NAM as a
group of countries united to oppose the forces of neo-colonialism and intervention.
One of the principle tasks of the NAM would, therefore, be to create a balanced,
equitable, democratic and universal world power structure which is predicated on
peace, disarmament and development. Indian foreign policy stands committed to
all this and fully upholds non-alignment as one of its cardinal features. The
differences among the members of NAM should also be accepted as a sign of
vibrancy of NAM. Democratization of international system can be described as the
agenda of NAM in the coming centuries.
 INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ITS
NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES
INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY
Though India formally emerged as an independent country in August, 1947 the
basic principles of its foreign policy had been evolved during the period of colonial
rule itself. However, it may be noted that India’s foreign policy has not been static
and has undergone changes according to exigencies of time and requirements of
domestic as well as international situations.
Parliament in India has a two fold role in its control over foreign policy. In the first
place, Parliament has the power to approve, modify or reject the foreign policy
framed by the Executive. Second, it has general supervisory powers over the
conduct of foreign affairs.
The basic characteristic of India’s foreign policy has been a continuous effort for
all round cooperation, better understanding, removal of tension and normalization
of relations among the nations of the world.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY
 Non-Alignment
 Anti-Colonialism and Anti-Imperialism
 Opposition to Racialism
 Faith in Peaceful coexistence and Cooperation
 Special Bias for Asia
 Intimate relations with Commonwealth
 Faith in the UN
 Support for Disarmament
 Peaceful use of nuclear energy
 Special emphasis on Means17
CRITICISM OF INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY
 Too much importance attached to idealism

17
A. Appadorai, India’s Foreign Policy and Relations
 Critique of India’s non- alignment policy whereby she was looked upon with
suspicion by both the super powers
 India’s membership of the Commonwealth even after its independence from
British rule
 Negation of the principle of Power
In conclusion it may be said that though Indian foreign policy had been condemned
on various grounds, it cannot be denied that in the context of the conditions
prevailing in the international arena this was the best policy. It has combined the
twin principles of idealism and pragmatism. The governments which followed
thereafter also persisted with the basic principles of India’s foreign policy
advocated by Nehru, even though they made necessary adjustments in these
principles in keeping with the requirements of changed international conditions.

INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY FROM NEHRU TILL DATE

India’s Foreign policy under Nehru
There have been three main objectives of India’s foreign policy since Nehru. These
are:
I. The preservation of India’s territorial integrity and freedom of policy;
II. The promotion of international peace; and
III. The economic development of India
INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY AFTER 1962
After India’s defeat at the hands of China in 1962, our foreign policy came to be
characterized by greater pragmatism and realism where an attempt was made to
cultivate friendly relations with neighbours as well as two super powers during Lal
Bahadur Shastri era. The emphasis was shifted towards collective decision making.
FOREIGN POLICY UNDER INDIRA GANDHI
During her reign, the principle of collective decision making worked successfully
for some years after which she asserted herself and started formulating foreign
policy with the assistance of some of her trusted colleagues and friends. This
period also witnessed a great tilt towards USSR and somewhat cooling o relations
with USA.
FOREIGN POLICY UNDER JANATA PARTY
The Janta govt. tried to develop very intimate relations with both the super powers
and bring about greater balance and sobriety. A new chapter was opened in Indo-
US relations with the visit of President Carter. The Janta govt. took a number of
concrete steps to improve its relations with neighboring countries by coming to n
understanding regarding some of the outstanding disputes. Another consideration,
which compelled India to improve relations with neighboring countries, was that
India needed markets for its rapidly expanding agricultural surpluses. The Janata
govt. also tried to improve relations with China. In short, Janta Party followed a
foreign policy, which was highly pragmatic and aimed at promotion of national
interests.
FOREIGN POLICY IN POST JANTA PERIOD
The special tilt towards USSR was disappeared and coolness of relations with USA
gave lace to more mature relations. India’s relations with neighboring countries
turned sour but Indira Gandhi tried to improve it further during her second half
rule. Another feature was bid o develop closer relations with Western Europe in
order to reduce India’s dependence on USSR for sophisticated weapons.
FOREIGN POLICY UNDER RAJIV GANDHI
He followed the foreign policy of his mother and grand father. He indicated his
determination to work for narrowing international economic disparities, develop
closer relations with neighbors, pursue policy of non-interference, peaceful co-
existence and non-alignment, promise to pursue the concept of common regional
development of South Asia, improvement of relations with China, USA, USSR, to
carry on relentless crusade against arms race, to promote dialogue between North
and the South to build a just world economic order.
FOREIGN POLICY UNDER NATIONAL AND JANATA (S)
GOVERNMENTS
The National Front govt., which came into power in November 1989, expressed its
desire to improve its relations with its neighbors and with super powers. The Janta
Dal (S) which came to power after the fall of V.P. Singh govt. continued the earlier
policy without any change.
FOREIGN POLICY UNDER NARSIMHA RAO
Serious economic difficulties and domestic turmoil obliged India make
adjustments in its foreign policy it tried to forge closer relations with USA and
responded favorably to US proposals for military cooperation. Greater emphasis
was laid on economic diplomacy. The new govt. also initiated moves to improve
relations with the countries of Europe and settle outstanding issues with
neighboring countries. Another notable change that comes to India foreign policy
was the establishment of diplomatic relations with Israel, which hitherto was
considered as heretical. The relevance of Non-alignment was greatly increased in
the changed context according to Rao, in which independent decision making was
very important. Indian peacekeeping forces took leading role in the socio-
economic development of Somalia. India also moved closer to resolving boundary
dispute with China.
FOREIGN POLICY UNDER UNITED FRONT GOVERNMENT
The United Front govt. put forth Gujral Doctrine under which unilateral
concessions were made to the neighboring countries with regard to travel and
trade, without expecting reciprocity. Efforts were also made to promote free trade
among the SAARC countries and to convert it into an economic union at the
earliest. Another notable feature of the Gujral doctrine was to eliminate the basis
for outside intervention in the region.
FOREIGN POLICY UNDER BJP LED COALITION GOVERNMENT
India’s foreign policy becomes more realistic than idealistic. With regard to
neighboring countries it favored more intimate relations but did not approve of
unilateral concessions. It insists on reciprocity. Under the new policy greater
emphasis is being laid on security of the country. On this plea India conducted
nuclear tests at Pokhran in May 1998. In short, of late, India has emerged as self-
centered country, which is trying to pursue national interests single-mindedly18.
Foreign Policy under UPA
Post 1990 India saw a new alignment of political forces at the centre and
simultaneously India was passing through a turbulent period of economic crisis
pushing government to take radical decisions. India’s experiment in the economic
sector and particularly the adoption of twin strategies of Liberalization and
Privatization has an overbearing impact on the foreign policy. The new regime
18
Prakash Chander, International Relations, p.702
shedded many orthodoxies of the past and became friendly towards west
particularly United States of America heralding a new era of cooperation between
India and USA.
INDIA’S RELATIONS WITH NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES
INDIA-PAKISTAN RELATIONS
Geographically, historically, culturally as well as economically no other two
countries of the world have so much in common as India and Pakistan. In fact the
two constituted a single economic and political entity for many centuries before
1947 when Pakistan was born. Since 1947 the relations between the two countries
have been persistently strained. These issues are as follows –
 Dispute over sharing of river waters which was finally settled with the help
of Good Offices provided by World Bank
 Pakistan’s decision to join military alliances
 The attempt on the part of the Pakistan to pose as the spokesman of all the
Muslims on the Indian sub-continent.
 The growing friendship between Pakistan and china
 The Kashmir question
 India’s role during the revolt of east Pakistan and the independence of
Bangladesh
 Decision of the Arab countries to provide Pakistan with $1000 million for
the purchase of sophisticated arms.
 Acquisition of Harpoon missiles by Pakistan
 India’s support to the movement of democracy in Pakistan
 Pakistan’s supply of military equipment and training to Sikh extremists
 Operation Rhino over Siachen glacier
 Wullar Barrage dispute
 Sir Creek boundary dispute in Kutchch region of Gujarat
 Pakistan’s withdrawal from Commonwealth on Bangladesh’s independence
 Nuclear tests by India and Pakistan
 Kargil war
  Failure of Agra summit
 Pakistan’s growing links With Fundamentalists
 Trans-border smuggling of weapons and drugs
 Discriminatory trade barriers against India
 Treatment meted out to the minorities in Pakistan
But the scenario is not so gloomy. At present the atmosphere between the two
countries are cordial. Several steps were taken by both the sides to lessen the
tensions. Bus and rail links, India’s grant of MFN status to Pakistan, several visits
at the high level, track II diplomacy, and summits has greatly helped in the better
understanding between the two countries.
INDIA-NEPAL RELATIONS
The two countries maintain very close economic links and the trade between the
two countries have considerably increased over the years. Nepal is dependent on
India for transit rights to the outside world. India concluded a treaty with Nepal in
1950 which inter-alia provided for the coordination of foreign policies of the two
countries. It was in pursuance of these provisions of the treaty that India blocked
the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Nepal which strained
the relations between India and Nepal. Nepal’s open opposition to the annexation
of Sikkim to India also generated some tension between the two countries. The
question of displaced Nepalis from Meghalaya also caused some tension. In April
1987 Nepal introduced work permit system to regulate and control the migration of
Indians into Nepal. India’s relations with Nepal severally got strained over the
signing of the new trade and transit Treaty in 1989.
The leaders of the two countries agreed to provide for reopening of land customs
stations for movement of goods between the two countries and to reactivate the 15
transit points which were in operation earlier. In December 1991 the Prime
Ministers of 2 countries held a summit and concluded 5 agreements. The leaders of
the two countries also reached an understanding on the tapping of potential of
water resources for mutual benefit and agreed to work on a number of
multipurpose projects.
Other points of tension are as follows –
  Nepal provides an easy route to smuggling activities which hampered India
trade
 Problem of ISI base in Nepal
 Help provided to Naxalites in India by the Maoists of Nepal
 Hijacking of Indian Airplane IC-814 by the terrorists from Kathmandu
But accession of King Gyanendra on the throne that is known for his tough stand
against Maoists and Nepal festival and at present restoration of democratic govt. in
Nepal gave a boost to Indo-Nepal relationship.
INDIA-BANGLADESH RELATIONS
Bangladesh got independence in 1971 with the help provided by India. But soon
this era of cordial relations came to an end with the assassination of Sheikh
Mujibur Rehman. The main issues which contributed to tensions in relations
between the two countries are as follows –
 Clashes over undemarcated border
 Dispute over Farakka barrage
 Dispute over Moore Island
 Plight of minorities in Bangladesh
 Flow of migrants across border
 Bangladesh accused India of harboring and arming the tribal shanty Bahini
guerilllas and was demanding internal autonomy from Bangladesh.
 India charged Bangladesh with providing sanctuary to TNV guerillas of Tripura
 Objection of the Bangladesh over the fencing of the undemarcated boundary by
India
 Anti-Indian attitude of BNP ruled by Begum Khaleda Zia.
But things like BIMS-TEC Grouping, bus and rail service between West Bengal
and Dhaka somewhat improves the relationship between India and Bangladesh.
INDIA-SRILANKA RELATIONS
In the political sphere India and Sri Lanka have maintained very cordial relations
from the beginning. Two countries have also maintain close cooperation in the
economic field too when India and Sri Lanka signed Free Trade Area (FTA) on
25th December, 2000. Both are members of the NAM and share identical views on
most of the international problems. The only irritant in the relations between India
and Sri Lanka if the problem of the Indian origin in Sri Lanka.
Soon after attainment of independence Sri Lanka disowned the people of Indian
origin settled in the country as a result of which large number of them were
rendered stateless. The Indian govt. was also not willing to assume responsibility
for these people. However the government permitted those Indian citizens to come
to India who wanted to come on Indian citizenship but quite a sizeable number of
them continued to remain in Sri Lanka.
In May-June 1987, following massacre of large number of Tamilians in Jaffna by
Sri Lankan security forces, India air-dropped supplies to the suffering Tamilians
which was not liked by the Sri Lankan Govt. however, the Sri Lankan govt.
showed a spirit of accommodation which resulted in the signing of an accord
between Prime Minister Rajeev Gandhi and President Jayewardene on 29th July
1987.
It may be noted that India got involved in Sri Lanka on account of two reasons.
Firstly, India was strongly opposed to extra-regional security links of Sri Lanka
and the fear that outside powers may not get entrenched there. Secondly, it felt
concerned about the ethnic rights of Tamils in Sri Lanka and the onerous pressure
from the state of Tamilnadu to protect Tamils even by intervention.
In conclusion, one can say that India’s assurance of sustained support to Sri Lanka
in its struggle against the Tamil insurgency, separatism led by the LTTE, the
extension of economic and trade cooperation between the two countries, BIMS-
TEC grouping between the two countries further contributed to the improvement of
relations between India and Sri Lanka.
India and Major Powers
India-USA Relations
Despite the similarity of domestic political set up and dedication to liberal
democratic values Indo-US relations have remained without warmth. A
tremendous boost however, in the relationship of the two countries took place
when India followed a radical change in its economic policy from that of command
economy to liberalization and globalization. Without losing time, USA became
India’s largest trading power as well as the biggest investor in it.
Indo-China Relations
Indo-China relations have grown steadily since the resumption of political dialogue
some 18 years ago after a prolonged spell of frostiness. From 1999 onwards, after
the visit paid by both premiers to each other countries established a new positive
and forward looking relationship between the two countries.The Indo-China
relations have been progressing towards normalization of ties between the two
countries.