UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING I (CE 452) LECTURE NOTES

BY

J. M. TEMBO

AUGUST 2011

1.0 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING -LECTURE NOTES

1.1 INTRODUCTION

COVERED

2.0 WATER SUPPLY

2.1 BACKGROUND
Before the Industrial revolution water used to be obtained from natural sources such as springs and
rivers. With the industrial revolution came urbanisation resulting in localised increase in population.
This resulted in demand outstripping supply. The sources also got polluted and hence people started to
go for ground water. With further increase in population, most of the sources became polluted and
ground water could not meet the requirement. This lead to abstraction of water from distant sources
(birth of water transport). The water so abstracted had to be treated and conveyed to where it was
required. This is the setup we have in the modern world in most cases.

With the realisation that the water sources had to be protected from pollution, sanitation methods on
how best waste could be handled developed. Initially, on-site methods were devised. However, with
the increase in population, off-site sanitation methods were devised to deal with the issue of waste.

Generally, a water supply system will comprise the following:-

A source

Treatment facilities

Storage

Transport

Distribution

In our approach to understanding water supply systems, we will try to follow through the above step.
However, the genesis of any water supply system is computation of water demand (amount of water
required). We will therefore start with this before we go through the five steps of a water supply
system.

2.1 WATER DEMAND

Water Demand is defined as the amount of water drawn from the system within a certain period of
time. It is expressed as flow in m3/h, l/s or l/c/d. Accurate determination and forecast of water demand
(water consumption) is a crucial element in any consideration of water supply systems.

2.2 DETERMINATION/ESTIMATION OF WATER DEMAND

Average demand is roughly determined as the amount of water delivered into the system divided by
the number of inhabitants. (rough average in that not all the water supplied is for direct use by the
inhabitants)

2.3 WATER CONSUMPTION CATEGORIES

The water supplied to a city is classified according to its ultimate/intended use as follows:

2.3.1 DOMESTIC: - Water supplied to a city/community for sanitary uses, drinking washing bathing
etc.

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2.3.2 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL:- Water supplied to commercial and industrial plants. In
projects, it is always important to know whether the industries will have independent supply
systems.

2.3.3 PUBLIC:- Water that is supplied to public places like schools, hospitals, prisons and water for
fire fighting.

2.3.4 LOSS AND WASTE:- (unaccounted for water) This is water that goes to service the leaks and
illegal connections in the system. When designing a system, this water is to be catered for if
supply is to be adequate.

2.4 CONSUMPTION DETERMINATION

To determine the average consumption there are several formulae of which the two below can
be used (applicable to domestic water demand): -

Qa = dACq or alternatively Qa = ACqa

Where
Qa = Average water demand
d = Population density
A = Area of the distribution
C = Coverage of the area (i.e. 50% of the area) Thus it is a factor that converts
number of inhabitants into number of consumers.
q = Consumption per capita (varies from place to place for Zambian conditions, refer to
Zambia standard)
qa = average consumption per unit area

Where the demand is to be computed for an area (e.g. town) with different consumption figures
then
n
Qa = A∑ qa piCi
i =1

n
or Qa = A∑ d i qi piCi
i =1

Where
Qa = Average consumption of the town
A = Area of the town
qa = Average consumption per unit area
n = Consumption categories in the district
qi = Unit consumption per category i
pi = percentage of district territory occupied by category i
Ci = Coverage within district territory occupied by category i
di = population density within the district i

However, in estimating the average demand of an area, apart from determination of the number of
people to be served and estimation of per capita consumption, other factors (e.g. provision for fire
fighting, industries etc) should also be considered.

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2.5 WATER DEMAND PATTERNS
Each demand category cannot be considered only from the perspective of the average of the amounts
needed but also with respect to maximum delivery required within a specific interval of time.

The most common types of patterns are:

instantaneous

daily

weekly and

yearly
The Demands for certain time intervals are usually expressed through the peak factor values. Peak
factor values are ratios of the consumption at a certain moment (second of hour) hour of day, day of
week, month of year, etc) and the average consumption for the observed period (hour, day, week,
month year, etc)

Consumption Daily average

time

Example:
If consumption at 06-07hours is 40m3 and the average consumption is 20m3, the peak factor will then
be 40/20 = 2

Meaning: - at this hour, supply has to be twice the average value to meet the demand. It should be
noted that in design, it is the extreme values that are important and not the average!

Where domestic water demand is considered, it will be noticed that as the population increases, the
peak factor reduces. The curve that results is called a SIMULTANEITY CURVE.

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Peak
factor

Population

2.6 WATER DELIVERY

The loss and waste category makes it necessary to produce or abstract more water than is required. The
excess goes to service the losses and waste. The total amount pumped to satisfy both demand and
losses and waste is called WATER DELIVERY (Qd). It is given by

Qd = Qa/(1-L/100)

Where Qd = Water delivery

Qa = Water demand
L = Losses and wastage (%)

EXAMPLE:
A community's average daily water demand is 200m3. If losses and wastage is estimated at 30%, how
much water should be pumped into the system (water delivery)to satisfy the demand?

Solution

Qd = Qa /(1-L/100)
= 200/(1-0.3)
= 285.71m3.

To take care of the variations in water demand, the design will be based on maximum hourly demand
for maximum daily demand for maximum monthly demand. The peak factor in this case will be the
overall of peak factors calculated simply by multiply all the peak factors. Thus

Qd = (Qa* pfo) /(1-L/100)

Where pfo is the overall peak factor given as pfo = pfh * pfd * pfm

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2.7 FACTORS AFFECTING CONSUMPTION (DEMAND)
- Size of the city
- Characteristic of the population
- Presence of industries
- Quality of the water
- Cost
- Pressure in the system
- Climate
- Cultural background of the community
- Whether supplies are metered
- Effectiveness of the water works administration.

2.71 SIZE OF CITY

Usually, small cities are associated with low per capita consumption. This is mainly due to the fact that
there are limited uses for water in small towns. Sewerage or its absence will have a considerable effect.

2.7.2 CHARACTERISTIC OF POPULATION

Highest consumption is expected in high value single residences (due to presence of lawns, swimming
pools and here cost is not an issue). Lowest consumption is expected in areas with standpipes

2.7.3 PRESENCE OF INDUSTRIES

The presence of industries in a city has a great effect upon consumption. (it is usually better to have
independent sources e.g. boreholes for industries to reduce strain on the water supply utility).

2.7.4 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

Where summers are hot and dry, much water will be used. This will be in form of water required for
watering/gardening and also bathing and drinking. However, it might be of interest to note that even in
cold climates demand may be exaggerated in that there has to be wastage at the faucets to avoid
freezing of water in the pipes.

2.7.5 METERING
Where there are no services meters, (customers being on flat rates) there is carelessness leading to high
consumption figures.

2.8 WATER DEMAND FORECASTING

When designing one should always establish the length of time the improvement will serve the
community before it is abandoned or enlarged.

The Engineer should always have the knowledge of the city for which the project is being designed
(i.e. is it expanding industrially? Population? And if so, at what rate.

Several assessments must be taken into account whilst estimation for future demand are being made.
They can be classified into the following groups:-
a) Projections of total consumption based on historical growth trends
b) Projections based on per capita consumption and population growth trends for domestic
category
c) Forecast based on assessment of growth trends of other main consumer categories (Industry,
Commercial)
d) Forecast based on developmental plans and programs.

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Two models commonly used in calculation of demand trends are: -
a) Linear model
a
Qi + n = Qi * (1 + n * )
100

b) Exponential model

a n
Qi + n = Qi * (1 + )
100

Where
Qi = Water demand at year "i"
Qi+1 = forecasted water demand after n years
n = design period
a = average annual growth rate during the design period

SELECTION OF a AND n
The average annual growth rate can easily be obtained from statistical data. However, as to what value
of n is used, a lot of factors have to be considered some of which are:-
1. Useful life-span of component structures and equipment
2. Easy or difficulty of extensions
3. Anticipated population growth
4. Economy at time of designing (interest rates)
5. Anticipated industrial potential of the area etc

3.0 SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

Water is usually obtained from surface and underground sources. Where water is sourced from
underground, it often does not require treatment. However, surface water almost always needs
treatment.

3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SOURCE

A good source should:-

1. be free from pathogenic bacteria;
2. have low concentrations of compounds that are acutely toxic or that have serious long term
effects such as lead;
3. Aesthetically acceptable (clear and free from compounds that cause offensive odour and taste;
4. Not be saline; and
5. Neither be corrosive nor scale forming in piping or staining of clothes.

3.2 CHOICE OF A WATER SOURCE

Choice should be based on: -
1. adequacy
2. reliability
3. quality
4. location (defines energy requirements which can affect recurrent operational costs)

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Due to operational problems in developing countries, it is always import to go for safe sources. Only
as a last resort should sources that require chemical treatment be developed.

3.3 CHOICE OF TREATMENT PROCESSES

The broad choices available in water treatment make it possible to produce virtually any desirable
quality of finished water from any but the most polluted sources. Therefore, economic and operational
considerations become the limiting constraints in the selection of treatment units. The primary factors
influencing the selection of treatment processes are:
i) Treated water specifications
ii) Raw water quality and its variations
iii) Local constraints
iv) Relative costs of different treatment processes

The first two exert the greatest influence on process selection. On local constraints one must evaluate
- limitations of capital
- availability of skilled and unskilled manpower
- availability of major equipment items , construction materials and water treatment chemicals
- applicability of local codes demanding water standards and specifications for materials
- influence of local traditions, customs and cultural standards
- influence of national sanitation and pollution policies

3.4 CHARACTERIZATION OF RAW WATER SOURCES

An example on how we would characterise raw water is given in the table below. It should be noted
that the more contaminated a water source is, the more difficult (hence more expensive) it is to have it
treated to the required standard.

Parameter Excellent Good source Poor source Rejectable

Characterisation source source
Average BOD5 (mg/l) 0.75- 1.5 1.5 - 2.5 2.5 - 4.0 >4
Average coliforms 50 - 100 100 – 5000 5000 - 20000 >20000
(MPN)/100ml
PH 6 - 8.5 5 - 6, 8.5 – 9 3.8-5, 9-10.3 <3.8, >10.3
Chlorides (mg/l) <50 50 – 250 250 - 600 >600
Flourides (mg/l) <1.5 1.5 – 3 >3 -

The raw water so abstracted should meet a certain quality for the intended purpose after treatment.
Mostly, it is the chemical and bacteriological parameters that matter most in selecting whether a water
source can be developed or not. This is because physical parameters are easily removed by the
available treatment methods. Examples of physical parameters are turbidity, suspended solids; etc.

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4.0 URBAN DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
Under this topic, we will discuss transport, storage and networks.

The water transport and distribution networks deliver water from the treatment or production facilities
to the user.

4.1 WATER TRANSPORT

Water transport systems comprise main transmission lines (TRUNK MAIN) usually of high and
constant capacities, usually without additional interim storage facilities and sometimes,in case of long
distances (e.g. from Kafue to Lusaka) with booster pumping stations. They do not serve consumers
directly. At the end of the system, there is often some central storage.

4.2 DESIGN OF WATER TRANSPORT SYSTEMS

The design of water transport systems is very simple. It is governed by single pipe calculations based
on the continuity and Bernoulli equations or the energy equation as follows:

Continuity equation

Q = VA = V1A1 = V2A2

Meaning the discharge is calculated by multiplying the cross sectional area of the pipe and the velocity
of the fluid. The maximum velocity in the pipe should not go above 2.6m/s.

The Energy Equation

V12/2g +P1/rg + Z1 = V22/2g +P2/rg + Z2 +Hf

Graphically

V12/2g

P 1 / rg Hf

V22/2g

P 2 / rg

Z1 Z2

Reference:
L

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Definition of the terms
Elevation Head:
An amount of flow potential energy in one cross section defined by its elevation.

Pressure Head:
An amount of flow potential energy in one cross section defined by the water pressure.

Velocity Head:
An amount of flow kinetic energy in one cross section defined by the water velocity.

Energy Head:
This is the total energy of the system.

Energy Grade line:

Line connecting elevations of total energy heads along the pipe.

Hydraulic (or piezometric) Grade Line:

A line that connects elevations of piezometric heads along the pipe.

Pressure grade line:

This is the hydraulic grade line when pipe axis is taken as reference level.

Energy (Hydraulic or Pressure) Gradient:

This is the loss of energy per unit length. It is the slope of the energy or the hydraulic grade line.

When written to incorporate frictional losses, minor losses, energy input (e.g. from pumps) and losses
from other type of work done, the Bernoulli equation becomes the energy equation and can be
rewritten as:

HP + V12/2g +P1/rg + Z1 = HT + V22/2g +P2/rg + Z2 + Hf +Hm

EXAMPLE (HOME WORK)

How much head (mwc) should the pump provide in the system below so that the head at the end of the
pipe is 6mwc. The pipe length is 200m, diameter 150mm and average pipe roughness (K) is 0.045mm..
The flow rate is 75m3/h and the water temperature is 20OC (take kinematic viscosity at 20OC as
1*10-6m2/s)

Also take the pressure at the inlet to be atmospheric so that P1 = 0 and assume the only losses in the
system are those due to friction. Take the difference in elevation between the two ends is 15m with the
source being lower than the other end.

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4.3 STORAGE
Water can be provided to a distribution area by means of direct pumping and/or by properly elevated
water storage.

Clear water storage facilities are normally part of any sizable water supply system. They can be
located at the treatment plant, at the end of the distribution system or at any suitable place in the
distribution system. They serve two general purposes:
1. Meeting variations in water demand
2. Providing a reserve supply in case of emergence.

In case there is no storage, the flow in the trunk main should follow the demand patterns. This would
entail having bigger pipes to accommodate huge flows in times of higher demand. Secondly, the
pumping regime would then have to follow the demand patterns, which is technically demanding. (in
this case, variable speed pumps have to be used, a technology that would be very expensive for
developing countries). Without storage, the flow in the treatment facilities would also need to vary
according to demand. This would also lead to big treatment units which would not economical.

With storage reservoirs, the pipe size need to be big enough to only convey the maximum average
demand (pumping by fixed speed pumps). When demand is higher, the difference would be supplied
from the storage which would be filling in times of low demand.

Storage tanks can be classified according to their elevation as follows:

- Underground
- Ground Level
- Elevated

4.3.1 POSITION OF STORAGE TANKS

The optimum elevation of a storage tank should enable nearly the same volume after every balancing
interval. Most storage tanks are designed to meet demand variations during 24 hours. This means the
balancing volume should be determined from the daily demand patterns.

4.3.2 STORAGE TANK DESIGN

EXAMPLE: The daily water demand pattern for Handsworth court at UNZA is given in the figure
below. The average water demand and population is 190l/c/d and 24,000 respectively. Taking the
leakages in the system to be 35%, design (or compute the size of the tank

CONSUMPTION DIAGRAM - PEAK FACTORS

1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2
Peak Factor

1.1

1
0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
10
T (h)
Solution
Average demand for the district = 190m3/h
With 35% leakages, the amount to be delivered to satisfy demand will be = 190m3/h/(1-0.35) =
292.31m3/h. We compute the table below. Where deliverly is more than consumption, there will be
accumulation and vice versa.

AVERAGE CONSUMPTION 190.00

AVERAGE DELIVERY 292.31
Leakages 35% = 0.35
HOUR PEAK Q consumption Q leak Q del Delta V Sum V
FACTOR
1 0.68 129.20 69.57 198.77 93.54 93.54
2 0.65 123.50 66.50 190.00 102.31 195.85
3 0.62 117.80 63.43 181.23 111.08 306.92
4 0.5 95.00 51.15 146.15 146.15 453.08
5 0.58 110.20 59.34 169.54 122.77 575.85
6 0.8 152.00 81.85 233.85 58.46 634.31
7 1.08 205.20 110.49 315.69 -23.38 610.92
8 1.1 209.00 112.54 321.54 -29.23 581.69
9 1.22 231.80 124.82 356.62 -64.31 517.38
10 1.35 256.50 138.12 394.62 -102.31 415.08
11 1.42 269.80 145.28 415.08 -122.77 292.31
12 1.45 275.50 148.35 423.85 -131.54 160.77
13 1.1 209.00 112.54 321.54 -29.23 131.54
14 0.9 171.00 92.08 263.08 29.23 160.77
15 0.75 142.50 76.73 219.23 73.08 233.85
16 0.65 123.50 66.50 190.00 102.31 336.15
17 0.73 138.70 74.68 213.38 78.92 415.08
18 1 190.00 102.31 292.31 0.00 415.08
19 1.2 228.00 122.77 350.77 -58.46 356.62
20 1.47 279.30 150.39 429.69 -137.38 219.23
21 1.45 275.50 148.35 423.85 -131.54 87.69
22 1.4 266.00 143.23 409.23 -116.92 -29.23
23 1.2 228.00 122.77 350.77 -58.46 -87.69
24 0.7 133.00 71.62 204.62 87.69 0.00

The reservoir has to accommodate maximum accumulated volume (i.e at 6 = 634.31 as well as the
maximum deficit at 23hours = 87.69m3

Thus the reservoir volume = 87.69 + 634.31 = 722m3

Normally, in practice, some reserve has to be added. If Three hour reserve is to be added to our tank,
then tank volume will be V=722+3*292.31 = 1598.923 = 1600m3

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4.4 WATER DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
A water distribution network can be defined as a network of pipes that convey water to the consumer.
Pipes in the system can be classified according to the purpose they serve as follows:-

a) TRUNK MAIN:
This is a pipe for the transport of the water from the water treatment plant to the distribution area.
Common sizes are in the range of 250 to 1500mm; size depending on size of area to be served.
Branching is possible but connection of customers on this line is extremely rare!

b) SECONDARY MAIN:
These are pipes providing the basic structure of the distribution networks. They are used to link the
main distribution pipes with the service reservoirs or/and with the trunk distribution mains. A number
of direct connections can be made especially for large consumers. Common diameters are between 150
and 400 mm.

c) DISTRIBUTION MAIN:
Distribution mains carry water from the secondary mains to the smaller consumers. Theses are usually
laid along the roads and streets. Size are usually between 80 and 150mm.

d) SERVICE PIPE:
This is the pipe bringing water from the distribution main to the consumer/customer. For domestic
consumers, the service pipe is usually less than 25mm in diameter.

4.4.1 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS (NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS)

Network configuration is the way the pipes are laid within the distribution area. Four types can be
distinguished as follows:
a) Serial
b) Branched
c) Grid
d) Combined

a) SERIAL NETWORK
This is a network without branches or loops. It generally has only one source, one dead end and a
couple or more demand points (called demand nodes). All the nodes are linked by two pipes; a supply
link upstream and a distribution link downstream. Flow is in one direction; from supply point. Design
is based on principles single pipe calculations.

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b) BRANCHED
This is a network with one supply source and several (dead) ends. The intermediate nodes in the
system in are connected by one supply link upstream and one or more distribution links downstream.

The disadvantages of the two systems above are that:

- They have low reliability
- Risk of system getting contaminated during shutdown is high (as there will be no flow at all)
- Accumulation of sediments
- Expansions may cause pressure problems in system

c) GRID OR LOOPED NETWORK

This is a system where all the demand nodes are supplied from more than one pipe. (This eliminates
dead ends in the system but complicates the hydraulic calculations)

d) COMBINED NETWORK
This is a network where the central part is looped while the supply of localities or outskirts is either
serial or branched. This is the most common type.

4.5 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

With regards to the way the water is transmitted in the distribution system, the following distribution
systems can be distinguished:

a) GRAVITY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

This is a system that takes advantage of the topography in the distribution of the water. In this case, the
water is transmitted under acceptable pressures but without pumping. The advantages of this system
are that:
- there are no energy costs
- operation is simple (fewer mechanical parts, independent of power supply0
- low maintenance costs
- no sudden pressure changes (pressure surge)
The disadvantages are:
- these systems are less flexible for future extensions (limited head)
- the small gradients available for friction losses require larger diameters within the whole
system
- longer pipelines are necessary (for following terrain configuration)
Gravity systems are usually common/restricted to small distribution systems.

b) PUMPED DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

These are systems that operate without or with limited water storage facilities (water towers) in the
distribution system. This means the pumping has to follow the demand patterns.

The advantages are:

- they are flexible for future extensions
- gradients available for friction losses are large and hence small diameter pipes can be used
- shorter pipelines can be used as the system need not follow terrain configuration

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Disadvantages are:
- they need a lot of electric energy
- operation and maintenance is complex
- high maintenance costs
- the system is prune to pressure surges

c) COMBINED DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Combined distribution systems operate with reservoirs and pumping stations. Storage in this case has
considerable volume provided for balancing of daily variations in consumption and as a buffer for
irregular situations. These are the most common systems for large distribution areas.

4.7 PRESSURE ZONES

Where the topography is very uneven, pressure zones can be used (for both technical and economical
reasons). Excessive pressures in the pipes will be avoided and at the same time, the cost of the project
is reduced in that reasonable pipes can be used (not high pressure resistant ones that would be
expensive)

4.8 SERVICE LEVELS

Level of service is usually associated with domestic supply. There are three levels of service or service
levels as follows:
1) stand pipe
2) yard connection
3) house connections

1) STAND PIPE
This is the lowest level of service and mostly common to peri-urban areas. It consists of a tap (stand
pipe) serving a number of households in a community. Consumption is low due to distance.

2) YARD CONNECTIONS
This is a service level where a tap is provided in the yard of each house.

3) HOUSE (OR IN-HOUSE) CONNECTION

This is a service where pipes enter into the house. There will be one or more taps inside the house.

DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

Apart from quality and quantity, the other factors to be considered in the design of a distribution
system are:
1) Economic and financial viability of the project (project should generate enough income for
operation, maintenance extensions and servicing of loans)
2) Reliability (It should be able to operate during irregular situations like power failure, pipe
bursts, rehabilitations)
3) Flexibility (should be easily extended to cater for population increases)

Design criteria for water distribution networks can be classified either as

1) Non hydraulic criteria
2) Hydraulic criteria

Non hydraulic criteria includes

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SOCIAL-ECONOMICAL CRITERIA
a) Political decisions which are usually the most import "in the beginning there has to be a
political vision to have a distribution network)
b) Planning phase
- Is the project feasible?
- What is the best approach?
- What are the estimated costs?
- What is the required time for execution?

c) Economic aspects
- What are the interest rates
- What is the inflation rate?
- What are the energy prices?

ENGINEERING DESIGN CRITERION

- Type of pipes to be used
- Joints and fittings
- System layout
- Valves for isolation

HYDRAULIC DESIGN CRITERIA

Hydraulic criteria are primarily related to flow and pressure in the network

1) PRESSURE CRITERION
Pressure in the system should be adequate. Generally a minimum pressure of 5-6mwc above the
highest tap in the system is adequate. This translates to about 15 - 25mwc above the street level if we
take into consideration head losses that will result through connections and valves.

Very high pressures are not desirable as high grade pressure resistant pipes would have to be used
which would be very expensive. Secondly, leakages are direct proportional to pressure. (thus in
systems like ours, minimum pressure possible should be maintained to reduce on leakages). Generally,
the pressure should never be above 60 - 70mwc.

2) VELOCITY CRITERION
Very high velocities are undesirable as they induce Head loss. Velocities should be restricted to a
maximum of 1.5m/s. Very low velocities are also undesirable for hygienic reasons (long retention
times in the system).

Diameter Hydraulic gradient Velocity Discharge

(mm) (m/km) (m/s) (m3/s)
100 4.0 - 6.0 ≈ 0.5 15
125 3.0 - 4.0 ≈ 0.5 20
150 2.0 - 3.0 ≈ 0.5 30
200 1.5 - 2.5 ≈ 0.5 55
250 1.0 - 2.0 0.5 - 1.0 90 - 180
300 1.5 - 1.5 0.5 - 1.0 125 -250
400 0.5 - 1.0 0.5 - 1.5 ≥ 250

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BASIC DESIGN PROCEDURE
Initially, the known data are the locations and quantities of supply and demand points in the
distribution area (allocation of demand to a node) taking into consideration local population densities,
coverage, existence of different demand categories, concentration of demand due to large consumers,
etc). With this information the definition of the main route can be done (need to decide on the
configuration)

After the network is spread over the area, pipe sizing and analysis of hydraulic behaviour is next. This
is usually achieved through the use of computer models

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