SUBJECT: SOCIOLOGY-II

SUBJECT CODE -202

SEMESTER- II
FACULY NAME-SMITHA.K

CASTE

Sociologists have recognised three major types of social stratification; caste, estates and social
class. Of these, caste system as a form of social stratification is peculiar to India. The caste is an
inseparable aspect of Indian Society.

According to S.V. Ketkar the word caste is of Spanish and Portuguese Origin, but its Indian
application from the Portuguese.

Definition of Caste

Caste is so complex phenomenon which is difficult to define. It can be viewed both as a unit and
as a system and also can be viewed as a structural phenomenon as well as a cultural
phenomenon.

Sir Herbert Risely: “Caste is a collection of families, bearing a common name, claiming a
common descent, from a mythical ancestor, human and divine, professing to follow the same
hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming
single homogeneous community.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF CASTE

1. Ascribed Status
The status of an individual is determined by his birth and not by selection nor by
accomplishments. No amount of power, prestige and pelf can change the position of man.
The membership of the caste is hence unchangeable, unacquirable, inalienable,
unattainable and nontransferable
2. Hierarchical division of society
The Hindu society is gradational one. It is divided into several small groups called castes
and subcastes. A sense of ‘highness’ and ‘lowness’ or ‘superiority’ and ‘inferiority’ is
associated with this gradation or ranking. The Brahmins are placed at the top of the
hierarchy and are regarded as ‘pure’, supreme or superior.
The degraded caste or the so called ‘untouchables’ [Harijans] have occupied the other
end of the hierarchy
3. Segmental division of Society
 The Hindu society is a caste-ridden society. It is divided into a number of segments called
‘castes’. It is not a homogeneous society. Castes are groups with defined boundary of
their own.
4. Endogamy
The most fundamental characteristic of the caste system is endogamy. All the thinkers are
of the opinion that the endogamy is the chief characteristic of caste, i.e. the members of a
caste or sub-caste should marry within their own caste or sub-caste. The violation of the
rule of endogamy would mean ostracism and loss of caste. Although endogamy is the
common rule for a caste, hypergamy and hypogamy were also prevalent in exceptional
cases
5. Fixed occupation
The traditional caste system is characterised by hereditary occupation. Members of a
particular caste are expected to follow the occupation meant for the caste. Traditionally a
Brahmin was allowed to function as a priest. In some casts the name of caste is dependent
upon the very occupation as for instance, Napita (barber), Dhobi, Mochi, Mali etc.
6. Restrictions on food habits
There are rules, for example, what sort of food or drink can be accepted by a person and
from what castes. Usually a caste would not accept cooked food from any other caste that
stands lower than itself in the social scale. A person belonging to a higher caste believes
that he gets polluted even by the shadow of a person belonging to the low caste or by
accepting food or drink from him.

For example, in North India, a Brahmin would accept ‘pakka’ food [cooked in ghee] only
from some castes lower than his own. But he would accept ‘kachcha’ food [prepared with
the use of water] at the hands of no other caste except his own.

As a matter of rule and practice, no individual would accept ‘kachcha’ food prepared by
an inferior caste man. Generally, any kind of food that is prepared by the Brahmins is
acceptable to all the caste people.

This factor explains as to why the Brahmins dominated the hotel industry for a long time.
Further, restrictions are also there still on the use of certain vegetables for certain castes.
Even today, some traditional Brahmins do not consume onions, garlic, cabbage, carrot,
beatroot, etc. Eating beef is not allowed except for the Harijans.

7. Restriction on social interactions

The caste system puts restrictions on the range of social relations also. The idea of
‘pollution’ makes this point clear. It means a touch of a lower caste man (particularly
Harijan) would pollute or defile a man of higher caste. Even his shadow is considered
enough to pollute a higher caste man. In Kerala for a long time, a Nayar could approach a
Nambudari Brahamin but would not touch him.
 Further, a Tiyan was expected to keep himself at a distance of 36 steps from the Brahmin
and apulaya at a distance of 96 paces. In Tamilnadu the Shanar toddy tapper was
expected to keep a distance of 24 paces while approaching a Brahmin. This has resulted
in the practice of untouchability. This practice has made the lower caste people to be
segregated completely from the higher caste.

8. Social and Religious Disabilities of Certain Castes:

In the traditional caste society some lower caste people [particularly, the Harijans]
suffered from certain civil or social and religious disabilities. Generally, the impure
castes are made to live on the outskirts of the city or the village. In south India, certain
parts of the towns or the villages are not accessible to the Harijans.

It is recorded that during the Peshwa rule in Maharashtra the Mahars and Mangs were not
allowed within the gates of Poona before 9.00 A.M. and after 3.00 P.M. The reason was
during that time their bodies would cast too long shadows which, if they were to fall on
the Brahmins, would defile them.

Socially, Harijans or the so called ‘untouchables’ are separated from other members.
Even today, in many places they are not allowed to draw water from the public wells.
During the early days, public places like hotels, hostels, public lecture halls, schools,
temples, theatres were not kept open for the lower caste people.

Entrance to temples and other places of religious importance was forbidden for them.
Educational facilities, legal rights and political representation were denied to them for a
long time. In South India, restrictions were placed on the mode of constructing houses of
the lower caste people, and their types of dresses and patterns of ornamentation.

9. Civil and religious privileges of certain caste

If  the lower caste people suffer from certain disabilities, some higher caste people like
the Brahmins enjoy certain privileges. Nowhere the Brahmins suffered from the
disabilities cited above. They are given more liberty, because they are believed to be born
‘pure’ and ‘superior’.

The Brahmins never saluted others, but they always had the privilege of being saluted by
others. They never even bowed to the idols of the lower caste people. Education and
teaching were almost the monopoly of the higher caste people. Chanting the Vedic
Mantras was great privilege of the Brahmins. The upper caste people in general, enjoyed
social, political, legal and religious privileges.

10. Caste Panchayats

 During the early days in every village every caste used to have its own caste Panchayat. It
consisted of five chosen members who enjoyed much social privilege and respect. The
caste panchayat used to perform a number of functions. It used to make the members
comply with caste rules and regulations.

Settling caste disputes and giving its final verdict on the issues referred to it, were also its
other functions. It was giving punishments to those who violated caste rules and
obligations.

Matters such as – breaking the marriage promise, refusal on the part of the husband to
take the wife to his house, cruelty to wife, adultery on the part of wife, killing the cows,
insulting the Brahmins, having illicit sex relations with other caste people, etc., were
dealt with by the panchayat. It was giving punishments such as-arranging dinner party for
the fellow caste-men, imposing fine, purification, pilgrimage, out casting etc., for the
offenders.

The caste panchayat was also striving to promote the welfare of the caste members.
Safeguarding the interests of the caste members was yet another function of the
panchayat. These caste panchayats have become weak and ineffective nowadays.

The castes and subcastes together make up the Hindu social system. Still in some respects
each is isolated from the other. It is in a way semi sovereign. The castes are a ‘complete
world’ in themselves for their members. The members are expected to be loyal to the
caste. Caste feeling is hence very strong. It is very much stronger in rural areas than in
the urban area. It is because of this the amount of community-feeling is restricted.

ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM

Different sociologist propounded various theories for the origin of caste system.

1. Traditional theory; According to this theory, the caste system is of divine origin. There
are some references in Vedic literature wherein it is said that castes were created by
Brahma the supreme creator, so that human beings may harmoniously perform the
various social functions essential for the maintenance of society.
2. Religious Theory: It is believed that various religious customs had given birth to the
caste system in India. People connected to religion like Kings and Brahmins were given
higher positions. Different people used to perform different tasks for the administration
of the ruler that later on became the basis of caste system.
 3. Racial theory; According to Dr. Mazumdar, the caste system took its birth after the
arrival of Aryans in India. In order to maintain their separate existence the Indo-Aiyans
used for certain groups and orders of people the favourite word ‘varna’, ‘colour’
4. Occupational theory; According to this theory, the origin of caste system can be found
in the natureand quality of social work performed by the various groups of people. Those
professions which were regarded as better and respectable made the persons who
performed them superior to those who were engaged in dirty professions.
5. Political theory; According to this theory, caste system is a clever device invented by the
Brahmins in order to place themselves on the highest ladder of social hierarchy. 
6. Evolutionary theory; According to this theory, the caste system did not come into
existence all of a sudden or at a particular date. It is the result of a long process of social
evolution. A number of factors played their part in the development of the present caste
system.

CHANGES IN CASTE SYSTEM

Structural Changes:
(i) Decline in the supremacy of the Brahmins:
There has been a sharp decline in the supremacy of the Brahmins in society. In the past, the
Brahmin occupied the topmost position in the caste hierarchy. But today consequent upon the
process of modernization the dominance of the Brahmins has been relegated to the background.
He does not enjoy the same social status, which he once used to.

(ii) Changes in the Caste hierarchy:

The caste system is no longer a clearly demarcated system of hierarchically-ordered caste
groups. As a result of certain factors such as occupational diversification, migration
to urban areas, mechanisation of agriculture, boundaries between caste groups are tending to blur
or break down. There is an increasing degree of interpenetration between different groups,
classes and categories. A gradual lessening of the congruence between caste, class and power is
visible.

(iii) Protection of the Harijans:

The governmental policy of protective discrimination has gone a long way in improving the
socio -economic conditions of the Harijans. Consequently, their social status has improved to a
considerable extent.

Functional Changes:
(i) Change in the fixation of status:
In a caste society, birth was taken as the exclusive basis of social status. But in the changing
social scenario, birth no longer constitutes the basis of social prestige. Criteria such as wealth,
ability, education, efficiency etc. have become the determinants of social status. The significance
of caste as an ascriber of status has been relegated to the background.
(ii) Change with regard to occupation:
So far as caste system is concerned, the individual had no choice but to follow the occupation
ascribed to him by his caste. But today occupation is not the hereditary monopoly of any caste
any more. One is free to take up any occupation he likes according to his ability and interest.
Mahatma Gandhi’s movement preaching dignity of labour has drawn higher castes to dirty-hand
callings while education has opened white- collar occupations for members of lower castes.

(iii)  Changes in marriage restrictions:

Under the caste system endogamy was the basis of mate-selection. The members of a caste
or sub-caste were forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside the group. But at
present the Special Marriage Act, 1954 and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 have removed
endogamic restrictions and declared inter-caste marriages as legally valid.

Of late, several factors such as impact of western philosophy, coeducation, working together of
males and females of different castes in the same factory or office have contributed to an
increase in the cases of inter-caste marriage, love-marriage and late-marriage.

(iv) Change in commensality:
In the traditional system, the unit of commensality was defined fairly rigidly in terms of caste
affiliation. In recent times, there has been a gradual expansion of this unit. Today, Brahmins are
inter dining with ‘clean’ Shudras. They do not hesitate to take kachha food from other clean
castes. Furthermore, they do not hesitate to accept food and water from the members of the lower
castes for fulfillment of their political ends.

(v) Change in the concept of purity and pollution:

Kapadia stated that the Hindu concept of purity and pollution was very extensive in its scope and
mandatory in its observance till the twenties of this century. Under the caste system occupations
were ranked in accordance with their ritual purity. For example, a person coming
into contact with a barber was supposed to become impure. Meat, fish, wine etc. were regarded
as ritually impure.

A menstruating lady was considered impure and as such the food cooked by her was considered
impure. In the twenty first century the importance of these ideas of purity and pollution in Hindu
social lifehas considerably decreased.

Religious sanction no more constitutes the basis of pure and impure. The rules of hygiene have
formed the criterion of pure and impure at present.

(vi) Change in the life style:

In the past, every caste had its own life style. It was the differences in the styles of life that made
the people of different castes appear distinct from one another. But today differences between the
life styles of castes are gradually being eliminated and there is a marked tendency towards the
evolution of a common style. The standardization of life styles is due to the twin processes of
sanskritization and westernization.

(vii) Change in inter-caste relations:

Of late, the pattern of inter-caste relations has undergone profound changes. The mutual rights
and obligations characterising inter-caste relations have crumbled down. Members of the low
castes no longer obey the orders of the members of high castes. They do not come forward to
perform forced labour for the members of the upper caste.

Further, efforts made by the lower castes to rise in the social ladder have annoyed the upper
castes. All these factors have led to inter-caste conflicts. Such inter-caste conflicts are gradually
increasing. However, these are more for achieving power than on grounds of ritual status.

(viii) Change in the power of caste Panchayats:

So far as caste system was concerned, each caste had a caste Panchayat. The caste Panchayat
played the role of a judicial body. But today Jati Panchayats are on the decline. Law courts and
village factions have taken over most of their roles.

(ix) Restrictions on education removed:

Today education is no more confined to the higher castes. Anybody belonging to any caste can
prosecute study in educational institutions. Of late, the Government both at the Union and State
levels has adopted several measures for the spread of education among the lower castes by way
of giving them stipends, scholarships, free study materials, reservation of seats etc.

(x)  Changes in the system of power:

The notions of democracy and adult franchise have affected the caste system in several ways.
The new political system attacks the very roots of hierarchization. In the past politics was
regarded as the sole preserve of the higher castes. But today people belonging to all castes are
becoming conscious that they can play an important role in the political processes and can be
benefitted from them.

(xi) Growth of caste consciousness:

Casteism has increased. It has affected political issues and political decisions.

(xii) Weakening of the Jajmani system:

The Jajmani system in the villages has weakened, affecting inter-caste relations. Several reasons
like laxity in the performance of rites and rituals on the part of the members of various castes,
decline of Brahminical supremacy, development in the field of transport and communication,
intergenerational educational mobility etc. may be attributed to the decline of Jajmani system in
rural India.
Attitudinal Changes:
(i) Loss of faith in the ascribed status:
Under the sway of rapid social transformation taking place in Indian society following the
processes of industrialization, urbanization, westernization, secularization and modernization, the
attitude of the people towards caste system has undergone considerable changes.

They are not psychologically prepared to accept the fixed status of an individual solely on the
basis of birth. They attach importance to ability, efficiency, talent and aptitude. Hence it is quite
natural that they repose their faith in achieved status. As such, the very foundation of the caste
system has been shattered.

(ii) Change in the philosophical basis:

M .N. Srinivas holds the view that the law of karma and the doctrine of transmigration of soul
are responsible for the acceptance of caste system by the „ people. But such an attitude towards
caste does not exist at present. People do not believe that caste is divinely ordained. They have
begun to doubt the very philosophical basis of caste system.

In fine, the traditional Indian caste system does not find favour with modern sociologists. The
reason is not that it is intrinsically unsound but that it is wholly out of tune with the prejudices of
modern sociology. Industrialization, urbanization, secularization, modernization have brought
about the aforesaid significant changes in the caste system. M. N. Srinivas has rightly observed
that caste has taken the shape of an incarnation in modern India.

CAUSES OF CHANGES IN CASTE SYSTEM

Caste system under the impact of certain powerful factors is undergoing rapid transformation in
modern India. The factors responsible for such a change in the system are as follows:

Modern education:
Modern liberal education introduced into the country by the British has played a crucial role in
undermining the importance of caste in Indian social life. Modern education is based on such
democratic values like equality, liberty and fraternity. It is also grounded on such scientific
values like reason and observation. Hence it is quite natural that with the spread of modern
education, the people’s belief in the divine origin of caste, Karma and Karmaphala has received a
severe setback.

2. Industrialization:

The process of industrialization has affected caste structure to a remarkable extent. Industrial
growth has provided new sources of livelihood to people and made occupational mobility
possible. In the midst of all this, the people belonging to various castes consider it mediaevalistic
to go into the question of one’s caste. In a factory a Brahmin works side by side with a Shudra.
He cannot avoid his touch or shadow.

3. Urbanization:
Industrialization has given rise to the process of urbanization. New townships have emerged. The
ruralites migrate to these towns in order to avail better employment opportunities. With the
coming up of big hotels, restaurants, theatres, clubs and educational institutions it is not at all
possible to observe communal inhibitions and taboos against food-sharing. Kingsley Davis
rightly observes that the anonymity, congestion, mobility, secularism and changeability of the
city make the operation of the caste virtually impossible.

4. Modern means of transport and communication:

Modern means of transport and communication are instrumental in increasing spatial mobility of
the people and thereby put an end to the caste system. Means of transport like train, bus, tram,
airplane etc. cannot provide for distinctions between castes, and a leveling effect has been
brought into the society. During travel, too, one must of necessity take his meals without
questioning the propriety of doing so in the company of low-caste persons.

5. Increase in the importance of wealth:

Under the caste system, birth was taken as the basis of social prestige. But today, wealth has
replaced birth as the basis of social prestige. Occupations are now no longer caste-based. People
while choosing their occupations attach greater importance to income rather than anything else.

It is because of this reason a high-born may be ill-placed in society while a man of low caste
with ample wealth at his disposal has a room at the top. With this change of emphasis, the Indian
caste system is in the process of being replaced by the system of social classification as prevails
in western countries.

6. The new legal system:

The new legal system, introduced by the British Government, has given a severe blow to the
caste system in India. Equality before law irrespective of castes has been firmly instituted.
Consequently, the age old discrimination against the lower castes has been removed.

Further, with the establishment of law courts, the traditional castes Panchayats have lost
their power and effectiveness to punish the deviants. Not only that a number of Acts like the
Untouchability Offences Act of 1955 and the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 have abnegated the
evil effects of the caste system.
 7. Sanskritization:
Srinivas defines sanskritization as “the process by which a low Hindu caste or tribal or any other
group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way of life in the direction of a high and
frequently ‘twice-born’ caste”. The members of the lower castes leave their own traditional
ideals and behaviour patterns and accept the ideals and standards of higher castes.

The caste system being a closed one, sanskritization does not entail structural change. It entails
positional change. Hence through sanskritization the lower caste people move up slightly in the
scale of “Jatis’ within a particular varna.

8. Westernization:
The term ‘Westernization’ was coined by Srinivas to signify the changes in the Indian society
during the British rule. By promoting education, egalitarianism, rationalism, humanism and
above all a critical outlook towards various social issues and problems, westernization has gone a
long way in undermining the influence of the caste system.

It has given severe blow to practices like child marriage, purity and pollution, commensality,
untouchability etc. The effects of westernization are prominently visible in the form of inter-
caste marriages, intercommunity marriages, inter-religious marriages, occupational changes etc.
In this way westernization has brought about profound changes in the Indian society.

9. Secularization:
The role of secularization in weakening the caste system is great. By legitimizing secular
ideologies and formal legal doctrines and promoting rationality, scientific attitude and
differentiation, secularization has affected certain characteristics of the caste system especially
the concept of purity and pollution, commensality, fixity of occupation etc.

10. Socialistic ideas:
Caste system is based on the ideas of high birth and low birth. On the other hand, socialists say,
“the differences between human beings have been created by society; hence the society only can
remove them.” As a result of such socialist thought, caste system is breaking.

11. New social movements:

Some social movements have also attacked the caste system. TheBrahmo Samaj movement led
by Raja Ram Mohan Roy rejected the barriers of caste divisions and stood for universalisation
and brotherhood of man. The Prarthana Sabha movement supported by Justice Ranade brought
about certain social reforms like inter-caste marriage, interdining and remarriage of widows, etc.

The Arya Samaj movement founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Ramakrishna Mission
movement raised voice against the hereditary caste system based on birth and stood for its
abolition. In this way all these social movements succeeded, in no small measure, in affecting
some of the structural features of the caste system.

12. Rise of new social classes:

Industrialization has given rise to the emergence of new social classes. These social classes are
replacing the traditional castes. Trade Unions, Merchants’ Associations and Political Parties are
replacing the old caste loyalties. An increase in class consciousness leads to a decrease in caste
consciousness.

13. Influence of Indian Constitution:

Indian Constitution bestows some fundamental rights on the citizens irrespective of caste, creed,
colour or sex. It offers equal opportunities to all. Para 15(2) of the Constitution, which declares
all citizens as equal, directly attacks the Hindu social order based on inherited inequality. No
wonder that caste system is withering away.

In fine, such factors have vitally affected the caste system. But it is highly improbable that the
system will altogether be eliminated from the Indian social scene. It may assume new forms and
perform new functions in the changed conditions of modern society.

CLASS

Social class is a principle type of social stratification found especially in the modern civilized
countries. The class system is universal in nature.

Definition of class

Ginsberg: A class is a group of individuals who through common descent, similarity of

occupation wealth and education have come to have a similar mode of life, a similar stock of
ideas, feelings, attitudes and forms of behavior.

Max Webber: Social classes are aggregates of individual who have the same opportunities of
acquiring goods, the same exhibited standard of living.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CLASS

1. Class-a status group

Class is related to status. Different statuses arise in a society as people do different things,
engage in different activities and pursue different vocations.

2. Achieved status
Birth is not the criterion of status. Achievements of an individual mostly decide his
status.
 3. Universal in nature
The class system appears in all the modern complex societies of the world. It is a
phenomenon that is absent only in the smallest, the simplest and most primitive societies.
4. Mode of feeling
In a Class system we may observe three modes of feeling; feeling of equality in relation
to members of one’s own class, feeling of inferiority in relation to those occupy the
higher status, and feeling of superiority in relation to those who occupy lower status in
the hierarchy.
5. Element of prestige
Status is associated with prestige .The relative position of the class in the social set up
arises from the degree of prestige attached to the status.
6. Element of stability
A social class is relatively a stable group. It is not transistory not unstable like a mob or
crowd.
7. Mode of Living:
A social class is distinguished from other classes by its life styles or the modes of living.
“Life-styles” reflect the speciality in preferences, tastes and values of a class.
8. Social class- an open group
An open class system is one in which vertical social mobility is possible. There are no
restrictions or at the most only very mild restrictions are imposed on the upward or
downward movements in a social hierarchy.
9. Social class- an economic group
The basis of social class is mostly economic, but they are not mere economic group or
divisions.
10. Classification of social class
Sociologist have given three fold classification of classes; Upper Class, Middle Class and
Lower Class.
11. Class consciousness
Class consciousness is the sentiment that characterizes the relation of men towards the
members of their own and other classes.

MARXIAN ANALYSIS OF CLASS

Marx's class theory rests on the premise that "the history of all hitherto existing society is the
history of class struggles." According to this view, ever since human society emerged from its
primitive and relatively undifferentiated state it has remained fundamentally divided between
classes who clash in the pursuit of class interests

Marx's analysis continually centers on how the relationships between men are shaped by their
relative positions in regard to the means of production, that is, by their differential access to
scarce resources and scarce power. He notes that unequal access need not at all times and under
all conditions lead to active class struggle. But he considered it axiomatic that the potential
for class conflict is inherent in every differentiated society, since such a society systematically
generates conflicts of interest between persons and groups differentially located within the social
structure, and, more particularly, in relation to the means of production. Marx was concerned
with the ways in which specific positions in the social structure tended to shape the social
experiences of their incumbents and to predispose them to actions oriented to improve their
collective fate.

Yet class interests in Marxian sociology are not given ab initio. They develop through the
exposure of people occupying particular social positions to particular social circumstances. Thus,
in early industrial enterprises, competition divides the personal interests of "a crowd of people
who are unknown to each other. . . But the maintenance of their wages, this common interest
which they have against their employer, brings them together." "The separate individuals form a
class only in so far as they have to carry on a common battle against another class; otherwise
they are on hostile terms with each other as competitors."

Classes are aggregates of persons who perform the same function in the organization of
production. Yet self-conscious classes, as distinct from aggregates of people sharing a common
fate, need for their emergence a number of conditions among which are a network of
communication, the concentration of masses of people, a common enemy, and some form of
organization. Self-conscious classes arise only if and when there exists a convergence of what
Max Weber later called "ideal" and "material" interests, that is, the combination of economic and
political demands with moral and ideological quests.

CASTE AND CLASS DIFFERENCES:

S.No CASTE CLASS

1 Peculiar to India Universal
2 Ascribed Status Achieved
3 Closed group Open group
4 Divine origin Secular
5 Purity & Impurity Feeling of disparity
6 Regulation of relation Limited relation
7 Greater Social Distance Less Social Distance
8 Conservative Progressive
9 Endogamous Not endogamous
10 Complexity Simplicity
11 Caste consciousness Class consciousness

VARNA
The term Varna literally means Colour. The word Varna is evolved from Sanskrit root Vri
meaning choice. According to Mandelboum, the origin story of Varna is first noted in Rigveda.
It states four Varnas came into being from the body of primeval man. From his mouth issued the
Brhamins, arms issued the Kshatriyas, thighs issued Vaishyas and from feet rose Sudras.

The object of creating Varna system in India was the division of labour.
Classification of the Varna System in India 

1. Brahmin : At the top of the social hierarchy were the Brahmins. The sages of Indian culture
are all Brahmins. Besides they were wise men who imparted knowledge and wisdom to the
society. They were highly respected in the ancient Indian society. They were the advisors in the
royal courts. In the post Vedic Age they became oppressive and exploited and misguided the
society. 

2. Kshatriya : The warrior or the ruling class ranked second in the Varna System. They were the
protectors of the society. The Kshatriyas were depicted as gallant, courageous and intelligent.
They were the true patriots. With the evolution of the caste system their position in
society more or less remained the same. 

3. Vaishya : This was the merchant class. The caste system had little effect on them. They were
the moneyed class and contributed a great deal in the economic growth of the nation. The
Vaishyas were also responsible for introducing Indian culture to the other nations. The Brahmins
kept them in good humor as Vaishya community constructed temples and other buildings for
social cause. 

4. Sudra : The worst hit by the caste system in India were the Sudras. Though they were looked
down as dasas and dashyus, yet they are not discriminated. In the post Vedic ages there evolved
a new section of sudras known as the Untouchables. They were social outcasts because they
could not belong to any caste and did menial jobs. They were denied entry into the mainstream. 

DIVISION OF FUNCTIONS ACCORDING TO TRAITS: In varna system division of labour

has been effected on the basis of inherent qualities and oriental tendies; Satvik, Satvik-Rajsik,
Rasik-Tamsik and Tamsik.

DEVELOPED SOCIAL ORDER; The main aim of this system was to put the different talents,
nature of liking and power used in a manner to maintain a balanced state of society.

ADVANTAGE OF VARNA SYSTEM is the decentralization of power. In this system power

of knowledge, power of aims, power of wealth and power of labour were evenly distributed
among Brhamins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. The varna system shows a fine synthesis of
fundamentals of social organization, division of labour, decentralization of power and correct
position of different values.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VARNA AND CASTE

S.No Varna Caste

1 Assigned according to capabilities and Acquired by birth
mental tendencies
2 flexible rigid
3 Four in numbers Castes are many
4 Is of ancient time Is of Modern period
5 Refers to racial differences It indicates the birth and descent
6 Based on occupation Based on birth
7 More or less an open system Regarded as closed system
8 Based on the principle of equality Based on the principle of inequality
9 Has sanction of Hindu religion Does not have sanction of Hindu religion

SCHEDULED CASTE AND THEIR PLACE IN INDIAN SOCIETY

All permanently organized societies are stratified. Most societies of the world have had their type
of what Ward calls “the lowly”. The Romans had their Plebeians, the British their Villains, the
Egyptians their slaves, the Americans their Negroes and Germans their Jews. Likewise, the
Hindus have the “untouchables”. Slavery, serfdom, villeinage have all vanished. But
untouchability still exists. For no sins of theirs a large section of our population is suffering from
a number of disabilities arising out of untouchability. The constitution of independent India
declares in an unequal voice that untouchability is abolished and its practice in any matter is
punishable.

The Schedule Castes occupy the bottommost rung of the social ladder. They are generally
regarded as untouchables and popularly known as Harijans. According to Census report of 2011,
the Scheduled Caste constitute 20.14 crore belong to Schedule Caste.

Definition

People who constitute the bottom most place in the Indian social stratification system are often
regarded as untouchables. All of them come under the category of what our constitution calls the
“Schedule Caste”. The term scheduled caste was coined by the Simon Commission in 1928 and
Government of India Act-1935 which came to be used for the people described as
untouchables.

PROBLEMS OF SCHEDULE CASTE

The schedule castes have been suffering from various social, religious, legal, political,
educational, economical and other disabilities. For centuries they were denied political
representation, legal rights, civic facilities, educational privileges and economic opportunities.
During the British rule also nothing was done to uplift the Haijans and to relieve them from their
bondages. Even today the Scheduled Castes are not free from problems.

Their problem can be grouped into social economic and political problems

1. Social Problems and Disabilities

i. Lowest status in the Social hierarchy;

In the Caste hierarchy the Scheduled Castes are ascribed the lowest status. They are
considered to be ‘unholy’, ‘inferior’ and ‘low’ and are looked down upon by the other
castes. They have been suffering from the stigma of ‘untouchability’. Their very touch is
considered to be polluting for the higher caste people.Hence they have been treated as the
servants of the other caste people. The Scheduled Castes have always served the other
castes, but the attitude of other castes is of total indifference and contempt.

They were kept at a distance from other caste people. In some instances (in South India)
even the exact distance which an upper caste man was expected to keep between himself
and the Harijans was specified.

ii. Civic Disabilities

Prevention from the use of Public Places. For a long time the untouchable castes were not
allowed to use public places and avail of civic facilities such as—village wells, ponds,
temples, hostels, hotels, schools, hospitals, lecture halls, dharamashalas, choultries, etc.
They were forced to live on the outskirts of the towns and villages during the early days.
Even today they are segregated from others spatially. In South India, restrictions were
imposed on the mode of construction of their houses, types of dresses and patterns of
their ornamentation.
Some lower caste people were not allowed to carry umbrellas, to wear shoes or golden
ornaments and to milk cows. They were prohibited from covering the upper part of their
body. The services of barbers, washermen and tailors were refused to them.

iii. Educational disabilities & Poor educational performance

Traditionally the untouchables were deprived of getting education. They were not
allowed to use public educational institutions. Even today most of the illiterates are
untouchables.

iv. Religious disabilities;

The Harijans also suffer from religious disabilities even today. They are not allowed to
enter temples in many places. The brahmins who offer their priestly services to some
 lower castes, are not prepared to officiate in the ceremonies of the ‘untouchable’ castes.
They do not even bow down to the dieties of these ‘untouchable’ castes.

The Vedic mantras which are considered to be more pure could not be listened to and
chanted by the Harijans because of the taboos. They were only permitted to make use of
the upanishadic mantras which are considered to be less pure. Burial grounds were also
denied for them in many places.

2.  Economic Disabilities:

Harijans are economically backward and have been suffering from various economic
disabilities also.

i. No Right of Property Ownership:

For centuries the Harijans were not allowed to have land and business of their own. It is
only recently their ownership to the property has become recognised. The propertied
people are comparatively less in them. Majority of them depend upon agriculture but
only a few of them own land.

ii . Selection of Occupations Limited:

The Caste system imposes restrictions on the occupational choice of the members. The
occupational choice was very much limited for the Harijans. They were not allowed to
take up to occupations which were reserved for the upper caste people.

They were forced to stick on to the traditional inferior occupations such as—curing hides,
removing the human wastes, sweeping, scavenging, oil grinding, tanning, shoemaking,
leather works, carrying the dead animals, etc. These occupations were regarded as
‘degraded’ and ‘inferior’.

iii Landless Labourers:

Majority of the Harijans are today forking as landless labourers. More than 90.1 of the
agricultural labourers in India belong to the depressed classes which include the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. More than 77.1% of the Scheduled Caste
workers in rural areas are agricultural labourers.

A large number of Harijan families are in debts. About 64.1% of the agricultural labour
households of the Scheduled Castes were indebted during 1956-57 as against 45.1% in
1950-51.
 The average accumulated debt per household increased from Rs. 47 in 1950-51 to Rs. 88
in 1956-57. Their indebtedness is increasing day by day. The Harijans are economically
exploited by the upper caste people. Even today they are the lowest paid workers; some
of them continue to suffer as bonded labourers at the hands of the higher caste people.
ii. Political Disabilities

The untouchables hardly participated in the political matters. They were not given any place
in the politics, administration and the general governance of India, they were not allowed to
hold any public post.Political rights and representation were denied for them. Under the
British rule, they were given the right to vote for the first time. After independence equal
political opportunities and rights have been provided for the Harijans also. Politically, the
Harijans are yet to become an organised force.

iii. Problems of Atrocities against untouchables

Statistics compiled by India's National Crime Records Bureau indicate that in the year 2000,
the last year for which figures are available, 25,455 crimes were committed against Dalits.
Every hour two Dalits are assaulted; every day three Dalit women are raped, two Dalits are
murdered, and two Dalit homes are torched.

No one believes these numbers are anywhere close to the reality of crimes committed against
Dalits. Because the police, village councils, and government officials often support the caste
system, which is based on the religious teachings of Hinduism, many crimes go unreported due
to fear of reprisal, intimidation by police, inability to pay bribes demanded by police, or simply
the knowledge that the police will do nothing.

MEASURES FOR THE WELFARE OF SCHEDULE CASTES

The government of Independent India has been trying to uplift the Scheduled Caste from its very
inception. The Governmental attempts to promote the welfare of Schedule caste can be classified
into two groups; Constitutional and legislative measures, other welfare measure and
programmes.

The Constitutional and Legislative Measures

I. Special provisions in the constitution;

The Government of India has incorporated some special provisions in its Constitution
for the removal of untouchability and to promote the welfare of SCs and STs. The
Constitution ensures the protection and assures the promotion of interests of SCs, STs
and other weaker sections of the population in the fields such as (1) political
representation, (2) representation in services, (3) economic development, (4) socio-
cultural safeguards and (5) legal support.
 1. The Preamble of the Constitution of India declares that it assures equality, promotes
fraternity, guarantees liberty and ensures justice to one and all.

2. Articles 15,16,17,38 and 46 guarantee that the state shall not discriminate between
persons on account of their religion or region and caste or class.

3. Article 15 prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, caste, race, sex or place of

birth.

4. Article 17 abolishes untouchability. It is further provided that the enforcement of any

disability arising out of untouchability shall be an offence punishable in accordance
with law.

5. Article 46 promotes educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes,

Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections.

6. Article 330 reserves representation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the
House of the People.

7. Article 334 relates to reservation of seats and special representation to cease after
fifty years [Originally reservation was made for ten years and it was extended four
times, the present period of expiry being 2000 A.D.)

8. Article 335 mentions the claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to
services and posts.

9. Article 338 empowers the Central Govt. to appoint a National Commission for
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

10. Article 339 empowers the President to appoint a Commission to report on the
administration of the Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes in the
States.

11. Article 341 empowers the President to specify the castes, races or tribes deemed as
Scheduled Castes in a particular State or Union territory.

12. Article 342 empowers the President to specify the tribes or tribal communities
deemed to be Scheduled Tribes in a particular State or Union terriroty.

II. Legislative measures

i. Protection of Civil rights Act, 1976
 ii. Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities)
Amendment Act, 2015
iii. Special Measures Undertaken by Some States to Give Protection to SCs Against
Atrocities.

III Other welfare Measures and programmes

1. Appointment of a National Commission for the Welfare of Scheduled Castes:

A National Commission for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes has been set up by the
Central Government to safeguard the interests of the SCs and STs. It functions as an advisory
body on issue and policies related to the development of the SCs and STs. The State
Governments have separate departments to look after the welfare of the SCs and STs. Their
administrative set up varies from state to state.

2. Educational Opportunities:
Due attention is paid to extend the educational opportunities of SCs and STs and hence special
provisions have been made in this regard. Free education, free distribution of books, stationery,
uniform etc. giving scholarships, banking loan facilities, providing mid-day meal, arranging for
free boarding and lodging facilities, reserving seats for SCs and STs in all the government and
government aided institutions, etc. are some of the concrete steps which the Government has
taken in this regard.

i. Centrally Sponsored Schemes:

In addition to the above, there are some centrally sponsored schemes also for the educational
benefit of both SCs and STs.

(i) Free coaching and training for various competitive examinations [IAS, IPS, IFS, etc.] to
increase their representation in various services,

(ii) Post-matric scholarships for providing financial assistance for higher education. [Govt. spent
66.5 crore rupees for this purpose in the year 1993-94. The University Grants Commission
[U.G.C.] and the Ministry of Education had earmarked 15% of their budget for this purpose
during the 6th plan – 1980-85],

(iii) Construction of hostels for providing residential facilities to SCs and STs studying at college
and university level,

(iv) Financial assistance to those SC and ST students going to reputed research institutes for

research work,

(v) Providing Text-books to those studying in medical and engineering courses,

(vi) Scholarships and passage grants for higher education outside India.

3. Expansion of Economic Opportunities:

Government has taken up economic programmes also for the benefit of SCs and STs. Examples:
Landless SC labourers are allotted land. Land reforms have been undertaken to bring benefits of
land ownership for them.

Poor SC farmers are supplied with seeds, agriculture implements, fertilizers, pesticides, interest-
free loans, pair of bullocks for ploughing, subsidy for developing dairy farming, poultry farming,
piggery, animal husbandry, handicrafts, spinning and weaving.

The “loan-mela” programme of Rajiv Gandhi Govt. [1984-89] also provided small loans for the
poorer section to help them to earn money through some secondary sources such as toy-making,
basket-making, agarbatti and beedi-rolling, tailoring, shoe- making, etc.

4. Expansion of Employment Opportunities and Reservation:

In order to enhance the economic position of the SCs and STs the Constitution has provided for
the reservation in services. Reservation of jobs operates in the all-India Services, Central
Government, State Governments, and Government owned and managed public sector units and
institutions.

Reservation exists in all these for the SCs and STs to the tune of 15% and 7.5% respectively.
Several State Governments have introduced reservation for OBC’s (Other Backward Classes)
also.

In government services, special quotas are also allotted to them. The reservations are also
extended to promotions’ to higher positions to facilitate their adequate representation.
Concessions such as relaxation in the standards of suitability, relaxation of the qualification and
experience, have also been provided to them.

“The Supreme Court in its recent judgement on the reservation issue on Nov. 15th, 1992
adjudicated that there can be no reservations in promotions but the Central Government decided
to continue them for some time. The Supreme Court also declared that reservation in certain
technical posts like scientific departments, super-specialties in medicine, engineering and
defence research, professors in education, pilots in Indian Airlines/Air India, etc. is not advis-
able.”

5. Upliftment of Scheduled Castes through Five-Year Plans:

The welfare of the Scheduled the special programmes has been increasing from plan to plan. The
expenditure of Rs. 30.04 crore in the First Plan [1951-56] increased to Rs. 79.41 crore in the
Second Plan [1956-61], Rs. 100.40 crore in the Third Plan [1961-66], Rs. 172.70 crore in the
Fourth Plan [1969-74], Rs. 296.19 crore in the Fifth Plan [1974-79], Rs. 1337.21 crores in the
Sixth Plan [1980-85], and Rs. 1521.42 crore in the Seventh Plan [1985-90]. The State
Governments have also been spending a sizeable amount on the welfare of these people.

Development Strategies in the Five-Year Plans:

The Central Government sponsored a comprehensive three-pronged strategy for the development
of the SCs during the Sixth Five Year Plan [1980-85], this consisted of three schemes, (i) special
Component Plan [SCPs] of the Central Ministries and State Governments, (ii) Special Central
Assistance [SCA] to SCPs for the Scheduled Castes of the States and (iii) Scheduled Caste
Development Corporation [SCDCs] in the States.

(i) Special Component Plan [SCP]:

The main objective of this plan is to assist the SC families to substantially improve their income.
This plan envisages identification of schemes of development which would benefit SCs,
quantification of funds from all programmes and determination of specific targets as to the
number of families to be benefited from these programmes. During the Sixth Plan [1980-85] Rs.
4,481 crore were earmarked for the SCPs. Till the year 1990 only eight central ministries had
formulated the SCPs for the SCs.

(ii) Special Central Assistance [SCA]:

The main purpose of this scheme is to provide additional assistance to the States from the Centre
to help the economic advancement of the maximum possible number of Schedules Caste families
living below the poverty line. This assistance is given through the SCPs. During the Sixth Plan
Rs. 600 crore was earmarked for this purpose. Later, in 1993, in one year, about Rs. 273 crore
was provided as SCA.

(iii) Scheduled Caste Development Corporation [SCDC]:

The SCDCs have been set up in 18 states and 3 union territories. These SCDCs provide money
and loan assistance to these families, thereby helping to increase the flow of funds from financial
institutions to SC families.

These Corporations established in the States are expected to interface between the SC families
and financial institutions including banks. Both the Central and the State Governments are
contributing grants to these SCDCs. For example, the State Governments’ contribution in 1989-
90 was Rs. 19 crore and the Central Government’s Rs. 15 crore.

The Corporation also provides loan to the SC family’s upto Rs. 12,000. They not only arrange to
provide financial assistance for occupations like agriculture, animal husbandry and household
industry but also for small shops, industries, auto-rickshaws and many other trades and
professions, Some corporations also arrange for irrigation facilities like digging wells and
tubewells.
5. Other Welfare Programmes:
(i) Drinking Water Facility:
In SCs colonies and in the areas where they are found in large number, drinking water facility is
provided through the construction of wells and borewells.

(ii) Medical Facility:
Free medical check-up facility is provided for the SCs. Those who undergo family planning
operations are given financial assistance for purchasing required medicine and energising tonic.

(iii) Janata Houses:
In various States the SCs are given financial assistance to have their own houses. In Sates like
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu low caste houses having all minimum required facilities, known as
“janata” houses are built for them at State expenses.

(iv) Liberation of Bonded Labourers:

A large number of bonded labourers particularly belonging to the SCs have been liberated. As
per the report of the labour Department of the Central Government in 1983 about 1.13 lakh
bonded labourers [out of a total of 1.61 lakh] were liberated from their bondage with the
Governmental assistance.

(v) Sulab Sauchalaya Scheme:

This has been launched in several States for converting dry latrines into water-borne latrines in
order to liberate SC scavengers and rehabilitate them in alternative occupations.

6. Voluntary Organisations:
In addition to the Governmental schemes and instruments, some of the voluntary organisations
are also playing an important role in promoting the welfare of the SCs.

The Central Government has been giving financial assistance to these organisations for their
Harijan Welfare activities. In 1994, the Govt. spent about Rs. 6.5 crore for giving such
assistance.

Some other organisations which are not getting any financial help from the Government are also
rendering Yeomen service to the Scheduled Castes.

SCHEDULED TRIBES AND THEIR PLACE IN INDIAN SOCIETY

The tribal communities represent an important social category of Indian social structure. The
tribals are said to be the original inhabitants of India.
Tribes in the Indian context today are normally referred to in the language of constitution as
‘Scheduled Tribes’. The Scheduled Tribes constitute the second largest group of the backward
classes that come under what is known as unprivileged section.

Definition of Tribes.

The Indian Constitution has not defined clearly the term tribe. Article 366 (25) of the constitution
says that Scheduled Tribes are the tribes or tribal communities or parts or group within such
tribes or tribal communities which the Indian President may specify by public notification under
Article 342(1).

However, the term tribes have been defined by various thinkers and writers in different ways.

D.N. Majumdar: A tribe is “a collection of families bearing a common name, members of

which occupy the same territory, speak the same language, and observe certain taboos regarding
marriage profession or occupation and have developed a well assessed system of reciprocity and
mutuality of obligation.”

Characteristics

Definite Territory
The members of a tribe live permanently in a definite territory. Common territory is an important
feature of a tribe. In the absence of a common territory its very existence cannot be imagined.

Common Language
All the members of a tribe speak a common language or dialect. This common language not only
binds them in strengthening unity but also helps to increase strong community feeling among
themselves.

Collection of families
Tribals constitute a collection of families. The members of a tribe are blood related to each other.
It could be patriarchal or matriarchal in nature.

Common ancestor

They claim to be originated from a common ancestor.

Common Culture
All the members of a tribe share a common cultural pattern. They are mainly guided by a
common culture. This cultural similarity is an important factor regulating the tribal
organizations.

Common Religion
Religion plays an important role in the tribal organization. All the members of a tribe have a
belief in a common religion. Tribal social and political organization are based on the religion

Common Name
Every tribe has a common name by which it is identified. From sociological point of view, this
name has more significance which binds the members of a tribe with a feeling of unity.

Sense of Unity:
Sense of unity is an invariable necessity for a true tribal life. The very existence of a tribe
depends upon the tribal’s sense of unity during the times of peace and war.

Common Dialect:
Members of a tribe exchange their views in a common dialect. Different tribes speak different
languages.

Political Organization
Every tribe of India is known as a strong political unit. This organization is meant to maintain
unity and integrity in a tribe. The responsibility of the organization is vested upon an individual
known as Mukhia is the unique ruler of the tribe. All the members have fear, faith and devotion
on Mukhia.

Endogamous group
Members of tribe generally marry among themselves. Each tribe has many clans within itself and
these are exogamous in nature.

Organization of clans
Tribe is constituted of many clans.

TRIBAL PROBLEMS

1. The Problem of Geographic Separation:

The tribals of India are in a way geographically separated from the rest of population. Someol
them are living in the unapproachable physical areas such as deep valleys, dense forests, hills,
mountains, etc. It is difficult for them to establish relations with others, and hence, socially they
are far away from the civilised world. This kind of physical as well as social isolation or
seclusion has contributed to various other problems.

2. Cultural Problems:
The tribal culture is entirely different from the way of life of the civilized people. The tribals fail
to understand the civilised people, their customs and practices, beliefs and attitudes and so on.
They are suspicious towards the civilised people. They are clinging tenaciously to their customs
and traditions.
During the British rule some foreign Christian missionaries made an attempt to propagalt their
religion in some of the tribal areas, particularly in the North-Eastern provinces. They even t” to
impose their culture on them.

Even today such an attempt is going on. On the other hand, the Ramakrishna Mission, R.S.S, the
Vishwa Hindu Parishad and other organisations are spreading the Hinduism in these areas. Some
of the tribal leaders have now started popularising the tribal religion. These different
propagandas have created a great confusion for them.

The cultural gap between the civilised and the tribal people is coming in the way of the
assimilation and integration of the tribal people into the mainstream of the national life of India.

3. Social Problems:
The tribals have their own social problems also. They are traditional and custom-bound. The;
have become the victims of superstitious beliefs, outmoded and meaningless practices and
harmful habits. Child marriage, infanticide, homicide, animal sacrifice, exchange of wives, black
magic and other harmful practices are still found among them.

They believe in ghosts and spirits. They have keen desire to maintain all these practices in
general, and their individual tribal character. Hence it is said that “the tribals are the tribesmen
first, the tribesmen last and the tribesmen all the time”.

4. Economic Problem:
The tribal people are economically the poorest people of India. Majority of them live beta the
poverty line. The tribal economy is based on agriculture of the crudest type. The main economic
problems of the tribals are explained below.

(i) Exploitation:
The innocence, illiteracy and helplessness of the tribals are exploited by the outsiders. The
British policy, in particular, had led to ruthless exploitation of the tribals in various ways as it
favoured the zamindars, landlords, money-lenders, forest contractors and excise, revenue and
police officials.

(ii) Unprofitable Agriculture:

About 90% of the tribals are engaged in cultivation and most of them are landless and practise
shifting cultivation. They need to be helped in adopting new methods of cultivation. The tribals
possess uneconomic holdings because of which their crop yield is very less. A very small
percentage of the population participates in occupational activities in the secondary and tertiary
sectors.

(iii) Problems of land ownership:

A good portion of the land in the tribal areas has been legally transferred to non-tribals. Tribals
demand that this land should be returned to them. In fact the tribals had earlier enjoyed much
freedom to use the forest and hunt their animals. They and emotionally attached to the forests for
they believe that their gods, spirits live in forests. The tribals
who are “deprived’ of their rights to the land and forest have reacted sharply to the restrictions
imposed by the government on their traditional rights.

(iv) Unemployment and Underemployment:

A large number of tribal young men and women are either unemployed or underemployed. They
are unhappy for they are not able to get jobs that can keep them occupied throughout the year.
They need to be helped in finding secondary source of income by developing animal husbandry,
poultry farming, handicrafts, handloom weaving, etc.

(v) Non-Availability of Banking Facilities:

Banking facilities in the tribal areas are so inadequate that the tribals have mainly to depend on
the money-lenders. The tribals, therefore, demand that “Agricultural Indebtedness Relief Acts”
should be enacted so that they may get back their mortgaged land.

5. Educational Problems:
Illiteracy is a major problem of the tribals. More than 80% of them are illiterate. Literacy among
them has increased from 0.7% in 1931 to 11.30% in 1970 and to 16.35% in 1981. These shows
more than 3/4 of the tribals are illiterate. They have no faith in formal educational organisation.
Many of them do not know anything about education, schools, colleges, universities, degrees,
etc.

They feel no urge to educate their children. Since most of the tribals are poor, education appears
to be a luxury for them. In the case of those people who are engaged in agriculture, their minor
children are also engaged in it. The illiterate parents do not consider it as their primary
responsibility to give education to their children.

i. The Problem of Language:

The medium of instruction is another hindrance to the promotion of education among the tribes.
Most of the tribal languages do not have a script of their own. Hence the children are obliged to
learn things in a language which is foreign to them. Even in tribal areas the number of tribal
teachers is very less and hence communication problem always arises between the students and
the teachers.

ii. The curriculum of education is another main problem:

The existing curriculum, as experts rightly have pointed out, is not suited and has little relevance
to the tribal people.
6. Problem of Health and Sanitation:
Due to illiteracy and ignorance the tribals are not able to appreciate modern concept of healthand
sanitation. They do not take much care pertaining to their own health. They believe that diseases
are caused by hostile spirits and ghosts. They have their own traditional means of diagnosis and
cure.

Good number of them fall a prey to the diseases such as skin disease, forest fever, typhoid, T.B.,
leprosy, malaria, veneral diseases, small px, etc. Contact with outsiders further added to a few
more diseases in the tribal areas.

Example:
It is observed that the Thodas of Niligiri Hills have been suffering from some modern diseases
like veneral diseases, diabetes, blood pressure, etc. after coming into touch with the British who
made Niligiri Hills one of their summer resorts. These diseases take a heavy toll of tribal life.
Their suspicion and lack of faith in modern doctors have made them not to avail their selves of
the modern medical facilities.

7. Problem of Separatism:
The “divide and rule” policy adopted by the British did a lot of damage to the tribal community
of India. The British had superimposed their bwn administrative patterns in tribal areas and
deprived the tribals of their traditional methods of interacting with people. The “Criminal Tribes
Act” which the British had introduced gave an impression that the tribals were either “criminals”
or “anti-social beings”.

The tribal groups such as Kolis, Mundas, Khasis, Santals, Naga, etc, who fought against the
British were branded as “dacoits ” and “robbers”. The British government which wanted to
humble these tribals and “correct” them gave direct encouragement to the foreign Christian
missionary activities especially in, the Central and the North-Eastern Zone. These activities
which

i. Tribal Revolts and Uprisings:

Numerous revolts and uprisings of the tribals have taken place beginning with the one in Bihar in
1772, followed by many other revolts in Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram
and Nagaland. The important tribes involved in revolt in the 19th century were Mizos. [1810],
Kols [1795 and 1831], Mundas [1889], Daflas [1875],Khasi and Garo [1829],Kacharis
[1839],Santhals [1853], Muria Gonds [1886], Nagas [1844 and 1879],Bhuiyas [1868] and
Kondhs [1817], During the recent tribal uprisings the Nagas, Mizos and the Bodostook part in
them in large number and created serious law and order problem.

ii. Smuggling, Infiltration and Drug Addiction:

The foreign infiltrators especially from Bangladesh, Pakistan, Burma and China are entering the
borders of India through what are known as “tribal belts” Some of them take undue advantage of
the tribals’ innocence and ignorance for their smuggling activities.

Prohibited drugs and unlicensed weapons are smuggled inside the land and beyond the borders of
India through the tribal areas. Some of the tribal have been made the victims of drug addiction.
Hence, tribal areas in the borders have become extremely sensitive areas.

MEASURES FOR THE UPLIFTMENT OF SCHEDULED TRIBES

The chief measures regarding tribal development are as follows:

1. Constitutional Provisions and Safeguards:

The Constitution of India provides for the special provisions relating to Scheduled Tribes. Article
342 lays down that the President may by public notification, specify the tribes or tribal
communities or part of or groups within tribes or tribal communities or parts which shall for the
purpose of this Constitution deemed to be Scheduled Tribes….”.According to this provision,
President of India has specified these communities through Constitution (Scheduled Tribes)
order, 1950 S.R.0.570

Article 164 provides for a Ministry of Tribal Welfare in each of the State of Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh and Orissa which have large concentration of Scheduled Tribes population. These
Ministries are required to look after the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in their respective
States.

Article 244 provides for the inclusion of a Fifth Schedule in the Constitution for incorporating
provisions for the administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribes of the States which have
sizeable tribal population (other than those of Assam)

Article 275 provides for the grant of special funds by the Union Government to State
Government for promoting the welfare of Scheduled Tribes and providing them with a better
administration. ,

2. Representation in Legislatures and Panchayats:

The Constitution of India prescribes protection and safeguards for Scheduled Tribes with the
object of promoting their educational and economic interests. Under Article 330 and 332 of the
Indian Constitution, seats have been reserved for Scheduled Tribes in Lok Sabha and state
Vidhan Sabhas.
Following the introduction of Panchayati Raj, Suitable safeguards have been provided for proper
representation” of the members of the Scheduled Tribes by reserving seats for them in the Gram
Panchayats, Block Panchayats, District Panchayats etc.

3. Reservation in the Service:

Government has made provisions for their adequate representation in the services. To facilitate
their adequate representation certain concessions have been provided, such as :

(i) Exemption in age limits,

(ii) Relaxation in the standard of suitability

(iii) Inclusion at least in the lower category for purpose of promotion is otherwise than through
qualifying examinations.

4. Administration of Scheduled and Tribal Areas:

‘Scheduled Areas’ have been declared in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan. The scheme of administration
of’ Scheduled Areas under the Fifth Schedule visualises a division of responsibility between the
State and Union Governments. The State Governments have been given the responsibility of
screening the legislations which are unsuitable for extension to the tribal areas. They are also
responsible for framing rules for the prevention of exploitation of the tribals by the money-
lenders. They implement schemes for the welfare of the tribals living within its boundary.

The Union Government provides guidelines in regard to the administration of Scheduled Areas.
It also provides necessary funds that are required to raise the standard of administration and for
the improvement in the quality of life of the tribal communities. The Union Government also has
the power to give directions to the State Governments about matters relating to the welfare of the
Scheduled Tribes.

5. Tribes’ Advisory council:

The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution provides for the setting up a Tribes’ Advisory Council in
each of the States having Scheduled Areas. According to this provision, Tribes’ Advisory
Councils have been set up so far in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Punjab, Rajasthan and West Bengal. The duty of these Councils is to advise the Government on
such matters concerning the welfare of Scheduled Tribes and development of Scheduled Areas.
Advisory Boards for the Scheduled Tribes have been set up in Assam, Kerala and Mysore to
advise the State Governments. Tribes’ Advisory Committees have also been formed in the Union
Territories of Andaman and Nicobar Island, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura.
6. Commissioner for the Scheduled Castes and Tribes:
Under Article 338 of Indian Constitution a Commissioner has been appointed by the President of
India. The main duty of the Commissioner is (i) to investigate all matters relating to the
safeguards for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under the Constitution and (ii) to report
the President on working of these safeguards.

7. Welfare Department in the States:

Under Article 164 (i) of the Constitution there is a provision of Welfare Department in the States
of Indian Union. In Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa, Welfare Departments in the charge of a
Minister have been set up. Welfare Departments have been set up in these States as well us in
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Kerala; Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West
Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura.

8. Educational Facilities:
Measures to provide educational facilities have been taken by the Government .Emphasis is
being laid on vocational and technicaltraining. According to these measures, concessions,
stipends, scholarships, books, stationery and other equipments are provided. Residential schools
have been set up for them.

9. Scholarships:
The Central Government awards scholarships to deserving students for higher studies in foreign
countries. Seventeen and half per cent of the merit scholarships are granted by the Centre, to
deserving students of lower income groups.

10. Economic Opportunities:
A large number of tribal people practice shifting cultivation. This problem is in acute form in the
States of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Manipur and Tripura. A
scheme to control shifting cultivation has been started.

Besides this, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh have launched schemes
to improve irrigation facilities to reclaim waste land and to distribute it among members of the
Scheduled Castes and Tribes. In addition, facilities for the purchase of livestock, fertilizer,
agricultural equipment, better seeds are also provided to them. Cattle breeding and poultry
farming are also being encouraged among these people.

The Governments of different States are encouraging the development of cottage industries by
providing loans and subsidies through various schemes. Multipurpose co-operative societies
which provide credit in cash and kind to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have been
established in various States such as Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Orissa etc.
11. Tribal Research Institute:
Tribal and Harijan Research Institutes, which undertake intensive studies of tribal arts, culture
and customs have been set up in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and West Bengal.

The Indian Constitution has made important provisions for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes. The
Central Government and State Governments have made incessant effort in the direction of tribal
welfare. Special programmes for their welfare and development have been undertaken in the

The Constitution of India provides for a number of safeguards for the ST» mainly to facilitate the
implementation of the ‘Directive principles’ contained in Article 46 of the X Constitution. The
important safeguards provided in the Constitution include Article 46 {promotion of Educational
and Economic interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections, 330
(Reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the House of people, 332 (Reservation of seats for SCs
and STs in the legislative Assemblies of the states, 335 (claims of the SCs and STs to service and
posts etc.

References

1. C.N Shanker Rao, Sociology of Indian Society

2. Ram Ahuja, Indian Social System
3. T.K. Oomen & C.N. Venugopal, Sociology
4. C.N Shanker Rao, Sociology
5. Vidya bhushan & D.R. Sachdeva, An introduction to sociology
6. A.N Bhardwaj, The problems of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes in India
7. Hulton- Caste in India

G.S Ghurey-Caste, Class and Occupation in India

Important Questions

1. Differentiate between caste and tribe

2. Differentiate between caste and class
3. What is caste? Explain four important characteristics of caste
4. Discuss constitutional provisions for Scheduled Tribe
5. Discuss in detail position of scheduled caste in contemporary India
6. Discuss the main efforts to provide social and legal justice to Scheduled Caste
7. Write an essay on problems of Indian Tribe.

UNIT II- LAW AND SOCIETY

CUSTOMS & LAW

Meaning of Custom
Customs are the socially accepted ways in which people do things together in personal contacts.
In simple words, customs are the long established habits and usages of the people.

Definitions of Custom

According to Kingsley Davis; Custom refers primarily to practices that have been often repeated
by a multitude of generation, practices that tend to be followed simply because they have been
followed in the past.

According to Lundberg, Customs are those “folkways that persist over relatively long period of
time so as to attain a degree of formal recognition and so as to be passed down from one
generation to another.”

THE ORIGIN AND OBJECTS OF CUSTOMS:

Origin of custom is Obscure. Several writers have devoted themselves to trace the origin of
custom. However, no single rule can be laid down about the origin of custom. Many custom
arose to satisfy the fundamental needs of man, some of the custom learned by imitation and
many of them came as adjustment to changing situations.

SOCIAL ROLE OF CUSTOMS

(i) Customs Regulate our Social Life: Customs act as the effective means of social control.
Individuals can hardly escape their grip.
They are the self-accepted rules of social life. They bind people together, assimilate their actions
to the accepted standards and control their purely egoistic impulses. They are found among the
preliterate as well as the literate people. They are the strongest ties in building up a social order.

(ii) Customs Constitute the Treasury of Our Social Heritage:

Customs preserve our culture and transmit it to the succeeding generations. They have added
stability and certainty to our social life. They bring people together and develop social
relationships among them. They provide for a feeling of security in human society.

People normally obey them for their violation is always condemned and resisted. The children
learn the language spoken, and the occupation followed by their parents through the customs.
The imprint of custom can be found on various activities of the members of society.

(iii) Customs are Basic to Our Collective Life:

Customs are found in all the communities of the world. They are more influential and dominant
in the primitive society than in the modern industrial society. Still no society can do without
them. Customs are mercilessly imposed on the people in the primitive societies. As Malinowski
writes in the context of the study of Trobriand Islanders that “a strict adherence to customs….is
the main rule of conduct among our natives…” In the traditional societies customs are like
sacred objects and their violation cannot be thought of.

Customs are so dominant and powerful that they can be called the “King of man”. Shakespeare
called it a “tyrant”. Bacon considered it “the principal magistrate of man’s life”. People follow
customs not just because they are traditionally enforced but very much because they are mixed
with people’s sentiments, feelings and personal obligations.

(iv) Customs Support Law:

Customs also provide the solid ground for the formulation and establishment of law. Customs
become laws when the state enforces them as rules binding on citizens. Law divorced from
custom is bound to become artificial. Such laws may often end in failures, as it has happened in
the case of ‘prohibition’ in U.S.A. Customs consolidate law and facilitate its practice. If the laws
are not supported by customs, they cannot succeed.

It is to be noted that in the modern complex society customs are not enough to control the
behaviour of the people. Hence they are supplemented with various formal means of social
control.

MEANING OF LAW

In primitive societies the folkways, mores and customs suffice to control the individual behavior,
since there is almost unquestioned compliance with them. But in modern civilized societies
customs tend to loosen their hold with the result that Laws are enacted by the State to control the
individual.

Definition of Law:

According to Green, Law is more or less systematic body of generalized rules, balanced between
the fiction of performance and the fact of change, governing specially defined relationship and
situations, and employing force or threat of force in defined and limited ways.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LAW

i. General conditions of human activity prescribed by State or its members

ii. Law is law only if enacted by proper law making authority
iii. Law is definite clear and precise
iv. Law applies equally to all without exception in identical circumstances
v. Violation of law is followed by penalties determined by authorities of the State.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CUSTOM AND LAW

i) Law is a make; custom is a growth. Law is explicitly and deliberately made by the
definite power of the state, whereas custom “is a group of procedure that has gradually emerged,
without express enactment, without any constituted authority to declare it; to apply it and to
safeguard it.” Custom emerges spontaneously without any guide or direction. Law is consciously
created and put into force at the moment of its enactment. In other words, law is a make, custom
is a growth.

(ii) Law needs a special agency for enforcement, custom does not. Law is applied by a special
agency and is sanctioned by organized coercive authority. Custom does not need any special
agency for its application it is enforced by spontaneous social action. No physical penalty visits a
violator of custom; whereas punishment is meted out to one who violates the law. The state will
not punish a child if it does not touch the feet of his parents in the morning.

(iii) Law is specific, customs are not. Law is specific, definite and clear. One can know what the
laws of the land are. But as Maine opined, it is only known by a privileged minority. Customs,
on the other hand, are not definite or clear. They are not codified in anysingle book so that it
becomes difficult to know all the customs of the land.
(iv) Law is more flexible and adaptable than custom. Law can readily adjust itself to changing
condition: whereas customs cannot be readily changed. Customs are relatively fixed and
permanent. In times of crisis a law can be immediately enacted to meet the emergency. A sudden
change cannot be brought about in custom.

In India when the Central Government employees had gone on strike thus paralysing the life of
the community, the Government of Indiaat once met the situation by declaring the strike illegal
and enacting a statute banning strikes in essential services.

The more dynamic the society, the less is reliance placed on traditional customary rules and the
more it is placed on newly enacted regulations. Roscoe Pound stated, “Law must be stable and
yet cannot stand still.” Thus law is more flexible and adaptable than custom. The former can be
introduced, amended 01 abolished with relative ease, whereas to reform or adjust the latter is an
arduous task.

(v) Customs fade and disappear without formal abolition and without recognition by any
authority, but laws disappear only when abolished by a recognized authority. Just as formal
enactment of law is necessary for it to come into effect, so its formal abolition is necessary to
stop its binding influence.

(vi) Law is more idealistic than custom. Law tends to be more idealistic than customs. It is the
offspring of mind and directed to aims which are far above the actual practice of society, custom
is the product experience and mainly concerned with the daily routine of life. Law reforms the
customs and abolishes those which are out oftune with the changing conditions, for example, the
Hindu Code Bill seeks to reform and abolish many of the Hindu customs regarding marriage,
divorce and succession.

(vii) Law generally deals with matters which are vital to the life of society: whereas the subject
matter of custom is more ordinary and familiar. The customs we observe in addressing persons
of authority or taking our meals or celebrating our festivals do not rise above the commonplace;
but the laws passed for creating a national academy of Sangeet or Sahitya, establishing a welfare
state, abolishing Zamindari system; introducing Three Year Degree course, making the joining of
N.C.C. compulsory and nationalising the banks deeply affect the social structure.

LAW AND CUSTOM SUPPLEMENT AND COMPLEMENT EACH OTHER

According to Maine, there is always a necessity for Law to adjust itself to social necessities and
social opinions. Law divorced from custom is bound to become artificial which would not be
seriously observed by people. If it is not backed by moral consensus, effective enforcement is
less likely.

THE CLASHES OF LAW AND CUSTOM

It often happens that the state makes law attacking the customs of the people. In such cases
custom and law come into clash and the people are put to choose between custom and law. From
practice it has been observed that people render obedience to custom than to law incase of the
clash between two. People might be forced to obey the law as against custom but this obedience
of theirs would be unwilling ad temporary.

BASIS OF LEGITIMACY

Legitimacy:
The concept of legitimacy also has acquired a significant place in modern political theory.
Although the germs of this concept can be seen in the writings of Plato who enunciated the idea
of justice in his Republic, yet its systematic exposition has been carried only by modern political
thinkers.

Power, influence and authority can be effective only if they are legitimate. The role of coercion
in political relations has diminished with the growth of culture and civilisation. Coercive power
is now regarded primitive and brutal.

The modern political processes make use of non-coercive methods of control such as influence,

persuasion, leadership, public opinion, etc. Legitimacy is a pre-requisite of power.

Meaning of Legitimacy:
The word ‘legitimacy’ has been derived from the Latin world‘legitimas’. During the middle ages
it was called ‘legitimitas’ which in English language was interpreted as ‘lawful’. Cicero used the
word ‘legitimum’ to denote the power constituted by law. Later on the word ‘legitimacy’ was
used for traditional procedures, constitutional principles and adoption to traditions. At still later a
stage the element of ‘consent’ was added to its meaning. Consent was considered the essence of
legitimate rule.

In the modern age it was Max Weber to first enunciate the concept of ‘legitimacy’ as a universal
concept. According to him, legitimacy is based in ‘belief’ and gets obedience from the people.
Power is effective only if it is legitimate. Undoubtedly, power has the right to use coercion but
that is not its chief element. Power should be based on legitimacy otherwise it would invite
trouble and may prove ineffective.

The meaning of legitimacy has changed from age to age. During the middle ages it was used to
express the feeling against usurpation. But now all revolutions or coup d’etat cannot be called
illegitimate. The revolution of Bangladesh against Pakistan to secure freedom cannot be termed
illegitimate. Thus new principles of legitimacy replace the old principles. Legitimacy is not
synonymous with moral beliefs or good conduct. It is only the basis for justifying the actions of
those in power.

Robert A. Dahl writes, “Leaders in a political system try to ensure that whenever governmental
means are used to deal with conflict, the decisions arrived at are widely accepted not solely from
fear of violence, punishment, or coercion but also from a belief that it is morally right and proper
to do so. According to one usage of the term, a government is said to be ‘legitimate’ if the people
to whom its orders are directed believe that the structure, procedures, acts, decisions, policies,
officials, or leaders or government possess the quality of Tightness, propriety or moral goodness
—the right, in short, to make binding rules.”

Thus defined, Dahl makes it clear that legitimacy is the quality of Tightness, propriety or moral
goodness. All the governments try to prove their acts as legitimate and, therefore, binding on the
people. The army leader who stages a coup and captures power also tries to prove the
justifiability or moral Tightness of his action. The ‘de facto’ government becomes ‘de jure’ on
acquiring legitimacy. In democracy the importance of legitimacy is no less because democracy is
based on consent.

It cannot be forced on people against their will lacking legitimacy. The government loses popular
confidence and is overthrown. In the absence of legitimacy power is sheer force. According to
Dolf Sternberger, legitimacy is the foundation of governmental power which on the one hand
makes the government conscious of its right to rule and on the other makes the governed aware
of such a right.”

According to S.M. Upset, “Legitimacy involves the capacity of the system to engender and
maintain the belief that existing political institutions are most appropriate for the society.” In the
words of Jean Beandel. “Legitimacy can be defined as the extent to which the population accepts
naturally, without questioning, the organisation to which it belongs.” J.C. Pleno and R.E. Riggs
define legitimacy as “the quality of being justified or willingly accepted by subordinates that
convert the exercise of political power into rightful authority.”

G.K. Robert holds, “Legitimacy is that principle which indicates the acceptance on the part of the
public of the occupancy of political office by a person or the exercise of power by a person or
group either generally or in some specific instance on the grounds that occupancy exercise of
powers is in accordance with some generally accepted principles and procedures of component
of authority.” In fact every political system strives for legitimacy. An enormous variety of
political systems have gained legitimacy in various times and places.

Hence slavery, feudalism, monarchy, oligarchy, hereditary aristocracy, plutocracy, representative

government, direct democracy—have acquired legitimacy in some time and place. Even in
ademocratic society, political systems that reflect quite contradictory principles of authority
acquire legitimacy.

For example, business firms, governmental agencies and some religious associations are

organised according to hierarchical rather than democratic principles. Yet people concede
legitimacy to these hierarchical systems.

We may thus conclude that legitimacy means the capacity to produce and maintain a belief that
the existing political system is most suitable to the society. The masses must obey it
unreluctantly and accept its sanctity and consider it worthy of respect and reverence.

Sources of Legitimacy:
According to Max Weber, there are three sources of legitimacy:
(i) Tradition:

Legitimacy may rest on an established belief in the sanction of immemorial traditions and on
the need to obey leaders who exercise the authority according to the traditions. Traditional
legitimacy derives from societal custom and habit that emphasize the history of the authority
of tradition. Traditionalists understand this form of rule as historically accepted, hence its
continuity, because it is the way society has always been. Therefore, the institutions of
traditional government usually are historically continuous, as in monarchy and tribalism.
(ii) Exceptional Personal Qualities / Charismatic legitimacy

Legitimacy may secondly be based on “devotion to the specific and exceptional sanctity, or
exemplary character of an individual person.” Charismatic legitimacy derives from the ideas
and personal charisma of the leader, a person whose authoritative persona charms and
psychologically dominates the people of the society to agreement with the government's
 régime and rule. A charismatic government usually features weak political and
administrative institutions, because they derive authority from the persona of the leader, and
usually disappear without the leader in power. However, if the charismatic leader has a
successor, a government derived from charismatic legitimacy might continue.
(iii) Legality:
Legitimacy may rest on the belief that power is wielded in a way that is legal. What is done
legally is regarded as legitimate. Rational-legal legitimacy derives from a system of
institutional procedure, wherein government institutions establish and enforce law and order
in the public interest. Therefore, it is through public trust that the government will abide the
law that confers rational-legal legitimacy

Grace A. Jones has described the following sources of legitimacy in the context of British
system:
(i) Continuity with the political and social institutions.

(ii) Tradition of non-violence.

(iii) Religious beliefs.

(iv) Belief in values.

(v) Electoral process, liberty and unanimity.

(vi) Coordinated and integrated society and continuity of its traditions.

(vii) Adaptive political culture.

According to Friedrich, the sources of legitimacy are:

(i) Religious,

(ii) Philosophical and juristic,

(iii) Traditional,

(iv) Procedural, and

(v) Empirical.

From the above analysis it is evident that legitimacy is not a mere abstract or moral feeling. It is
something related with the entire political system. It is a belief which leads the people to accept
that it is morally right and proper for the officials or leaders of government to make binding
rules. Legitimacy enables a ruler to govern with a minimum of political resources. It is the soul
of democracy.

Types of Legitimacy:
David Easton describes three types of legitimacy as under:
(a) Ideological legitimacy:
When the source of legitimacy is the ideology prevailing in the society, it is termed as
ideological legitimacy. A political system is in fact an articulated set of ideals, ends and purposes
which help the members to interpret the past explain the present and provide a vision for the
future.

The ideology portrays the aims and states the objectives of the political system. These aims and
objectives have the potential as they constitute a set of ethically infused ideals to capture the
imagination of the people. They inspire men to action as they are related to their success.

(b) Structural legitimacy:

The principles which lead the members in a particular system to accept as legitimate, contribute
to the validation of structures and norms of the regime. Every system has set goals according to
which authority is exercised and political power is wielded. This basis of validation is termed as
structural legitimacy.

(c) Personal legitimacy:

If the behaviour and personality of those at the help of affairs is of dominating importance and if
the members consider these authorities as trust-worthy this is known as personal legitimacy.
David Easton is of the view that a large class of leaders, regardless of any inner conviction of
being called, or outer recognition as such by followers, manage to build up a belief in their
legitimacy.

A political system can face a crisis if its legitimate position is in peril. The crisis of this nature
brings change in the existing social system as well. A crisis of legitimacy is thus a crisis of
change. In the words of Lipset “In general even when the political system is reasonably effective
if at any time the status of major conservative groups is threatened or if access to politics is
divided to emerging groups at crucial periods the system of legitimacy will remain in question.
On the other hand a breakdown of effectiveness repeatedly or for a long period will endanger
even a legitimate system’s stability.”

EVOLUTION OF LEGAL SYSTEM

Nearly all human societies, tribal, peasant or industrial, have laws or legal rules whose scope is
coextensive with human life.
In preliterate societies laws have been orally transmitted and often are inseparable from customs.
There is no ground for the assumption that preliterate societies are anarchic or law less. Legal
control in preliterate societies was exercised primarily by kinship units called lineages, clans,
moieties, etc. The normative control was maintained by strict observance of taboos which were
laws as well as basic fabric of society.

In complex ancient civilization such as Babylonia, Egypt, Israel, India and Rome the laws were
usually based on customs, religious principles and the decrees of monarch or heads of state.

As societies have grown from simple to complex, there has been an extensive growth of legal
rules.

EVOLUTION OF LEGAL SYSTEM IN INDIA

Law in India has evolved from religious prescription to the current constitutional and legal

system we have today, traversing through secular legal systems and the common law.

India has a recorded legal history starting from the Vedic ages and some sort of civil law system
may have been in place during the Bronze Age and the Indus Valley civilization. Law as a matter
of religious prescriptions and philosophical discourse has an illustrious history in India.
Emanating from the Vedas, the Upanishads and other religious texts, it was a fertile field
enriched by practitioners from different Hindu philosophical schools and later by Jains and
Buddhists.

Secular law in India varied widely from region to region and from ruler to ruler. Court systems
for civil and criminal matters were essential features of many ruling dynasties of ancient India.
Excellent secular court systems existed under the Mauryas (321-185 BCE) and the Mughals
(16th – 19th centuries) with the latter giving way to the current common law system.

Law in British-ruled India

The common law system – a system of law based on recorded judicial precedents- came to India
with the British East India Company. 

 The East India Company gained a foothold in India in 1612 after Mughal emperor
Jahangir granted it the rights to establish a factory in the port of Surat.

 In 1640, the East India Company established a second in Madras (now Chennai) factory
on the southeastern coast. Bombay Island, a former Portuguese outpost was gifted to England
as dowry in the marriage of Catherine of Braganza to Charles II and was later leased to the
East India Company in 1668.
 In the early seventeenth century, the Crown, through a series of Charters, established a
judicial system in the Indian towns of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta, basically for the
purposes of administering justice within the establishments of the British East India Company.
The Governor and the Council of these towns formulated these judicial systems
independently. The Courts in Bombay and Madras were called Admiralty Courts, whereas the
court in Calcutta was called Collector's Court.

 The Company was granted Charter by King George I in 1726 to establish “Mayor's Courts”
in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta (now Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata respectively).

 Mayor's Courts were not courts of the Company, but courts of the King of England. Mayor's
courts superseded all existing courts established in the above places.

 It was authorized 'to try, hear and determine all civil suits, actions and pleas' that may arise
within the three towns or within the factories of the Company. The Court consisted of a Mayor
and nine Aldermen, seven of whom, including the Mayor, were required to be naturally born
British subjects.

 Aldermen were elected from among the leading inhabitants of the settlement to hold the
position for life. The Mayor was elected from the Aldermen.

 Mayor's Courts contributed significantly to the formulation of a uniform pattern of judicial

functioning in India. It administered English law, which was assumed to be the lex loci ('law
of the place') of settlement

 The Regulating Act of 1773 was the first attempt at creating a separate and somewhat
independent judicial organ in India, under the direct control of the King. The Chief Justice
and other puisne (junior) judges were appointed by the King. Section 13 of the Regulating
Act empowered the Crown to establish by Charter, a Supreme Court of Judicature at fort
William in Calcutta.

 Judicial functions of the company expanded substantially after its victory in Battle of Plassey
and by 1772 company’s courts expanded out from the three major cities. In the process, the
company slowly replaced the existing Mughal legal system in those parts.

 Warren Hastings had attempted several times to make changes in policing and the
administration of justice, but with limited success.
 William Jones, an expert on languages and legal system in Ancient India, translated the
existing Hindu and Muslim penal codes into English. The limited objective was that the
principles of the ancient texts could be evaluated and applied by English-speaking judges.

 In 1787, Lord Cornwallis gave limited criminal judicial powers to the company's revenue
collectors, who had already served as civil magistrates. Most importantly, the collector was
divested of judicial and magisterial powers and entrusted with the duty of administration of
revenue.

 In 1790 the company took over the administration of justice from the Nawab, and Cornwallis
introduced a system of circuit courts with a superior court that met in Calcutta and had the
power of review over circuit court decisions.

 Following the First War of Independence in 1857, the control of East India Company
territories in India passed to the British Crown. The Government of India Act 1858
authorized the British Crown to take over the administration of all territories from the East
India Company.

 In 1861 the Indian High Courts Act and the Indian Councils Act were passed by the British
Parliament, which empowered Her Majesty to issue Letters Patent establishing High Courts
in three Presidency towns.

 The former provided for the abolition of the Supreme Courts of Judicature and the Sadar
Diwani Adalats and the constitution of the High Courts of Judicature in their place in the
three Presidency towns.

 The Chartered High Courts remained as the highest courts in India till the establishment of
the Federal Court of India under the Government of India Act of 1935.

 During the Raj, the Privy Council acted as the highest court of appeal. Cases before the
council were adjudicated by the law lords of the House of Lords. The state sued and was sued
in the name of the British sovereign in her capacity as Empress of India.

 Coding of law also began in earnest with the forming of the first Law Commission. Under
the stewardship of its chairman, Thomas Babington Macaulay, the Indian Penal Code was
drafted, enacted and brought into force by 1862. The Code of Criminal Procedure was also
drafted by the same commission. Host of other statutes and codes like Evidence Act (1872)
and Contracts Act (1872).
Law after Independence

At the dawn of independence, the parliament of independent India was the forge where a
document that will guide the young nation was being crafted. It will fall on the keen legal mind
of B. R. Ambedkar to formulate a constitution for the newly independent nation.

The Constitution of India is the guiding light in all matters executive, legislative and judicial in
the country. It is extensive and aims to be sensitive. The Constitution turned the direction of
system originally introduced for perpetuation of colonial and imperial interests in India, firmly in
the direction of social welfare. The Constitution explicitly and through judicial interpretation
seeks to empower the weakest members of the society.

India has an organic law as consequence of common law system. Through judicial
pronouncements and legislative action, this has been fine-tuned for Indian conditions. The Indian
legal system’s move towards a social justice paradigm, though undertook independently, can be
seen to mirror the changes in other territories with common law system.

From an artifice of the colonial masters, the Indian legal system has evolved as an essential
ingredient of the world’s largest democracy and a crucial front in the battle to secure
constitutional rights for every citizen.

SIGNIFICANCE OF LAW IN INDIAN SOCIETY

LEGAL SYSTEM IN MODERN INDIA

India maintains a common law legal system inherited from the colonial era and various
legislations first introduced by the British are still in effect in modified forms today. During the
drafting of the Indian Constitution, Indian laws also adhere to the United Nations guidelines
on human rights law and the environmental law. Certain international trade laws, such as those
on intellectual property, are also enforced in India.
Indian personal law is fairly complex, with each religion adhering to its own specific laws.
Separate laws govern Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, and followers of other religions. The
exception to this rule is in the state of Goa, where a uniform civil code is in place, in which all
religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces, and adoption.
The Constitution of India, which came into effect on the 26th of January, 1950 is the lengthiest
written constitution in the world . Although its administrative provisions are to a large extent
based on the Government of India Act 1935, it also contains various other provisions that were
drawn from other constitutions in the world at the time of its creation. It provides details of the
administration of both the Union and the States, and codifies the relations between the Federal
Government and the State Governments. Also incorporated into the text are chapter on
the fundamental rights of citizens, as well as a chapter on directive principles of state policy.

The constitution prescribes a federal structure of government, with a clearly defined separation

of legislative and executive powers between the Federation and the States. Each State
Government has the freedom to draft it own laws on subjects classified as state subjects . Laws
passed by the Parliament of India and other pre-existing central laws on subjects classified as
central subjects are binding on all citizens. However, the Constitution also has certain unitary
features, such as vesting power of amendment solely in the Federal Government, the absence of
dual citizenship, and the overriding authority assumed by the Federal Government in times
of emergency.
Criminal law
The Indian Penal Code formulated by the British during the British Raj in 1860, forms the
backbone of criminal law in India. The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 governs the
procedural aspects of the criminal law.
Contract Law
The main contract law in India is codified in the Indian Contract Act, which came into effect on
1 September 1872 and extends to all India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It governs
entrance into contract, and effects of breach of contract. Indian Contract law is popularly known
as mercantile law of India.
Labour Law
Indian labour law are among the most comprehensive in the world. They have been criticised by
the World Bank, primarily the grounds of the inflexibility that results from government needing
to approve dismissals. In practice, there is a large informal sector of workers, between 80 or 90
per cent of the labour force, to whom labour rights are not actually available and laws are not
enforced.
Tax Law
It is extremely complex with several taxes; Income Tax, Customs and excise duties VAT and
service taxes and sales tax.
The authority to levy a tax is derived from the Constitution of India which allocates the power to
levy various taxes between the Centre and the State. An important restriction on this power is
Article 265 of the Constitution which states that "No tax shall be levied or collected except by
the authority of law. Therefore each tax levied or collected has to be backed by an accompanying
law, passed either by the Parliament or the State Legislature.
Trust law
Trust law in India is mainly codified in the Indian Trusts Act of 1882, which came into force on
March 1, 1882. It extends to the whole of India except for the state of Jammu and
Kashmir and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indian law follows principles of English law in
most areas of law, but the law of trusts is a notable exception. Indian law does not recognise
"double ownership", and a beneficiary of trust property is not the equitable owner of the property
in Indian law.
Family Law- Personal Law
Family laws in India are different when Warren Hastings in 1772 created provisions prescribing
Hindu law for Hindus and Islamic law for Muslims, for litigation relating to personal
matters. However, after independence, efforts have been made to modernise various aspects of
personal law and bring about uniformity among various religions. Recent reform has affected
custody and guardianship laws, adoption laws, succession law, and laws concerning domestic
violence and child marriage.
Hindu Law
As far as Hindus are concerned Hindu Law is a specific branch of law. Though the attempt made
by the first parliament after independence did not succeed in bringing forth a Hindu Code
comprising the entire field of Hindu family law, laws could be enacted touching upon all major
areas that affect family life among Hindus in India. Jains, Sikhs and Buddhists are also covered
by Hindu law.
Muslim law
Indian Muslims' personal laws are based upon the Sharia, Indian Muslims personal law is termed
as Mohammedan law.  Despite being largely uncodified, Mohammedan law has the same legal
status as other codified statutes. The very Source of the Muslim law are divided into two
categories : (1) Primary Source (2) Secondary Source
1)"Primary Source" As per Sunni Law:

 Quran
 Sunna or Ahdis (Tradition of the Prophet)
 Ijma (Unanimous Decision of the Jurists)
 Qiyas ( Analogical deduction)
As per Shia Law:

 Quran
 Tradition (only those that have come from the family of the Prophet)
 Ijma (only those confirmed by Imams)
 Reasons
2. "Secondary Source"
 Custom
 Judicial Decisions
 Legislation
Christian Law
For Christians, a distinct branch of law known as Christian Law, mostly based on specific
statutes, applies.
Christian law of Succession and Divorce in India have undergone changes in recent years. The
Indian Divorce (Amendment) Act of 2001 has brought in considerable changes in the grounds
available for divorce. By now Christian law in India has emerged as a separate branch of law. It
covers the entire spectrum of family law so far as it concerns Christians in India. Christian law,
to a great extent is based on English law but there are laws that originated on the strength of
customary practices and precedents.
Christian family law has now distinct sub branches like laws on marriage, divorce,restitution,
judicial separation, succession,adoption, guardianship, maintenance, custody of minor children
and relevance of canon law and all that regulates familial relationship.
Nationality Law

Nationality law or citizenship law is mainly codified in the constitution of India and the

Citizenship Act of 1955. Although the Constitution of India bars multiple citizenship,
the Parliament of India passed on 7 January 2004, a law creating a new form of very limited dual
nationality called Overseas Citizenship of India. Overseas citizens of India have no form of
political rights or participation in the government, however, and there are no plans to issue to
overseas citizens any form of Indian passport.
Law enforcement in India
Law enforcement in India is undertaken by numerous law enforcement agencies. Like
many federal structures, the nature of the Constitution of India mandates law and order as a
subject of the state, therefore the bulk of the policing lies with the respective states and
territories of India.
At the federal level, the many agencies are part of the Union Ministry of Home Affairs, and
support the states in their duties. Larger cities also operate metropolitan police forces, under
respective state governments. All senior police officers in the state police forces, as well as those
in the federal agencies, are members of the Indian Police Service (IPS) and Indian Revenue
Service (IRS), two of the several kinds of civil services. They are recruited by the Union Public
Service Commission.
Police Force
The federal police are controlled by the central Government of India. The majority of federal law
enforcement agencies are controlled by the Ministry of Home Affairs. The head of each of the
federal law enforcement agencies is always an Indian Police Service officer (IPS). The
constitution assigns responsibility for maintaining law and order to the states and territories, and
almost all routine policing—including apprehension of criminals—is carried out by state-level
police forces. The constitution also permits the central government to participate in police
operations and organisation by authorising the maintenance of the Indian Police Service. Indian
Police Service (IPS) officers are recruited by the Union Public Service Commission through a
competitive nationwide examination. On completion of a nationwide basic public-service course,
the Indian Police Service recruits attend the National Police Academy at Hyderabad, Andhra
Pradesh, for training. They are then assigned to particular state or union territory forces, where
they usually remain for the rest of their careers. About 50 percent of the officers are regularly
assigned to states or territories other than their own in an effort to promote national integration.

LAW IN RELATION OF SOCIAL ORDER

In a given society, the individual performs numerous social acts. If there is no order in society
these acts will result in chaos. Social order therefore refers to the coordination and integration of
social acts which permits them to occur in such a way that chaos is avoided. Social order rests on
values, norms and social expectation that govern the conduct of individual. A wide divergence
between individual’s aspirations and social expectation causes disturbance to the order.

Social order refers to a particular set or system of linked social structures, institutions, relations,

customs, values and practices, which conserve, maintain and enforce certain patterns of relating
and behaving. Examples are the ancient, the feudal, and the capitalist social order.

P.B Horton and C.L Hunt have said that social order refers to a system of people, relationship
and customs operating smoothly to accomplish the work of a society.

LAW IN RELATION TO SOCIAL ORDER IN INDIA

In complex societies such as India, customs rather than taboos governed the behaviour of people.
The caste councils and the village councils maintained a vigil over the people and enjoined upon
them to abide by customs. There was a belief in reincarnation in Indian religion, This belief in
karma has acted as a deterrent.

There were other important groups in India which followed separate norms. Muslims followed
Shariat derived from Quran. The Christian followed canons derived from Church or Gospel. The
various Indian sects such as Buddhist, Jainas and Sikhs followed different version of Hindu
Dharma. Even today many social institutions among these communities are governed by
Customary law.

For centuries, the caste council and the village councils have functioned partly as administrative
and partly as judicial bodies. Ritual lapses, land disputes, sexual misconduct, factional quarrels
were among the items judged by these non-statutory bodies. While most of the disputes were
settled within the framework of customs, occasionally appeals were made to an external
authority such as King or chieftain to intervene and settle a dispute in accordance with the legal
texts. In administrating justice at the micro level, the village elders were guided by oral
testimony, precedents, royal decrees and occasional resort to ordeals.The village councils were a
replica of the caste councils on a wider scale, as the villages were autonomous, great authority
rested with the village councils. Judicial decisions were given in the open, and nearly all adults
participated in the proceedings. As the village was a face-to-face society, it was not possible
witnesses to put forward false witness or evidence; but occasionally coercive power of the
village landlord or trader stifled the truth.

In the modern society law is the most powerful formal means of social control. Early societies
depended upon informal means of social control but when societies grew in size and complexity
they were compelled to formulate rules and regulations which define the required types of
behavior and specify the penalties to be imposed upon those who violate them. Law is a body of
rules enacted by legally authorized bodies and enforced by authorized agencies. It defines clearly
rights, duties as well as the punishments for their violation. The modern societies are large in
size. Their structure is complex consisting of a number of groups, organizations, institutions and
vested interests. Informal means of social control are no longer sufficient to maintain social order
and harmony.

In modern society relationships are of secondary nature. Security of life and property as well as
the systematic ordering of relationships make formalization of rules necessary. Law prescribes
uniform norms and penalties throughout a social system. What were in mores and customs
earlier has now been formalized into a body of law. Law exercises a powerful influence upon the
behavior of people in modern societies.
References
1. D.N.Majumdar, Race & Culture of India
2. T.K. Oomen & C.N. Venugopal, Sociology
3. Vidya bhushan & D.R. Sachdeva, An introduction to sociology
4. C.N Shanker Rao, Sociology
5. Raymond Aron- Social Thinker
6. Mandelbaun David-Society in India

7. Mandelbaun David, Society in India

8. Krishna Iyer, Law and the people
Important Questions

1. Explain the need of Social Legislations

2. What do you understand by custom? What is the role of custom in social control?
3. Describe the evolution of Legal System in India
4. Explain the concept-basis of Legitimacy
5. Explain the significance of Law in Indian Society
6. Describe the role of law in maintaining social order

UNIT III

OCCUPATION AND PROFESSION

DISTINCTION BETWEEN WORK AND LEISURE

THE CONCEPT OF WORK

The term work would seem to have a perfect unambiguous meaning in our modern society.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines the work as “expenditure of energy, striving
application of effort to some purpose.
The famous Antropologist Raymond Firth defines it as “an income producing activity” or as a
”purposeful activity entailing expenditure of energy a some sacrifice of pleasure or leisure”.
The economist speak of work as “one of the major factors of production consisting of manual
or mental excretion for which wages, salaries or professional fees are received.
The work means carrying out tasks involving expenditure of mental and physical efforts and its
objective is to production of goods and services to cater to human needs.

The word work and occupation often used interchangeably. But the word occupation refers to the
specialized and established kind of work. Occupation is relatively reutilized activity to earn a
livelihood and social status.

SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF WORK

Work and occupation have assumed utmost social importance today. They not only have social
importance but also economic, psychological and human significance.
i. It satisfies the material needs of man
ii. Satisfy man’s Social and Psychological Needs also
iii. Work not just for money
iv. Work-occupation and mental health
v. Work in Industrial Society major key for social placement and evaluation
vi. Work has become the central to the life of man
vii. Moral evaluation of work
viii. The social evaluation of work
ix. Work and employment
VALUE ORIENTATION TOWARDS WORK

Traditionally, although occupations were hereditary, it was considered necessary to work and
work was valued. To live on charity was considered shameful as charity was extended on
personal and familiar basis. In contemporary Welfare and Socialist States, one can opt in and out
of work and live at state-defined level of substinence receiving charity from impersonal state
without loss of dignity. However, attitude toward work varied across societies.

LEISURE

Leisure is a state of mind which ordinarily is characterised by un-obligated time and willing
optimism. It can involve extensive activity or no activity. The key ingredient is an attitude which
fosters a peaceful and productive co-existence with the elements in one's environment.

Leisure is activity - apart from the obligations of work, family, and society - to which the
individual turns at will, for either relaxation, diversion, or broadening his knowledge and his
spontaneous social participation, the free exercise of his creative capacity.

WORK AND LEISURE

Whatever may be the attitude to work and wealth human beings do not and cannot work all the
time. Work necessitates relaxation, rest and leisure. Irrespective of their level of development
leisure is found in all societies.

The leisure and work are to be seen as two sides of the same coin although the manner in which
they operate varies between societies. Both work and leisure have acquired nearly equal
importance in urban-industrial societies.

The concept of Leisure, as we understand it today did not exist in tribal societies. But we do find
play and work are closely interlinked in these societies. All the activities such as social,
economic, religious and cultural events are inextricably intertwined in tribal societies as are
witnessed on occasions such as hunting, fishing, sports, dances and festivals. This invariably
meant the absence of specialized organization in tribal societies, catering to the recreational and
entertaining needs.

With the emergence of peasant Societies, division of labour and consequent differentiation based
on work and wealth became sharper. Inequalities based on wealth found expression in leisure
pursuits; those who had enough wealth could go in for learning and appreciation of arts, music,
dance, feasts and festivities.

The growth of urbanization and industrialization brought about remarkable changes in the life
styles of people. With the emergence of socialist and welfare societies and the introduction of
shorter working hours, the need to organize leisure activities became imperative. The
development of mass media and communication such as movies, radio and television may thus
be viewed as response to the massive demand by workers in industrial societies who craved for
organized leisure during specified hours.

DIVISION OF LABOUR

Every society, primitive or modern, has the institution of division of labour. The division of
labour is a system of distribution of work among the people according to their skill and
competence. The individual’s capacity aptitude and the demand of the environment create the
division of labour.

DURKHEIM’S CONCEPT OF DIVISION OF LABOUR

Durkheim wrote a book “Division of labour in Society” in which he stated different factors
which are responsible for division of labour. He described modern society as the society of
organic solidarity and he further explains that division of labour in modern society increases with
the increase in population.

Durkheim classifies the division of labour as the anomie and forced division of labour.

TYPES OF DIVISION OF LABOUR

i. Simple or social or functional division of labour

This means division into occupation. Thus, there are farmers, weavers, teachers,
priests, laborers etc
ii. Complex or technical division of labour or professional specialization
This means the division of labor within a particular enterprise. Thus within a
factory there are weavers, spinners, designers, accountants, managers and
engineers.
iii. Territorial division of labour or localization
This is also known as localization of industries. Certain places or regions come to
specialize in the making of certain articles; Hosiery at Ludhiana, Cotton textiles at
Ahmadabad and Bombay, Jute industry at Calcutta, Leather industry at Agra and
Kanpur etc

RELATIVE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF DIVISION OF LABOUR

Merits of Division of Labor

(i Division of labour possesses the following merits and demerits:
Its Merits:
Division of labour has the following merits:
1. Increase in Production:
With the adoption of division of labour, the total production increases. Adam Smith has
explained the advantage of division of labour with the help of an example that a worker can
produce only 20 pins daily. If the making of pins in a modern factory is divided into 18
processes, then 18 workers can produce 48,000 pins in a single day.

2. Increase in Efficiency of Labour:

With division of labour, a worker has to do the same work time and again, and he gets
specialisation in it. In this way, the division of labour leads to a great increase in efficiency.

3. Increase in Skill:
Division of labour contributes to the development of skill, because with the repetition of the
same work, he becomes specialised in it. This specialisation enables him to do the work in the
best possible way, which improves his skill.

4. Increase in Mobility of Labour:

Division of labour facilitates greater mobility of labour. In it, the production is split up into
different parts and a worker becomes trained in that very specific task in the production of the
commodity which he performs time and again. He becomes professional, which leads to the
occupational mobility. On the other hand, division of labour implies a large-scale production and
labourers come to work from far and near. Thus, it increases geographical mobility of labour.

5. Increase in Use of Machines:

The division of labour is the result of the large-scale production, which implies more use of
machines. On the other hand, the division of labour increases the possibility of the use of
machines in the small-scale production also. Therefore, in modern times the use of machines is
increasing continuously due to the increase in the division of labour.

6. Increase in Employment Opportunities:

Division of labour leads to the diversity of occupations which further leads to the employment
opportunities. On the other hand, the scale of production being large, the number of employment
opportunities also increases.

7. Work According to Taste:

Workers have their own taste in production. For example, a person can take up that type
of job for which he considers himself to be the most suitable and which is in accordance with his
taste. Division of labour extends the work to such an extent that every person can find work
according to his taste and interest.

8. Work for Disable:

Division of labour splits up the production work in small processes and different persons can
work at different places with the help of machines. Certain machines can be operated with the
help of hands only and others with the help of foot as well. Therefore, the disabled persons can
also find work according to their suitability.

9. Best Use of Tools:

In this system, it is not necessary to provide each worker with a complete set of tools. He needs a
few tools only for the job in which he can make their best use. Therefore, the continuous use of
tools is possible which are used at different stages.

10. Saving of Capital and Tools:

Division of labour helps in the saving of capital and tools. It is not essential to provide a
complete set of tools to every worker. He needs a few tools only for the job he has to do. Thus
there is the saving of tools as well as capital. For instance, if a tailor stitches the shirt, he requires
a sewing machine, scissors, etc. But on the basis of division of labour, one can do the cutting and
the other can stitch the clothes. In this way, two tailors can work with the help of one pair of
scissors and one machine only.

11. Goods of Superior Quality:

Division of labour is beneficial in making goods of superior quality. When the worker is
entrusted with the work for which he is best suited, he will produce superior quality goods.

12. Saving of Time:

There is no need for the worker to shift from one process to another. He is employed in a definite
process with certain tools. He, therefore, goes on working without loss of time, sitting at one
place. Continuity in work also saves time and helps in more production at less cost.

13. Right Man at the Right Job:

Division of labour implies splitting up of production into a number of processes. Each person is
given the job for which he is best suited. There will be no round pegs in square holes. In this
way, a right man is placed at the right job.

14. Reduction in the Cost of Production:

If a shoe-maker makes himself two pairs of shoes daily, then four shoe-makers can make more
than eighth pairs of shoes if they work in cooperation with each other. In this way, division of
labour increases production which reduces the average cost of production. Saving of capital,
tools and machinery, etc. also help in the reduction of cost of production.

15. Cheap Goods:

Division of labour helps in mass production. Thus production becomes less expensive and more
economical. Therefore, cheaper goods are turned out, which improve the standard of living of the
people.
16. Saving of Time and Expenses in Training:
Under division of labour, a worker has to train himself in a small part of production. There is no
need to learn the whole process of production. It ensures saving of time as well as expenses in
training.

17. Spirit of Co-operation among Workers:

Division of labour gives chances of working under the same roof and with the cooperation of
each other. It further gives rise to the feeling of cooperation and trade unionism in their daily
lives. The work cannot be completed unless they cooperate with each other. They help each other
at the time of adversities as well.

18. Development of International Trade:

Division of labour increases the tendency of specialisation not only in the workers or industries,
but in different countries also. On the basis of specialisation, every country produces only those
goods in which it has a comparative advantage and imports such goods from those countries
which have also greater comparative advantage. Therefore, division of labour is beneficial for
the development of international trade also.

Its Demerits:
The division of labour has also certain demerits which are explained below:

1. Monotony:
Under division of labour, a worker has to do the same job time and again for years together.
Therefore, after some time, the worker feels bored or the work becomes irksome and
monotonous. There remains no happiness or pleasure in the job for him. It has an adverse effect
on the production.

2. Loss of Joy:
In the absence of division of labour, he feels a lot of pleasure on the successful completion of his
goods. But under division of labour, nobody can claim the credit of making it. The work gives
him neither pride nor pleasure. Therefore, there is total loss of joy, happiness and interest in the
work.

3. Loss of Responsibility:
Many workers join hands to produce a commodity. If the production is not good and adequate,
none can be held responsible for it. It is generally said that ‘every man’s responsibility is no
man’s responsibility.’ Therefore, the division of labour has the disadvantage of loss of
responsibility.

4. Loss of Mental Development:

When the labourer is made to work only on a part of the work, he does not possess complete
knowledge of the work. Thus, division of labour proves to be a hurdle in the way of mental
development.

5. Loss of Efficiency:
Division of labour is sometimes accounted for the loss of efficiency. For instance, if a cobbler
goes on cutting the leather for a long time, he may lose the efficiency of making shoes.

6. Reduction in Mobility of Labour:

The mobility of labour is reduced on account of division of labour. The worker performs only a
part of the whole task. He is trained to do that much part only. So, it may not be easy for him to
trace out exactly the same job somewhere else, if he wants to change the place. In this way, the
mobility of labour gets retarded.

7. Increased Dependence:
When the production is split up into a number of processes and each part is performed by
different workers, it may lead to over-dependence. For instance, in the case of a readymade
garments factory, if the man cutting cloth is lazy, the work of stitching, buttoning, etc. will
suffer. Therefore, increased dependence is the result of division of labour.

8. Danger of Unemployment:
The danger of unemployment is another disadvantage of division of labour. When the worker
produces a small part of goods, he gets specialised in it and he does not have complete
knowledge of the production of goods. For instance, a man is expert in buttoning the clothes. If
he is dismissed from the factory, it is difficult for him to find the job of buttoning. Thus division
of labour has a fear of unemployment.

9. Increased Dependence on Machines:

As division of labour increases, there will be an increased use of machines. Almost all the
workers work on different types of machines. It is difficult for them to work without machines.
Thus, division of labour increases the dependence on machines.

10. Danger of Over-Production:

Over-production means that the supply of production is comparatively more than its demand in
the market. Because of the division of labour, when production is done on a large scale, the
demand for production lags much behind its increased supply. Such conditions create
overproduction which is very harmful for the producers as well as for the workers when they
become unemployed.

11. Exploitation of Labour:

Division of labour is concerned with large scale production in big factories which are owned by
the capitalists. No poor worker can afford to start his own production. Therefore, they have to
seek employment in big factories of the capitalists. These employers pay less wages to them as
compared to their marginal productivity, because there is no other alternative to the workers but
to work at very low wages. Therefore, division of labour results in the exploitation of labour.

12. Evils of Factory System:

The modern industrial or factory system has been developed as a result of the division of labour.
This system further gives rise to the evils like dense population, pollution, bad habits of
gambling and drinking, low standard of living, poor food, clothes and housing, etc.

13. Employment of Women and Children:

Division of labour results in the large scale production in which children and women are also
employed. It is because a simple and small part of the whole task can easily be performed by
them. Thus the number of employed women and children increases. They are also exploited by
the employers by paying them lower wages.

14. Industrial Disputes:

The industrial disputes mean strikes by workers, closure of factory, etc. due to clashes between
the employees and the employers. Division of labour results in the division of society into
workers and employers. The employer always tries to increase his profits by exploiting the
workers and workers form trade unions against the employers to put an end to their exploitation
or to make them increase their wages. It gives rise to a severe conflict between the employers
and the workers in the form of strikes, closures and lockouts of factories.

Conclusion:
To sum up, we can say that division of labour is beneficial to the workers, to the producers and
to the society as a whole. Its merits outweigh its demerits..

JAJMANI SYSTEM

In almost all the villages of this country, the Caste System predominates. Linked with the Caste
System is the Jajmani System. Caste System in the village is based on economic needs and
structure of the society. In village people of a particular caste take one profession. Members of
the other castes are not allowed to take the profession of a particular caste.

In a village the carpenter does the wood-work, the blacksmith do the things pertaining to the iron
implements of the people of the village. The washer man washes clothes, the barber shaves them.
These belong to different castes and thus carry out these provisions on the basis of the age old
customs. There are certain classes or castes that are entitled to these services. Those who serve
are known as ‘Praja’ or ‘Kamin’ while those who get these services are known as ‘jajman.’ The
word Jajmani has been derived from ”Jajman” which has been taken from the Sanskrit word
‘Yajman’.

As Prof. Yogendra Sinh has said ‘the Jajmani System is a system governed by relationships
based on reciprocity in intercaste relations in village’.

Characteristics of the Jajmani System:

The main characteristics or features of the Jajmani System on the basis of various studies that are
carried out in this respect in different parts of country are:

1) Permanent relationship; 2) Relationship based on hereditary or hereditary relationship; 3)

Protection of hereditary occupation; 4) Payment for the services rendered; 5) Peace
and security ;6) Difference in scope of work.

1) Permanent relationship:

The relationship between Jajman and Praja are permanent. It is a unique feature of the village
economy. Through this system the farmers and those who had landed property were assured of
required essential services and on the other hand those who did not have it were assured of
livelihood. In this manner, the village economy was maintained in a balanced manner. The
village would also be allowed to function as a self-sufficient unit so that its economy could be
maintained.

It so happened that a jajman could not employ another Praja or Kamin except the one whose
family had been rendering their service to the family of jajman for generations. If any one tried
to do it no other person would take up that job and if unfortunately some one took up, the caste
Panchayat of that particular person should penalise him. This is in fact gave a permanent
structure to the economy of the country. In this respect Dr.D.C. Dube made a study of the system
has remarked.

It is not easy for an agriculturalist to remove a family attached to his household and secure the
service of another. For example a barber, is attached to the family of B. If for any reason B is
greatly dissatisfied with the services of A and wants those of another, he cannot abruptly dismiss
A. His difficulty will not be in dismissing A, but finding a substitute. Each of these castes has its
own inter-village council. Occupational castes have a developed trade unionism; no one else
would be willing to Act as a substitute for fear of being penalised by caste Panchayat.”

2) Relationship based on hereditary or hereditary relationship:

In Jajmani System there is a hereditary relationship. If father has done a job in a particular family
son would also do it. On the other hand if a family has been served by the father it would be
obligatory for the family to employ the son for that job. If there is a separation or division of the
family these laborers are also divided. When a person has no son and only a daughter, then the
rights is passed to the husband of the daughter.

Jajamani rights are in fact equally distributed, in the village. When the male member in a family
of Praja increases the rights get splitter. The quantum grown when there is increase in the
members of the family of jajman and all these things go on in a here dietary manner that is from
father to the son and so on.

According to N.S.Reddy, “the right to Jajmani work is treated as any other right of property. It
passes from father to son and is equally proportioned among brothers when they separate. In the
case of a family with an only daughter, her husband succeeds to her father rights.
3) Protection of hereditary occupations:

The Jajmani System provides a protection to the hereditary occupation. Members of a particular
caste continue to perform their occupation. They are paid for their services. Because of these
payments they are able to earn their livelihood and so their hereditary occupation is preserved.

4) Payment for the services rendered:

In Jajmani System, there is an arrangement for payment for services rendered by Praja or Kamin.
The jajman in the past used to pay them in form of grains and other agricultural yields. Now with
the introduction of currency they are paid sometimes in cash and sometimes in kind. Through
this payment the interest of the Praja were maintained. The studies that are carried out by the
scholars in regard to Jajmani System of various villages yielded the results that the payment
made in form of kinds was quite sufficient for them.

For example a carpenter who repaired the agricultural implements of the farmer in a Rajput
village of Madhya Pradesh got one mound of food grains in a year and 2 1/2 seers of food at the
time of harvesting. It means that if he had 10 familiar as his jajman he could think of getting 10
mounds of food grains in the year and 25 seers food at the time of harvesting.

5) Peace and security:

As a result of Jajmani System, the farmers were assured of the services while the Prajas were
secured of their livelihood. This kept them free from worrying about employment. Since the jobs
that were secured were of a specialised nature the farmers got their requirements while the
Kamins secured the livelihood. The old age customs and traditions had made these adjustments
smooth and nobody had to bother.

This does not mean that everything was very smooth, nice and rosy. There were lot of
differences and problems and these differences and problems cropped from village to village.

6) Differences in scope of work:

The work of the Kamins was not confined to one family if it were so, they would actually starve.
Most of these Kamins had such a job to do that they could do it for a large member of families.
This made their livelihood possible. Sometimes some of these families ‘Prajajan’ or ‘Kamin’ had
their Jajmani in more than one village.

In fact the range and the scope of activity of these Praja were determined by their activity. A
sweeper would attend to 10 to 15 families while a barber could shave about 50 to 60 persons.
Apart from it if a village was prosperous or had large number of persons these Prajajana or
Kamins shall have good business. On the other hand if village was not prosperous and there were
very few people they would not get much.

Merits and advantages of the Jajmani System:

Advantages and the merits of the Jajmani System which have helped the village economy to go
on for all these years are studied under the following head.

1) Occupational protection 2) Economic security 3) Security of service 4) Personalised close

relation

1) Occupational protection:

As a result of Jajmani System. Every person was assured of a protection to his occupation. He
knew that if he breaks his family occupation he shall not be able to earn his livelihood. There
was no need for him to go in search of any other occupation or profession.

2) Economic security:

Because of the Jajmani System every person who was engaged in some useful occupation was
assured of economic protection. It means that if a praja or Kamin looked after jajmans well he
would be able to get his livelihood. According to Dwight Sanderson, “It is the strong
organisation of the village community for its own economic and social purpose without political
basis, which made the village community in India so seemingly immortal.

3) Security of services: With the result of Jajmani System, while the Praja of Kamin enjoyed
economic security, the jajmans was assured of service. The system was based on hereditary
arrangement and so the services that were provided were permanent. The sons and daughters of
the Kamins knew that they would get a job and so did not bother to go in for some other job.
4) Personalised close relations:

The relationship between the jajman and the Prajajan were not formal and impersonal as we find
in the towns. In the towns person goes to a barber, gets himself shaved, pays and comes back. All
this happens in a mechanical manner. It is not so in the Jajmani System in the village. The barber
is a part of the establishment of the jajmani and the two are worried and anxious about the well-
being of each other.
Since the relationship had been going on for the generation, they know each other very well, had
personal and sympathetic relationship. The relationship in the Jajmani System is not merely
economic or professional as is to be found in urban society.

Demerits and disadvantages of the Jajmani System:

Although Jajmani System has gone on for years together and it has the advantages that have been
already enumerated but it cannot be said that it is free from the difficulties and demerits. Its
difficulties and demerits are enumerated below:

1) Based on the sense of high and low; 2) Great impediment to occupational and social mobility
3) Leads to exploitation.

1) Based on the sense of high and low:

Like Case System the Jajmani System is based on distinction and discrimination between
member of various occupations and castes. Those who Act as Kamins or Prajajan are considered
to be lower while those who Act as Jajman are considered to be superior. The type of distinction
makes the society full of inequality and makes the old age distinction between man and man as
something acceptable. This is not a correct approach.

2)  Great impediment to occupational and social mobility:

In the Jajmani System those who have been taking to age old occupation did not leave those
occupations. They did not think of improving their economic conditions. It has been seen that
many of these persons have gone out and take to new jobs, become more prosperous and
improve their economic status.

Now days it is not possible to continue with the age old occupation. Because of scientific and
technological developments several changes have taken place and age old occupations cannot be
allowed to go on. If they go on they shall be responsible for social backwardness and lack of
progress in the economic and technological field. If the society has to grow economically and
socially economic and social mobility has to take place. Jajmani System comes in the way.

3) Leads to exploitation:
In Jajmani System, since the jajmans are economically strong, they try to exploit their Prajajans
or kamins. Those who are provided with service are considered to be lower. Normally these
persons belong to lower classes and so upper class because of their economic superiority exploits
them. In the modern times, this relationship has assumed the form of exploitation in which the
jajamans are gainers. The conditions of the kamins remain miserable and because of their
economic weakness, the members of the upper class harass and trouble them.
Disintegration of the Jajmani System:
The challange in the jajmani system came when India was under the British rule. Here, the
Britishers were more interested in developing their economy at the cost of Indian economy. They
were interested in collecting taxes and using them for war of territorial expansion or to lead a
luxurious life.

Due to such attitude of Britishers, the local communities suffered both economically and
socially. The jajmani system due to its inner strength did not allow the spread of feudalistic
tendency to grow, as it contributes to the growth of social barriers. Profit in place of sacrifice and
substitution of money for service further weakened the jajmani system.

The changes taking place in the caste system, religious system, political structure, kinship,
brought about a change in the jajmani system. All these systems are linked very closely to the
jajmani system.

Some of the important changes that have influenced the jajmani system are as follows:
1. Industrialization—with the growth of industries, chances of getting new employment have
increased. This made the kamins to leave their caste occupations and migrate to urban areas. As a
result, the jajman lost the services of the kamin.

2. The rigidity in the caste system decreased, which made possible for kamins to take up new
opportunities of employment.

3. Spread of education.

4. Losing of powers by the caste councils and Village Panchayats. The Village Pan- chayats are
deprived of their traditional roles.

5. Abolition of Jagirdari system and introduction of land reforms have also contributed to
bringing about a change in the jajmani system.

6. The improved means of transport and communication has helped in making the market
transactions easier.

7. Most of the artisans prefer to get money for their goods. Cultivators also prefer to buy articles
for their daily needs, from the market, by paying cash.

8. The jajmans, in the present day, prefer to have more political support than depending on their
kamins.

Due to the above mentioned factors, the jajmani system is deteriorating day-by-day. Thus, most
of the village communities are not dependent on the jajmani-kamin arrangements.

LEGAL PROFESSION IN INDIA.

 Legal profession as it exists today in India was created and developed during British
Period.
 Before that during Hindu period king was considered as the fountain head of justice.
King’s court was superior to all the courts. The institution of lawyer as it exists today was
not in existence during this period.
 Even during the Muslim period the legal profession was not organized. The king was
considered as the fountain head of justice. He was regarded as the servant of God on
earth and his duty was to see that His laws were obeyed. Even the law of evidence was
not satisfactory. The evidence of Muslim was given more weight than Hindus. Similarly
the evidence given by the female was considered inferior to that of male.
 The history of the legal profession in India can be traced to the establishment of the First
British Court in Bombay in 1672 by Governor Aungier.
 The admission of attorneys was placed in the hands of the Governor-in-Council and not
with the Court. Prior to the establishment of the Mayor's Courts in 1726 in Madras and
Calcutta, there were no legal practitioners.
 Eventhough charter 1726 introduced uniform judicial system in all the three presidential
towns, it did not make any provision regulation for legal training. Judicial administration
remained in the hands of non-professional person.
 The regulating act, 1773 and the charter 1774 (supreme court of judicature in Calcutta)
have played important role in the development of organized legal profession and sound
judicial system.
 During the shift from Mughal legal system, the advocates under that regimen, 'vakils', too
followed suit, although they mostly continued their earlier role as client representatives.
The Bengal regulation of 1793 created for the first time a regular legal profession for the
company’s court. It authorized the Sadar Diwani Adalat to enroll pleaders for company’s
court (only hindus and muslims). However Bengal Regulation XII of 1833 modified
provisions for appointing any qualified person of any nationality or religion to be
enrolled as pleader of Sadar Diwani Adalat.
 The doors of the newly created Supreme Courts under the British were barred to Indian
practitioners, as right of audience was limited to members of English, Irish and Scottish
professional bodies.
 However, enactment of the Legal Practitioners Act of 1846 opened up the profession
regardless of nationality or religion.
 Legal practitioners Act of 1879 consolidated and amended the law relating to legal
practitioners.
 In 1923 Indian Bar Committee was constituted under the chairmanship of Edward
Chamier. It suggested in all High Courts a single grade of practitioners should be
established and they should be called Advocates. Bar council should be constituted for
each high court with power to inquire into matters calling for disciplinary action against a
lawyer.
  In 1926 Indian Bar Council Act was enacted to give some of the recommendation of the
committee.
 The Advocates Act, 1961, governs the legal profession in India. Under the Advocates
Act 1961,only advocates enrolled in India with a state Bar Council are entitled to 'practise
the profession of law' -- which includes not only appearing before courts and giving legal
advice as an attorney, but also drafting legal documents, advising clients on international
standards and carrying out customary practices and transactions
 It also made provisions for establishment of State Bar Council and Bar Council of India.
 The Bar examination was introduced only in 2010. In order to be eligible for enrollment,
a student should also have completed his or her studies in one of the institutions
recognized by the Bar Council of India.
 The dual-system of classification between solicitors and attorneys in India was abolished
in 1970, but the Bombay Incorporated Law Society (an association) still conducts
examinations for persons who wish to qualify as solicitors, upon the completion of a
three year training period in a solicitor's office as an 'article clerk' and the passing of a
solicitors' exam.

References
1. C.N Shanker Rao, Sociology of Indian Society
2. Vidya bhushan & D.R. Sachdeva, An introduction to sociology
3. Emile Durkheim- Division of Labour
4. M.P Jain, An outline of Legal History in India

Important Questions

1. Explain causes of disintegration of Jajmani System.

2. Distinguish between occupation and profession.
3. Analyze merits and demerits of Jajmani System.
4. Describe division of labour as an economic sub system.

UNIT IV

SOCIAL CHANGE

Change is an ever-present phenomenon. It is the law of nature. Society is not at all a static
phenomenon, but it is a dynamic entity. It is an ongoing process. The social structure is subject to
incessant changes. Individuals may strive for stability, yet the fact remains that society is an
every changing phenomenon; growing, decaying, renewing and accommodating itself to
changing conditions.
The human composition of societies changes over time, technologies expand, ideologies and
values take on new components; institutional functions and structures undergo reshaping. Hence,
no society remains complete static. Incessant changeability is very inherent nature of human
society.

Meaning of Social Change:

Change implies all variations in human societies. When changes occur in the modes of living of
individuals and social relation gets influenced, such changes are called social changes.

Social change refers to the modifications which take place in life pattern of people. It occurs
because all societies are in a constant state of disequilibrium.

The word ‘change’ denotes a difference in anything observed over some period of time. Hence,
social change would mean observable differences in any social phenomena over any period of
time.Social change is the change in society and society is a web of social relationships. Hence,
social change is a change in social relationships. The term ‘social change’ is used to describe
variations of any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interaction or social
organization.

According to Jones “Social change is a term used to describe variations in, or modifications of
any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interaction or social organization”.

As Kingsley Davis says, “By Social change is meant only such alternations as occur in social
organization – that is, the structure and functions of society”.

According to Maclver and Page, “Social change refers to a process responsive to many types
of changes; to changes the man in made condition of life; to changes in the attitudes and
beliefs of men, and to the changes that go beyond the human control to the biological and the
physical nature of things”.

Characteristics of Social Change:

The phenomenon of social change is not simple but complex. It is difficult to understand this in
its entirety. To understand social change well, we have to analyse the nature of social change
which are as follows:

1. Social Change is Social:

Thus, the term social change is used to describe variation in social interactions, processes and
social organizations. Only that change can be called social change whose influence can be felt in
a community form. The changes that have significance for all or considerable segment of
population can be considered as social change.

2. Social Change is Universal:

Change is the universal law of nature. The social structure, social organization and social
institutions are all dynamic. Social change occurs in all societies and at all times. No society
remains completely static.
3. Social Change occurs as an Essential law:
Change is the law of nature. Social change is also natural. Change is an unavoidable and
unchangeable law of nature.

4. Social Change is Continuous:

Society is an ever-changing phenomenon. It is undergoing endless changes. It is an “ongoing
process”. These changes cannot be stopped. Society is subject to continuous change. Here it
grows and decays, there it finds renewal, accommodates itself to various changing conditions.

5. Social Change Involves No-Value Judgement:

Social change does not attach any value judgement. It is neither moral nor immoral, it is amoral.
The question of “what ought to be” is beyond the nature of social change. The study of social
change involves no-value judgement. It is ethically neutral.

6. Social Change is Bound by Time Factors:

Social change is temporal. It happens through time, because society exists only as a time-
sequences. We know its meaning fully only by understanding it through time factors. For
example, the caste system which was a pillar of stability in traditional Indian society, is now
undergoing considerable changes in the modern India.

7. Rate and Tempo of Social Change is Uneven:

Though social change is a must for each and every society, the rate, tempo, speed and extent of
change is not uniform. It differs from society to society. In some societies, its speed is rapid; in
another it may be slow. And in some other societies it occurs so slowly that it may not be noticed
by those who live in them.

8. Definite Prediction of Social Change is Impossible:

It is very much difficult to make out any prediction on the exact forms of social change. What
the society will be in thousand years from now, no one can tell.

9. Social Change Shows Chain-Reaction Sequences:

Society is a dynamic system of interrelated parts. Changes in one aspect of life may induce a
series of changes in other aspects. For example, with the emancipation of women, educated
young women find the traditional type of family and marriage not quite fit to their liking.

10. Social Change takes place due to Multi-Number of Factors:

Social change is the consequence of a number of factors. A special factor may trigger a change
but it is always associated with other factors that make the triggering possible. Social change
cannot be explained in terms of one or two factors only and that various factors actually combine
and become the ’cause’ of the change.

11. Social Changes are chiefly those of Modifications or of Replacement:

Social changes may be considered as modifications or replacements. It may be modification of
physical goods or social relationships.

12. Social Change may be Small-scale or Large-scale:

A line of distinction is drawn between small-scale and large scale social change. Small-scale
change refers to changes within groups and organizations rather than societies, culture or
civilization.

13. Short-term and Long-term Change:

The conceptualization of the magnitude of change involves the next attribute of change, the time
span. That is to say, a change that may be classified as ‘small-scale from a short-term perspective
may turn out to have large-scale consequences when viewed over a long period of time, as the
decreasing death rate since the 1960 in India exemplifies.

14. Social Change may be Peaceful or Violent:

At times, the attribute ‘peaceful’ has been considered as practically synonymous with ‘gradual’
and ‘violent’ with ‘rapid’. The term ‘violence’ frequently refers to the threat or use of physical
force involved in attaining a given change. In certain sense, rapid change may ‘violently’ affect
the emotions, values and expectations of those involved.

15. Social Change may be Planned or Unplanned:

Social change may occur in the natural course or it is done by man deliberately. Unplanned
change refers to change resulting from natural calamities, such as famines and floods,
earthquakes and volcanic eruption etc. Planned social change occurs when social changes are
conditioned by human engineering. Plans, programmes and projects are made by man in order to
determine and control the direction of social change.

16. Social Change may be Endogenous or Exogenous:

Endogenous social change refers to the change caused by the factors that are generated by
society or a given subsystem of society. Conflict, communication, regionalism etc. are some of
the examples of endogenous social change.

On the other hand, exogenous sources of social change generally view society as a basically
stable, well-integrated system that is disrupted or altered only by the impact of forces external to
the system (e.g., world situation, wars, famine) or by new factors introduced into the system
from other societies. For example, technological transfer and brain drain, political and cultural
imperialism may lead to the diffusion of cultural traits beyond the limits of single societies.

Factors of social change: 

1. Physical Environment:
Certain geographic changes sometimes produce great social change. Climate, storms, social
erosion, earthquakes, floods, droughts etc., definitely affect social life and induce social change.
Human life is closely bound up with the geographical conditions of the earth.

Human history is full of examples that flourishing civilisations fell prey to natural calamities.
The distribution of population over various regions, the variations in the population densities, the
agricultural production, flora and fauna, the joys and hardships—all indicate a change when a
change in the physical environment occurs.
2. Demographic (biological) Factor:
Population conditions and changes in the composition of population account for the biological
element in social change. The biological factor of social change impresses us not only in respect
of population and population changes; it has its importance as regards the tendency towards the
shifting of the people from one place to another which can be described as migration.

The social structure of a society is closely related with the changes in the size, composition and
distribution of population. The size of the population is based mainly upon three factors—birth
rate, death rate and migration (immigration and emigration).

The composition of population depends upon variables like age, sex, marital status, literacy etc.
Changes in demographic structure, which may be caused by changes in mortality rates, will
produce changes in the ratio of breadwinners to dependents.

Such a change can have consequences for the structure of family, kinship, political and other
institutions. Whether we are born into a growing or a shrinking population has a bearing on our
education, the age at which we marry our ability to get a job, the taxes we pay and many other
factors.

3. Cultural Factor:
It is an established fact that there is an intimate connection between our beliefs and social
institutions, our values and social relationships. Values, beliefs, ideas, institutions are the basic
elements of a culture. Certainly, all cultural changes involve social change.

Social and the cultural aspects are closely interwoven. Thus, any change in the culture (ideas,
values, beliefs etc.) brings a corresponding change in the whole social order. Social institutions
cannot live on life shells within which life is extinct. Cultural factor is not only responsive to
technological change but also acts back on it so as to influence its direction and its character.

Cultural change in society has two major aspects:

(a) Cultural change by discovery and invention, and

(b) Cultural change by diffusion and borrowing.

The first comes from within a society and culture, and the second from another culture outside of
the society. A discovery or an invention adds to the fund of our verified knowledge which later
on becomes a factor of social change.

Socio-cultural changes are also brought about by people from other cultures all over the world.
Diffusion is the spread of cultural traits or patterns from group to group. Borrowing refers to the
adoption of a cultural trait by people whose culture did not have that cultural trait. We have
borrowed many cultural traits (such as use of knife and fork in eating) from Western culture.

4. Technological Factor:
Cultural life in a society is influenced by technology and social change results; and technology
by itself can be regarded as a factor facilitating changes in society. Mechanization as an
established attitude ushered in by the machine age has its own traditions and peculiar beliefs.
Besides the changes occasioned in standards of living and the structure of social classes,
technology and mechanization have changed values so radically that men now go more by
quantity than by quality, by material measurement than by appreciation.

(5) Economic Factor:

Of economic influences, the most far-reaching is the impact of industrialisation. It has
revolutionised the whole way of life, institutions, organisations and community life. In
traditional production systems, levels of production were fairly static since they were geared to
habitual, customary needs. Modern industrial capitalism promotes the constant revision of the
technology of production, a process into which science is increasingly drawn.

6. Political Factor:
State is the most powerful organisation which regulates the social relationships. It has the power
to legislate new laws, repeal old ones to bring social change in the society. The type of political
leadership and individuals in power also influences the rate and direction of social change. In
many societies the political leadership controls the economy also. Scientific-technological and
non-technological change are also dependent on political development which indirectly affects
social change. There is a direct relationship between the type of political organisation and social
change.

7. The Psychological Factor:

Some writers notice a psychological process in the formation of society and, according to them,
human relations based on the considerations of the individual mind and the group mind shape
and mould social systems. Therefore, when physical forces like floods, earthquakes and
epidemics are considered as factors causing social change, the importance of the psychological
factor in that regard cannot be ignored.

‘SANSKRITISATION’

Meaning
The concept ‘Sanskritisation’ was first introduced by Prof. M.N. Srinivas the famous Indian
sociologist. He explained the concept of sanskritisation in his book “Religion and society among
the coorgs of South India” to describe the cultural mobility in the traditional caste structure of
Indian society. In his study of the coorgs of Mysore, he came to know that the lower castes were
trying to raise their status in their caste hierarchy by adopting some cultural ideals of the
Brahmins. As a result they left some of their ideals which are considered to be impure by the
Brahmins. To explain this process of mobility, Srinivas used the term ‘Brahminization’. Later on
he called it ‘Sanskritisation’ in a broad sense. In fact Srinivas has been “broadening his definition
of Sanskritisation from time to time”. Initially he described it as “the process of mobility of
lower castes by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism to move in the caste hierarchy in a
generation or two”.

Latter on, he redefined it as “a process by which a lower caste or tribe or any other group
changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way of life in the direction of a higher or more often
twice-born caste.”
Characteristics of Sanskritisation:
1. Sanskritisation is a process of imitation in Indian society, the social status of an individual is
fixed on the basis of caste hierarchy. There are many lower castes who suffer from
economic, religious or social disabilities. So in order to improve the status, the lower castes
people imitate the life style of the upper caste people.
2. Sanskritisation is a process of upward mobility. Sanskritisation is a process in which the
lower castes adopt the cultural patterns of the higher castes, to raise their status in the caste
hierarchical order. In some societies the lower caste people followed not only the customs of
the Brahmins but also the customs of the locally dominant castes like Kshatriyas and
Vaisyas to raise their status.
3. Sanskritisation results only in a “positional change” for a particular caste or section of
castes, and need not necessarily lead to a structural change.
4. Sanskritisation is not a new phenomenon as such. It has occurred in every part of the Indian
subcontinent. It may have been more active at some periods than at others.
5. Sanskritisation occurred sooner or later in those castes which enjoyed political and
economic power but have not rated high in ritual ranking (that is, there was a gap between
their ritual and politico- economic positions).
6. Economic betterment is not a necessary pre-condition to Sanskritisation, nor must economic
development necessarily lead to Sanskritisation. However, sometimes a group may start by
acquiring political power and this may lead to economic betterment and Sanskritisation.
Srinivas has given the example of untouchables of Rampura village in Mysore who have got
increasingly sanskritised though their economic condition has remained almost unchanged.
7.  Sanskritisation is not necessarily confined to the castes within the Hindu community, it is
found in tribal communities also.
8. The process of sanskritisation serves as a reference group. It is through this process a caste
group orient its beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, and life styles in terms of another
superior or dominant class, so that it can also get some recognition.
9. Sanskritisation does not take place in the same manner in all the places
10. The British rule provided impetus to the process of Sanskritisation but political
independence has weakened the trend towards this change. The emphasis is now on the
vertical mobility and not on the horizontal mobility.
11. The process of sanskritisation does not automatically result in the achievement of a higher
status of a group. People will have to wait for a period of a generation or two before their
claim can be accepted.
12. Factors that have made Sanskritisation possible are industrialisation, occupational mobility,
developed communication, spread of literacy, and western technology. No wonder, the
spread of Sanskrit theological ideas immersed under the British rule. The development of
communications carried Sanskritisation to areas previously inaccessible and the spread of
literacy carried it to groups very low in the caste hierarchy.
13. Sanskritisation serves to reduce or remove the gap between the ritual and secular ranking.
14. Sanskritisation has always been constructed as a kind of protest against the traditional caste
system.

15.  The concept of Sanskritisation has also given rise to De-sanskritisation. There are some
instances in modern times, some of the higher castes are imitating the behaviour pattern of lower
caste, and for example Brahmins have started taking meat and liquor. This process is called De-
sanskritisation.

Models of Sanskritisation:
Sanskritisation may follow any of the following models:
1. Cultural Model:
Castes have been assigned high or low status according to cultural characteristics of Hindus. The
wearing of sacred thread, denying the use of meat and liquor, observing endogamy, prohibition
of widow remarriage, observing the restriction in caste system, worship according to the modes
and methods described in the religious text books, giving respect to the religious and
mythological stories etc. have been given sanctity in traditional culture. They are considered to
be the measuring standards of sacredness and purity. Accepting these behaviour and code of
highness and purity as described in religious texts in a form of Sanskritisation.

2. Varna Model:
In the Varna system the highest status is given to that of a Brahmin followed by Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Sudra. The lowest Varna is the untouchable one in the Varna system. The lower
castes are coping the ideals and life style of the superior castes. Where the Kshatriyas enjoy
superiority, the lower castes followed their life style and ideals. Simultaneously where the
vaishyas enjoy superiority, the lower castes followed their life style and ideals. That is to say
emulating the life style or ideals of a Varna on the basis of honour and superiority enjoyed by
that class is called Varna model or sanskritisation.

3. Local Model:
In every country, some castes are considered to be more respectful than others on account of
their economic power. This caste may be called the “master caste” or the “dominant caste”. So
the lower caste copies the life style of the local dominant caste in order to improve their status.

Effects of Sanskritisation:
1. Sanskritisation in social field:
The social aspect of sanskritisation is much more important from the view point of change. The
low caste individuals are inclined towards sanskritisation because in that way they can elevate
their social status and get higher status in caste hierarchy.

2. Sanskritisation in economic field:

Economic betterment and sanskritisation is another related issue. The lower caste people have
given up un-cleaned occupation to raise their economic status because clean trades are a symbol
of social light.

3. Sanskritisation in religious field:

Sanskritisation also can be observed in the religious field. Like Brahmins many of the lower
castes people put on sacred thread. They also go to their temple regularly and perform Arti and
Bhajan. They have left prohibited food and un-cleaned occupation. Even they have specialised in
performing ceremonies like Brahmins.

4. Sanskritisation in living patterns:

The living patterns of lower castes have also Sanskritized. Like higher caste they also get Pucca
houses built for them. Now they sit along with the higher caste on the cots without any fear or
hesitation. They also keep their houses clean and put on dresses like higher castes.

Assessment:
The usefulness of the concept of Sanskritisation as a tool in the analysis of Indian society has
been described by Srinivas himself as ‘greatly limited because of the complexity of the concept
as well as its looseness”. Certain deficiencies in the concept may be noted.

Since the reference group is not always a caste but in many cases it is the local ‘dominant caste
(which could be a Rajput, Bania, Jat etc.), the context of Sanskritisation varies not only in each
model but also within the same model from region to region.

Power and dominance have been integrated by Srinivas with the process of Sanskritisation. This
introduces the structural element in the Sanskritisation model of social change. Srinivas has not
made this explicit.

Srinivas’s model explains the process of social change only in India which is based on the caste
system. It is not useful for other societies.

Yogendra Singh maintains that Sanskritisation fails to account for many aspects of cultural
changes in the past and contemporary India as it neglects the non-Sanskritic, traditions, which
often are a localized form of the Sanskrit tradition.

Sanskritisation is not a universal process. D.N. Majumdar has shown in his study of Mahana
village, in U.P., that there is no tendency among the lower castes to adopt the customs and
manners of higher caste nor does it help in elevating the status of any caste. Majumdar has also
shown that in the social stratification the movement among the castes is not vertical but
horizontal.

As Majumdar says, there are more signs of the reverse process namely de- sanskritisation in
evidence all over the country. In de-sanskritisation the members of higher caste abandon their
dress and rituals, for example Kashmir Pandits. According to him, the shrinkage of distance
between castes is not due to Sanskritisation but its-reverse.

WESTERNIZATION
The concept was also constructed by M.N. Srinivas to describe the process of social and cultural
mobility in the traditional social structure of India.

According to M.N. Srinivas, “Westernisation” refers to “the changes brought about in the
Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes
changes occurring at different levels – technology, institutions, ideology and values.”

Meaning of Westernisation:-
 In comparison with Sanskritisation, Westernisation is a simpler concept. It explains the impact
of Western contact (particularly of British rule) on the Indian society and culture. M.N.
Srinivas used the term “Westernisation” to describe the changes that a non-western country
had undergone as a result of prolonged contact with the western one.
 It implies, according to Srinivas, “certain value preferences”, which in turn subsumes several
values, such as “humanitarianism”. It implies an active concern for the welfare of all human
beings irrespective of caste, economic position, religion, age and sex. He further observes that
equalitarianism, and secularization are both included in humanitarianism.
 Westernisation not only includes the introduction of new institutions, but also fundamental
changes in old institutions. For example, India had schools long before the arrival but they
were different from the British introduced schools. Other institutions such as army, civil
service and law courts were also similarly affected.
 The form and pace of Westernization of India varied from region to region and from one
section of population to another. For instance, one group of people became westernized in
their dress, diet, manners, speech, sports and the gadgets they used. While another absorbed
western science, knowledge and literature.
 According to Srinivas, Westernization pervades political and cultural fields also.
 As Srinivas claims, the term Westernization unlike modernization is ethically neutral. Its use
does not carry the implication that is good or bad, whereas modernization is normally used in
the sense that it is good.
 According to Srinivas, the increase in Westernisation does not retard the process of
Sanskritisation. Both go on simultaneously, and to some extent increase in Westernisation
accelerates the process of Sanskritisation. For example, the postal facilities, railways, buses
and newspaper media which are the fruits of Western impact on India render more organised
religious pilgrimages, meetings, caste solidarities, etc., possible compared to the past.
Impact of Westernisation:-
 Opened up the doors of the knowledge – Modern education opened up the doors of the
knowledge flourished in Europe after Renaissance movement of Middle Ages. It had widened
the mental horizons of Indian intelligentsia.
 Education for all - During second half of the nineteenth century, British government in
India opened the doors of education to all the sections of Indian society, irrespective of caste
or creed. Still, very few amongst the general public could avail the advantages of formal
modern education. Education remained confined within a small section of society.
 Highlighted evil practices – Modern education had highlighted the evil practices and
weaknesses developed into the system like rigidity and harshness of many social customs and
practices prevalent at that time for the weaker sections of the society i.e. un-touch-ability and
inhuman treatment to women, Sati, Polygamy, child marriage etc. prevalent at that time.
 Attracted attention of social reformers – Modern education had attracted the attention of
intellectuals and social reformers towards real issues and evils caused by ignorance,
irrationality of mumbo-jumbo of rituals and superstitions created by some selfish people to
entangle the ignorant and poor masses. They suggested remedies for social, political and
economic ills of the country. They took upon themselves the responsibility to build a modern,
open, plural, culturally rich, prosperous and powerful India out of a fragmented, poverty
stricken, superstitious, weak, indifferent, backward and inward looking society. As a result of
such efforts, it led to the abolition of Sati System and slavery. Female infanticide practice
lowered to a great extent.
  Realization of the worth of liberty and freedom – It equipped national leaders with
intellectuals tools with which they fought the oppressive British Raj. Indians realized the
worth of liberty and freedom. They got exposure to the philosophies of thinkers like Locke,
Mill, Roussseau, Voltaire, Spencer and Burke etc. They understood the reasons and impact of
English, French, American revolutions.
Criticisms of Westernisation:-
 The concepts of Sanskritisation and Westernisation primarily analyse social change in
“cultural” and not in “structural” terms. This denoted that these terms have limited range of
application and use.
 Srinivas’s model explains the process of social change only in India which is based on the
caste system. It is not useful for other societies.
 Though Srinivas claimed that the concept of Westernisation is “ethically neutral”, it is not
really so. The Western model which Srinivas has eulogized has its own contradiction.
Mention can be made of the facts of Western life such as racial prejudice, colour segregation
and exploitive nature of the Western economy, etc. These facts contradict humanitarian ideals
or rational outlook on life
 Daniel Lerner has raised some objections to the use of Westernisation as conceived by
Srinivas: a. It is too local label and the model which is imitated may not be western country;
but Russia. b. One of the result of prolonged contact with the west is the rise of the elite class
whose attitude towards the West is ambivalent is not invariably true. In this context, Lerner
refers to the appeal of Communism in non-western countries. c. Westernisation in one area or
level of behaviour does not result in Westernisation in another related area or level. d. While
there are certain common elements in Westernisation, yet each represent a particular variant of
a common culture and significant difference exists between one country and another.
Difference between Sanskritisation and Westernisation:-
1. Sanskritisation process promoted the sacred outlook; while Westernisation process
promoted secular outlook.
2. Sanskritisation is a process of upward mobility by a process of imitation while
Westernisation is a process of upward mobility by a process of development.
3. Sanskritisation implies mobility within the framework of caste while Westernisation
implies mobility outside the framework of caste.
4. While Sanskritisation puts a taboo on meat-eating and consumption of alcohol,
Westernisation promoted meat-eating and consumption of alcohol.
URBANIZATION

Growth of Industries has contributed to the growth of cities. As a result of industrialisation

people have started moving towards the industrial areas in search of employment. This has
resulted in the growth of towns and cities.

According to Ram Ahuja, urbanisation is the movement of the population from rural to urban
areas.

According to Anderson, urbanization involves not only movement of population to cities but
also change in migrant attitudes, values, attitudes, values and behaviour patterns.

Causes of Urbanisation:
Various reasons have led to the growth of cities. They are as follows:

i. Industrialization:
Industrialization is a major cause of urbanization. It has expanded the employment opportunities.
Rural people have migrated to cities on account of better employment opportunities.

ii. Social factors:

Many social factors such as attraction of cities, better standard of living, better educational
facilities, need for status also induce people to migrate to cities.

iii. Employment opportunities:

In rural sector people have to depend mainly on agriculture for their livelihood. But Indian
agriculture is depending on monsoon. In drought situations or natural calamities, rural people
have to migrate to cities.

iv. Modernization:
Urban areas are characterized by sophisticated technology better infrastructure, communication,
medical facilities, etc. People feel that they can lead a comfortable life in cities and migrate to
cities.

Rural urban transformation:

It is an interesting aspect that not only cities are growing in number but rural community is
adopting urban culture, no longer rural communities are retaining their unique rural culture.
Rural people are following the material culture of urban people. Urban rural transformation can
be observed in the following areas.

Spread of education:
The literacy rate has increased among the rural people. They have become more modernised.

i. Change in Dress habits.

ii. Adoption of modern Technology

iii. Enlightenment of women.

iv. Modern transport and communication. E.g.: Cell phones have become common even among
rural people.

v. Active involvement in politics.

vi. Growth of infrastructure like Banks, Post office.

vii. Awareness among rural consumers.

viii. Increasing demand for sophisticated products like cosmetics etc.

Thus it can be noticed that there are significant changes in the life style of village people. Indian
villages have adopted urban culture and urban style of living. However, all villages in India are
not transformed. Only certain villages situated close to the cities have been transformed.

Effect of Urbanisation:
With a high rate of urbanization significant changes have taken place. The effect of urbanisation
can be summed up as follows:

Positive effect:
i. Migration of rural people to urban areas.

ii. Employment opportunities in urban centres.

iii. Transport and communication facilities.

iv. Educational facilities.

v. Increase in the standard of living.

Urbanization can yield positive effects if it takes place up to a desirable limit. Extensive
urbanisation or indiscriminate growth of cities may result in adverse effects. They may be as
follows:

i. Problem of over population:

Concentration of population is a major problem of cities. It has resulted in accommodation
problem, growth of slums etc.

ii. Disintegration of Joint family:

Joint family can’t be maintained in cities on account of high cost of living: People prefer to live
in the nuclear type of families.

iii. Cost of living:

High cost of living is a major problem of cities. In Metro cities like Mumbai, Bangalore etc. it is
very difficult for lower income groups to maintain a decent standard of living.

iv. Increase in Crime rates:

Urban centres are known for high rate of crimes. Theft, Dacoity, Murder, Cheating, Pick
pocketing, rape etc. are common in urban centres.

v. Impersonal relations:
Urban centres are characterised by highly secondary relations. The concept of neighbourhood,
community life are almost absent in cities. Urban life is highly monotonous. This may have an
adverse psychological effect on individuals. People are often self centred and they have no
concern for the fellow human beings.

vi. Problem of Pollution:

In industrialized cities pollution is a major problems. It may be caused by industries or by
excessive movement of vehicles.

viii. Stress:
Urban life is characterised by stress which may even strain family relations. In cities
employment of women is almost inevitable to meet the increasing cost of living. Changing role
of women in the family creates stress in the family which may result in divorce or strained
relations.

Thus urbanisation has its own merits and de-merits. Urbanization can’t be avoided. But the
negative effect of urbanization can be minimised.

Law and Social change in India

Law is generally defined as the set of principles and regulations established by a Government
and applicable to a people, whether in the form of legislation or of custom and policies
recognised and enforced by judicial decision.It includes any written or positive rule or collection
of rules prescribed under the authority of the state or nation or by the people in its constitution.

In the light of the above broad connotation of ‘law’, it can be argued that no society or
civilisation can appear and exist without a certain corpus of law. Even the Vedic society of
ancient India was no exception. Vedic society was by and large an egalitarian society with
sufficient equality between men and women. There was least hierarchical division of society and
very little class or caste exclusiveness.

In the later Vedic period, when the Dharmashastras (law-books) appeared, women’s status
declined, the society witnessed hierarchical divisions, kingship became exclusive preserve of the
kshatriyas, the Brahmin supremacy over other castes was established.

The entire society including the upper strata followed them. The climax came when the Indian
society got feudal character because of the law-givers during the Gupta and the post-Gupta
periods, when plurality of the society became pronounced.

With the establishment and enforcement of Muslim customs and traditions, through they more or
less left the Hindu society alone, the Indian society saw vertical divisions.

However the rigidity of the Muslim law helped introduce a certain degree of social rigidity
amongst the Hindus and led to further impositions upon the Hindu women.

On the whole, however in ancient and medieval times, law as a declaration of age-old customs a
codification of practice, rather than an instrument of social change. Law and social reform
became linked with the emergence of concepts of liberal socialism and the welfare state of
political philosophy.

During British rule, several laws effected far- reaching changes in Indian society. The Charter Ac
of 1833 removed the legal barrier on the European colonisation of India.
Section 87 of his Act altogether abolished the concept of any governing caste, sect or sex, i.e.
discriminations of various sports in public appointments were removed. By Act V of 1843
slavery was abolished in India.

The proclamation of British Crown (1858) brought all the Indian subjects on equal footing
irrespective of caste, sect or sex.

The principles of the rule of law and the equality before law, as introduced by the British, gave a
jolt on various divisions and sub-divisions in the society.This led to the formation of larger social
solidarity and people began to feel as a nation. Obviously, the practice of caste got mitigated, to
an extent.

Besides, various laws were passed that improved the conditions of women in December 1829 the
practice of sati was declared illegal and punishable by criminals court as culpable homicide.This
helped to wipe out the evil practice of sati, though stray cases might have occurred here and
there.

The Bengal Regulations XXI of 1795 and ill of 1804 declared infanticide illegal and equivalent
to committing a murder, and an Act of 1870 made it compulsory for parents to register the birth
of all babies and provided for verification of female babies as practiced among the Bengalis and
the Rajputs.

‘The Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act (1856) legalised the marriage of widows and declared
issues from such marriages as legitimate.

In the long run, Act profoundly improved the status of women, changed the sacramental nature
of the institution of marriage and the structure of family in Hindu society.

The shared Act (1930) provided for penal action in marriage of boys under 18 and of girls
under14. This provided legal protection to those individuals who resented early marriages.To
begin with, its impact on the society remained limited. But later on, some examples by their
success in educational and career avenues, and Indian society, at least urban areas followed the
law.

The permanent settlement of Bengal (1793) eventually created a new class of zamindars in the
Indian society and consolidated the position of the money-lenders.

Later, that the rule that only the English educated people could find place appointments led to the
emergence of a new middle class in Indian society.

Similarly, there was much other legislation in the British period that influenced the society.

In the post-independence era the Indian Government has taken numerous measures that concern
the society.
The Constitution refuses to recognise the distinctions of religions, sect, caste, sex etc. in the
matter of the opportunities of civil life. It has largely mitigated a number of evils resulting from
the pluralistic nature of India society with regard to religion and caste.

Freedom of belief as a Fundamental Rights has made religion a personal choice rather than its
earlier compulsive and all-pervasive nature for a family or a group. Untouchability has been
rendered a criminal offence.

Endogamous nature of casteism is now on the wane as inter-marriages, even inter religious ones
(The Special Marriage Act. 1954) have been legalised.

Reservations in jobs and freedom in the choice of vocations have encouraged vertical mobility of
many families, irrespective of their caste of class affiliations.

The Hindu Marriage Act (1955) has given a jolt to the traditional nature of the institution of
marriage by containing the provision for divorce.

The remarkable features of the Hindu Succession Act (1956) are recognition of the right of
women to inherit property of an intestate equally with men and abolition of the life estate of
female heirs. This has also changed the family composition as daughters and sons have been
made equal even in the matter of in heritance.

The extension of maternity benefits to unmarried women is also gradually changing the meaning
of family.

Various labour legislations like the Factories Act (1948) the Industrial Disputes Act (1947) the
Trade Unions At(1928) etc. improved the status of the working class and brought them at par
with the bourgeois class of capitalists.

The critics opine that merely the enactment of laws and even their enforcement, has limited
impact on the society. According to them, the transformation of society is an evolutionary
process, not a revolutionary one. So, law may lose its sanctity and graces because of the non-
compliance on the part of the society. What they emphasise on more is that unless and until a law
gets the sanction of the society as a whole it may have no effect. And logically, if the collective
psyche is ready for a change there is no need for a law. We even have examples of laws meant to
do good to the society having failed. But this happens only when there is a wide gap between the
governing authorities and the people especially in regard to communication.

The utility of law in reforming society depends on the machinery to implement it. Furthermore, a
traditionally diehard society cannot accept change easily. No law can push it into accepting
change even if we take the laws against child marriage and female infanticide. In such cases, we
cannot wait for the impulse for change to come from society at larger. The enlightened must seek
to educate and spread awareness among the masses. Unless ignorance is dispelled, law will
remain in the statute books and no change worth its name will take place.

References:
 1. C.N Shanker Rao, Sociology
2. T.K. Oomen & C.N. Venugopal, Sociology

3. Vidya bhushan & D.R. Sachdeva, An introduction to sociology

4. Majumdar, A.K., Bhanwar Singh, Regionalism in Indian Politics.
5. C.N Shanker Rao, Sociology of Indian Society

Important Questions
1. Write four characteristics of urbanization
2. What is westernization? Explain in brief
3. Define social change? Explain its main factors
4. What is social change? explain two characteristics of social change
5. What do you mean by Sanskritization? Differentiate between sanskritization and
westernization with examples.
6. Explain the influence of westernization on Indian Society
7. .Explain in detail role of law in the process of modernization

UNIT 5

SOCIAL EVILS & MOVEMENTS

COMMUNALISM

Communalism has become one of the biggest menaces of Modern India. Problem that arises
between the socio-religious relations of the people who belong to various minority communities
on the one hand and the majority community on the other, can be referred to as “communalism”
or “communal problem”.

Definition

According to Ram Ahuja: The antagonism practiced by the members of one community against
the people of other community and religion can be termed as communalism.

According to Melson and Howard Wolpe, “Communalism is the political assertiveness of a

community to maintain its identity in plural society undergoing modernization”.

BACK GROUND AND GROWTH OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA

The origin and growth of communalism has its own history in India. Communalism was part and
parcel of British policy of “divide and rule.
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNALISM

1. Communalism considers a particular religious community separate from the rest of

the communities.
2. It believes that not only religious but also secular interest of that community are
different from others
3. It believes that the specific interest of a community can bepromoted by maintaining
its separate identity and organizing it separately for the promotion of those interests.
4. Communal interst always super impose upon national interests.
5. It breeds mutual distrust and disharmony among the communities.
6. Communalism treats some citizen not as a citizen but as members of some specific
religious community.
7. Communalism makes a particular religious community to impose its religious views
and social norms on the members of other religious community also.
8. Communalism fails to separate religion from politics.
9. Communalism leads to the abuse of the power.
10. In its extreme form, communalism claims nationhood for the community concerned
and seeks to raise it to a status of sovereign state.

CAUSES FOR GROWTH OF COMMUNALISM

The main factors and forces which have encouraged the growth of communalism in India as
listed by A.P Avasthi;

1. Communal political parties and organization that have been fanning the fire of
separatism.
2. Minority assessment policies
3. The election which make the political parties and organizations to make a ‘communal
appeal’ to the voters and to keep alive communal feelings.
4. The media, literature and textbooks that have communal slant and give support to
communal forces
5. Separation and isolationism
6. The economic and educational backwardness
7. The aggressive Hindu chauvinism
8. Political opportunitism
9. Divide & rule policy of Britishers
10. Role of foreign forces
11. Large scale conversion activities
12. The subversion of secularilism by the political parties
13. The growing disappointment among hindus
14. The hindu militancy
SUGGESTIONS TO CONTROL AND ERADICATE COMMUNALISM

A. Immediate remedial measures:

i. Setting up Peace Committee
ii. Use of new strategies and plans by state
iii. Supervision of the media
iv. Suppressing the extremists
v. Other measures
B. Long Term Remedial Measures
i. To make people free from communal Frenzies and passion
ii. Preventing Communalization of the state and the Political Elites in Power
iii. Protecting the civil Society from being communalized
iv. Educational System should be free from Communal Ideas and Ideologies
v. Role of the Media
vi. Ideology that Economic development by itself bring down communalism is not
correct.
vii. Legislations against forcible conversions.

REGIONALISM

Regionalism means excessive attachment for a particular region or State as against the country as
whole. Such feelings may arise either due to the feelings of continuous neglect of a particular
area by the government or it may arise because of increasing political awareness among the
people of a particular area which was one backward. Regional feelings may give rise to demands
for autonomy and this threatens the unity of the country.
The term “regionalism‟ has two connotations. In the negative sense, it implies excessive
attachment to one’s region is preference to the country or the state. In the positive sense it is a
political attribute associated with people’s love for their region, culture, language, etc. with a
view to maintain their independent identity. While positive regionalism is a welcome thing in so
far maintaining as it encourages the people to develop a sense of brotherhood and commonness
on the basis of common language, religion or historical background. The negative sense
regionalism is a great threat to the unity and integrity of the country

CAUSES FOR GROWTH OF REGIONALISM

There are many causes for the growth of regionalism:

1. Have and Have not’s

Contradictions out of the development strategy adopted in the country are one of main reason for
regionalism in the country. Gap between the producer states and consumer states came bigger
than bigger.

2. Cultural aspects
The ability to protect the cultural identity very much depends upon economic and political
power. This become important in India, because in view of scarce resources the conviction
that minorities are vulnerable to discrimination, exploitation and suppression by those who
control the state and its resources is easy to grow. The concentration of power at the centre,
absence of sound language policy and very ambivalent attitude towards secularism have
continued fear among linguistic and cultural groups that attempts were made to assimilate
them in larger

3.. Regionalism has also emerged because of the attempts made by the government to improve a
particular or ideology on people who desire to follow a different path.
4. Continuous neglect of an area or region by the ruling parties and concentration of
administrative and political power has given rise to demand for decentralization of authority
and bifurcate of unilingual states
5. The desire of the various units of the Indian federal system to maintain their sub cultural
regions and greater degree of self-government has promoted regionalism and given rise to
demand for greater autonomy.
6. The desire of regional elites to capture power has also led to rise of regionalism.
Different Forms of Regionalism in India

Regionalism in India has assumed various forms like:

1. Demand for State Autonomy:

Regionalism has often led to the demand by states for greater autonomy from the center.
Increasing interference by the Centre in the affairs of the states has led to regional
feelings. Demand for autonomy has also been raised by regions within some states of the
Indian federation.

2. Secession from the Union:

This is a dangerous form of regionalism. It emerges when states demand separation from
the Centre and try to establish an independent identity of their own. Disputes between
states over the sharing of river water, primacy given by the states to the language of
majority and to people of their own states in job opportunities have also given rise to
feelings of regionalism. Migration of people from backward state to a developed state for
employment opportunities have often resulted in a hostile attitude against the migrants for
example, problems going on in Karnataka and A.P.
DETERMINANTS OF REGIONALISM IN INDIA

While the cultural factors, real or imagined, focus upon the symbolic dimension, the socio-
economic and political disparities highlight the instrumental dimension. The major determinants
of regionalism in India are examines as under:

1. Geographical Factor: - The geographical distinctiveness gives a symbolic identity

which needs economic and political props for its resurgence from time to time. For
example, the old geographical boundaries of the ex-princely states still haunt and are
implied in defining regional identity in India.
2. Historical Factor: - Common historical experience often buttresses regionalism by way
of creating differences in social heritage, attitude, myths and regionalism.
3. Socio-cultural Factor: - Socio-cultural differences between regions fan regional feeling
to some extent. Socio-cultural symbols often provide the necessary inputs for identity –
formation for a people living in a particular region. Regional caste, sub caste and kinship
differences motivate regional feeling within a broad socio-linguistic area.
4. Socio-Economic Factor: - Socio-economic imbalance between regions is the crux of
regionalism in India. Regional imbalance is also inherent in the pattern of capital
investment and distribution. The uneven nature of capital investment is bequeathed to
India by the colonial government.
5. Political Factor: - In a sense, all regionalism is a form of politics, i.e. politics of
natives. In political sphere, regionalism is against centralization of power and
administration. It stands for more power and administration.

MEASURES AND SOLUTIONS TO PREVENT REGIONALISM

Regionalism is short cut to attain the political ambitions by emotionally exploiting the sentiments
of the people. As long as the political leaders thrive for regional development without
discriminating against outsiders, Regionalism is good for India. The measures to protect
regionalism are as follows:

1. To promote even development of the nation. The neglected areas must be given more
importance so that they feel a part of the national mainstream.

2. The central government must not interfere in the affairs of the state unless it is unavoidable
for national interest.

3. A proper law should be passed to execute the political leaders supporting regionalism just to
gain political attention like Uddhav Thackrey and Raj Thackrey or they should be treated under
the laws of sedition.
 4. Problems of people must be solved in a peaceful and constitutional manner. Politicians must
not be allowed to misuse the issue of regional demands.

5. The different departments for different states can be constituted at central government level so
that that specific department can look upon state critically and suggest the ways to government
for the upliftment of the state.

7. There should be a nominal participation of all the states at central level government. The
leaders of the deprived states should come forward to participate in the central government and
raise their concern rather than sitting in the state and demanding the new state

8. A system of national education that would help to overcome regional feelings and develop an
attachment towards the nation should be introduced.

9. Election Commission should lay down some norms for regional parties against regionalism.
Election Commission should define that any party who will be found in promoting unnecessary
regionalism will be banned.

10. As much as possible, public policies depicting the idea of nationalism should be introduced
and there should be uniformity in schemes and policies for all the states.

11. Irrespective of the political party whose government is the state, the central government
should not be biased with any state. Funds, packages, allocations should be equally distributed.

12. Proper committees should be set up to look into the matters where there is demand for
different state. Rationale of new smaller states need not necessarily be perceived as balkanization
or regionalization. As such the demand for new states has to be effectively scotched and
conceded after only after careful scrutiny of each case on the basis of economic development and
administrative convenience.

13. Non-Government Organization‟s should come forward to promote idea of nationalism

among people. They should spread awareness of living by unity in the diversity. They should
teach people the advantages of living with a big nation and state rather than small and segregated
state

Module 28 CASTEISM

Casteism is a social problems with the caste system. Casteism is understood as a partial or one
sided loyalty in favour of any particular caste.

Definition

According to D.N Prasad, Casteism is loyalty to the caste translated into politics”.
According to Kaka kalekar, casteism is an overriding, blind and supreme group loyalty that
ignores the healthy social standards of justice, fairplay, equity and universal brotherhood.

Casteism exhibits a number of characteristics. They are as follows:

1. Casteism signifies blind caste or sub-caste loyalty. It either ignores or does not care for the
interests of other castes.

2. For a casteist “My caste man and my caste only, right or wrong” is the principle.

3. Casteism goes against the spirit of democracy.

4. It submits one’s sense of justice, fair play and humanity to the interest of his own caste.

5. It is against the lofty ideal of the constitution.

6. Casteism is a big hurdle in the way of nation-building and national integration.

7. Casteism creates caste solidarity to the extent that: (a) one caste seeks to dominate over others,
(b) higher castes exploit the lower castes, (c) elections are contested and won on caste basis, and
(d) inter-caste conflicts increase in society.

8. Casteism is essentially a rural phenomenon. Its role in the urban areas is negligible.

Several factors contribute to the growth and spread of Casteism. They are as follows:
1. Sense of caste prestige:
Sense of caste prestige constitutes an important cause of Casteism. The people belonging to a
particular caste try to enhance the prestige of their caste. In so doing they do not hesitate to
employ undesirable and deleterious methods.

2. Endogamy:
Endogamy signifies that marriage is solemnized within one’s own caste. Since people practice
endogamy, it is quite natural that they develop a deep sense of belonging towards one another.
This obviously promotes Casteism.

3. Urbanization:
Consequent upon urbanization and modernization, the people migrate from rural areas to urban
areas in search of employment. They live in an impersonal world and hence feel insecure.
This need for psychological security compels them to stay in a cluster formed on the basis of
caste. Further, they form associations through which they can protect their caste interests. All
these lead to Casteism.

4. Increase in the means of transport and propaganda:

Increase in the means of both transport and propaganda has led to the establishment of relation
between members of a caste who were previously separated because of distance. And the feeling
of Casteism is being rapidly propagated through the medium of newspapers and communal
magazines.

5. Social distance:
Under the traditional caste system, the people belonging to the higher castes maintain social
distance from that of the lower castes through restrictions of inter-caste marriage, inter- dining
etc.

The ideas and ideologies of an individual are conditioned exclusively by his caste norms and
values. This state of affairs has given rise to Casteism.

6. Social distinctions:
Under the traditional caste system, the members of the lower caste suffer from several social
disabilities. Their ‘life chances’ and ‘life opportunities’ to achieve social mobility are limited.

Their children are not allowed to avail educational facilities available to upper caste children. In
course of time they begin to feel that they are being suppressed and oppressed. They
become more and more united and try to protect their caste interests which in turn lead to
Casteism.

7. Illiteracy and belief in religious dogmas:

The members of the lower castes are illiterate. They are governed by narrow sectarian
considerations, superstitions and blind beliefs. In the name of ‘Jati Dharma’ or ‘Kula Dharma’,
they preserve their own caste interests and stick to their caste prejudices. Even at times they act
against the interests of other castes. All these factors promote casteism.

Consequences:
On the one hand, Casteism serves to further the interest of a small number of individuals. On the
other hand, it is proving harmful to the nation as a whole. Some of the major consequences of
Casteism are as follows:

1. Hindrance in the development of nationalism:

Casteism hinders the growth and development of nationalism. It has divided Indian Society into
a large number of groups and subgroups. There is also division in the same caste. Very often
there occurs both inter-caste tension and intra-caste tension which lead to national disintegration.

2. Hindrance to democracy:
Casteism poses a serious obstacle in the functioning of democracy. Many of the professional
politicians exploit Casteism and at election time ask the people to vote for them on caste
considerations and they also succeed in their evil designs.

Even illegitimate and immoral practices are resorted to in securing the interests of one’s own
caste. By promoting narrow loyalties, Casteism has weakened the modernization of the polity.
By retaining outmoded caste cohesion, Casteism has stood in the way of the building up of a
secular society.

3. Corruption:
Casteism has a lion’s share in encouraging corruption. Inspired by the sense of Casteism people
try to provide all kinds of facilities and benefits to their own caste men. Fair play is ignored. All
sorts of wrong practices are justified on one pretext or the other.

4. Hindrance in technological efficiency:

The appointment to government and private services on the basis of caste has led to an increase
in the number of inefficient and worthless people. Competent persons with professional expertise
are neglected.

Less competent people look after the whole scientific and technical activities. This amounts to
colossal national loss in terms of industrial and technological advance.

5. Opposed to the process of development:

Casteism crumbles down the process of development. By encouraging corruption, nepotism,
favoritism and blind caste loyalty, Casteism arrests the implementation of developmental
programmes.
Remedial measures:
Casteism has become pervasive. It has entered into the marrow and bones of a sizeable section of
the society. Its root has gone deep into Indian soil. It cannot be uprooted overnight. It is in the
interest of both the individual and society that Casteism should be eradicated from the Indian
social matrix at the earliest.

A number of suggestions have been put forth by different sociopolitical thinkers. They are as
follows:

Prof. M. N. Srinivas holds the view that the removal of Casteism depends, for the most part, on
adult franchise, spread of education, and constant progress of the backward classes and the
influence of the culture of higher castes on the living standards of the lower castes.

According to G. S. Ghurye, removal of Casteism is possible only through inter-caste marriages

and co-education.

Mrs Irawati Karve suggests for the creation of economic and cultural equality as a means to do
away with Casteism.

P. N. H. Prabhu holds the view that Casteism can receive a jolt only when new attitudes in the
people are developed. The cinema and other media can do much towards the creation of these
attitudes.

The political parties and organisations thriving on Casteism should be banned. Similarly journals
and magazines fanning Casteism should be brought under the clutches of law.

Voluntary organisations should be formed in quite large numbers. They should work with
missionary zeal and play an influential role towards the removal of Casteism.

There should be limited use of the word ‘caste’. Limited use of the word ‘caste’ will bring in its
wake the disappearance of the distinctions based on caste. Consequently the feeling of Casteism
will die a natural death.

Last but not least, public opinion and propaganda should be relentlessly directed against
Casteism through press, radio, television and educational institutions in order that the feeling of
untouchability finds no place in the minds of the people.
In fine, strong political will on the part of the leaders, courage on the part of the social reformers
and above all an attitudinal change on the part of the members of various castes towards the evils
of the caste system will go a long way in eradicating Casteism from the Indian social setting.

Module 29& 30 SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Social movement is one of the major forms of collective behavior.

According to Tuner & Killian, A social movement is formally defined as “a collectively acting
with some continuity to promote or resist change in the society or group of which it is a part”.
According to Neil J. Smester, Social movement can be defined as organized group effort to
generate or resist social change.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

1. Collective Action
2. Oriented towards Social Change

FORMATION OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

1. The preliminary stage
2. The popular stage
3. The formalization stage
4. The stage of institutionalization of the movement
5. The dissolution Stage

TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

1. Reform movements
Reform movements are satisfied with the existing social order but believe that certain
reforms are necessary in some specific area.
Eg:- Arya Samaj movements, Brahmo Samaj Movement
2. Revolutionary Movements
Revolutionary movements deny that the system will even work. These movements are
deeply dissatisfied with the social order and work for radical change. Eg:-
Communalistic revolution of China, the socialistic movement etc.
3. Reactionary or Revivalist Movement
These aim at “putting the clock back”. Their members view certain social changes with
suspicion and distaste and try to reverse the current trends. Eg:- Sarvodaya Movement,
Khadi and Gramodyog Movement of Gandhi etc.
4. Resistance Movement
These movements are found to resist a change that is already taking place in society. Eg:
Anti- abortion movement, anti- Hindi movement etc.
5. Utopian Movements
 These are attempts to take the society or at least a section of it towards a state of
perfection.eg: Hare krishna movements of seventies, movements to establish Rama
Rajya.

TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA

1. Religious movements
2. Caste Movements
3. Tribal Movement
4. Agrarian movement

Social movements and social problems

Social movements play a very important role in highlighting some of social problems. Some
undesirable condition can exist for years or even centuries before they are recognized as social
problems. The degree of success of a social movement determines not only how the social
problem is confronted but what happens to the movement itself.

Social movements and social change

Social movements do not necessarily bring solutions to the social problems. Social movements
may promise to bring about change and they do bring it. But it is not a one way process. Not only
do social movements bring about change, sometimes it gives birth to movements.

References
1. C.N Shanker Rao, Sociology
2. T.K. Oomen & C.N. Venugopal, Sociology

3. Vidya bhushan & D.R. Sachdeva, An introduction to sociology

4. Majumdar, A.K., Bhanwar Singh, Regionalism in Indian Politics.
5. Malla, N., Nationalism, Regionalism and Philosophy of National Integration. 6.
Nanda, S.K., Nationalism and Regionalism in India.
6. C.N Shanker Rao, Sociology of Indian Society

7. Ram Ahuja, Indian Social System

Important Questions
1. What is communalism? Describe communalism in Modern India
2. What do you mean by regionalism? Explain any four factors responsible for it
3. Write a brief note on social movements
4. What is casteism? Discuss measures for the eradication of casteism
5. Describe various social movements in India and discuss what have been their
contribution to social change