MIL-HDBK-1110

Section 7: APPLICATION

7.1 Introduction. This section provides general

information on paint application and on activities associated
with application such as paint storage and mixing. Application
procedures discussed include brushing, rolling, and spraying
(conventional air, airless, air-assisted airless, high-volume
low-pressure, electrostatic, plural component, thermal, and
powder).

7.2 Paint Storage Prior to Application. The installation

industrial hygienist should be consulted about local regulations
for paint storage, since storage of paint may be subject to
hazardous product regulations. To prevent premature failure of
paint material and to minimize fire hazard, paints must be stored
in warm, dry, well ventilated areas. They should not be stored
outdoors, exposed to the weather. The storage room or building
should be isolated from other work areas. The best temperature
range for storage is 50 to 85 degrees F. High temperatures may
cause loss of organic solvent or premature spoilage of water-
based paints. Low temperature storage causes solvent-borne
coatings to increase in viscosity, and freezing can damage latex
paints and may cause containers to bulge or burst. (When paint
is cold, a 24-hour conditioning at higher temperatures is
recommended prior to use.) Poor ventilation of the storage area
may cause excessive accumulation of toxic and/or combustible
vapors. Excessive dampness in the storage area can cause labels
to deteriorate and cans to corrode. Can labels should be kept
intact before use and free of paint after opening so that the
contents can readily be identified.

The paint should never be allowed to exceed its shelf

life (normally 1 year from manufacture) before use. The stock
should be arranged, so that the first paint received is the first
paint used. Paint that has been stored for a long period of time
should be checked for quality and dry time before use. Quality
inspection procedures are described in par. 9.5.5.

7.3 Preparing Paint for Application

7.3.1 Mixing. During storage, heavy pigments tend to settle
to the bottom of a paint can. Prior to application, the paint
must be thoroughly mixed to obtain a uniform composition.
Pigment lumps or caked pigment must be broken up and completely
redispersed in the vehicle. Incomplete mixing results in a
change of the formulation that may cause incomplete curing and
inferior film properties. However, caution must be used not to

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overmix waterborne paints since excessive foam can be created.

Constant mixing may be required during application for paints
with heavy pigments, such as inorganic zincs.

Mixing can be done either manually or mechanically.

Two types of mechanical mixers are commonly used: ones which
vibrate and ones which stir with a propeller. Since manual
mixing is usually less efficient than mechanical mixing, paints
should only be manually mixed when little mixing is needed
because there is limited pigment settling or when mechanical
mixing is not possible. Vibrator-type mixers should not be used
with partly full cans of paint. This can cause air to become
entrained in the paint which, if applied, may lead to pinholes in
the dry film.

When pigments form a rather hard layer on the bottom of

the can, the upper portion of the settled paint can be poured
into a clean container (Figure 7), so that the settled pigment
can more easily be broken up and redispersed to form a smooth
uniform thin paste. When mixing manually, lumps may be broken up
by pressing them against the wall of the can. It is essential
that settled pigments be lifted from the bottom of the can and
redispersed into the liquid. Once the material is uniform, the
thin upper portion of the container is slowly poured into the
uniform paste while the paint is stirred. Stirring is continued
until the entire contents is uniform in appearance. No more
paint should be mixed than can be applied in the same day. Paint
should not be allowed to remain in open containers overnight.

7.3.1.1 Mixing Two-Component Coatings. Epoxies and

polyurethanes are commonly used two-component coatings. The base
component, A, contains the pigment, if any. The B component
contains the curing agent. The two components must be mixed in
the ratio specified by the coating manufacturer on the technical
data sheet, unless the coating is being applied using a plural
component gun (refer to par. 7.5.4.5). Usually the materials are
supplied so that the contents of one can of component A is mixed
with the contents of one can of component B. Failure to mix the
components in the proper ratio will likely result in poor film
formation. Binder molecules are cross-linked in a chemical
reaction upon mixing of the two components. Unless the two
components are mixed together, there will be no chemical reaction
and no curing of the paint.

a) Mixing. Two-component coatings are preferably

mixed with a mechanical stirrer as follows:

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Figure 7
Illustration of Mixing and "Boxing" One-Component Paint: A -
Pouring Off Pigment-Poor Vehicle, B and C - Mixing Pigment
to Form Smooth Paste, D - Pouring in Vehicle and Mixing,
E - Boxing Paint

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(1) The base component is mixed to disperse

settled pigment. If necessary, some of the thin, upper portion
may be poured off before stirring to make it easier to disperse
the pigment. When the upper portion is poured off, it must be
mixed back with the bottom portion before the two components are
mixed together.

(2) While continuing to stir, the two components

are slowly mixed together. No more than a few gallons should be
mixed at a time, or no more than that specified by the coating
manufacturer, since heat is usually generated upon mixing because
of the chemical cross-linking reaction. Excessive heat may lead
to premature curing of the coating, reducing the pot life.

(3) The two combined parts are agitated until they

are of smooth consistency and of uniform color. (Often the color
of the two components is different.)

b) Induction. Some two-component paints must stand

for approximately 30 minutes after mixing before application.
This time is called the induction time. During induction, the
chemical reaction proceeds to such an extent that the paint can
be successfully applied. However, some formulations of two-
component paints do not require any induction time and can be
applied immediately after mixing the two components. Material
specifications and manufacturer's recommendations must be
followed carefully. Induction time will depend on temperature of
the paint.

c) Pot Life. Pot life is the time interval after

mixing in which a two-component paint can be satisfactorily
applied. Paints low in VOC content often have a reduced pot
life. The chemical reaction that occurs when two component
paints are mixed accelerates with increasing temperature. Thus,
a paint's pot life decreases as the temperature increases. Above
90 degrees F, the pot life can be very short. (Curing time of
the applied coating is also faster at higher temperatures.) Pot
life is also affected by the size of the batch mixed, because the
chemical reaction produces heat. The larger the batch, the more
the heat produced and the faster the curing reaction proceeds.
Thus, the shorter the pot life. Paint must be applied within the
pot life. The coating manufacturer's recommendations must be
followed carefully. Mixed two-component paint remaining at the
end of a shift cannot be reused and must be discarded. Lines,
spray pots, and spray guns must be cleaned during the pot life of
the paint.

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7.3.2 Thinning. Usually thinning to change the viscosity of

liquid paint should not be necessary. A manufacturer formulates
paint to have the proper viscosity for application. If thinning
is necessary, it must be done using a thinner recommended by the
coating manufacturer. Also, the amount used should not exceed
that recommended by the coating manufacturer. Prior to adding
the thinner, the temperature of the coating and the thinner
should be about the same. The thinner must be thoroughly mixed
into the paint to form a homogeneous material. Some "false-
bodied" or "thixotropic" paints are formulated to reach the
proper application viscosity after stirring or during brush or
roller application. Undisturbed in the can, they appear gel
like, but upon stirring or under the high shear of brush or
roller application, these materials flow readily to form smooth
films. Upon standing, the coating in the can will again become
gel-like. Because of this property, thixotropic coatings may
require constant agitation during spray application.

7.3.3 Tinting. Tinting should be avoided as a general

practice. If materials are tinted, the appropriate tint base
(e.g., light and deep tones) must be used. Addition of excessive
tinting material may cause a mottled appearance or degrade the
film properties (e.g., adhesion). Also, tinting should only be
done with colorants (tints) known to be compatible with the base
paint. No more than 4 ounces of tint should be added per gallon
of paint.

7.3.4 Straining. Usually, paint in freshly opened containers

should not require straining. However, mixed paint having large
particles or lumps must be strained to prevent the film from
having an unacceptable appearance or clogging spray equipment.
Straining is especially important for inorganic zinc coatings.
Straining is done after mixing, thinning, and tinting is
completed by putting the paint through a fine sieve (80 mesh) or
a commercial paint strainer.

7.4 Weather Conditions Affecting Application of Paints.

Paint application is a critical part of a complete paint system.
Many of the newer paints are more sensitive to poor application
procedures and environmental conditions than oil paints. Four
main weather conditions must be taken into account before
applying coatings: temperature, humidity, wind, and rain or
moisture. The paint manufacturer's technical data sheets should
be consulted to determine the limits for these conditions as well
as other constraints on application of the paint. Applying
paints outside the limits is likely to lead to premature coating
failure.

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7.4.1 Temperature. Most paints should be applied when the

ambient and surface temperature is between 45 degrees F and 90
degrees F. Lacquer coatings such as vinyls and chlorinated
rubbers, can be applied at temperatures as low as 35 degrees F.
There are other special coatings that can be applied at
temperatures below 32 degrees F but only in strict compliance
with manufacturer's instructions. Application of paints in hot
weather may also cause unacceptable films. For example, vinyls
may have excessive dry spray and latex paints may dry before
proper coalescence, resulting in mud-cracking. In all cases
painting must be done within the manufacturer's acceptable range.
Also, the temperature of the paint material should be at least as
high as the surface being painted. Paint should not be applied
when the temperature is expected to drop below 40 degrees F
before the paint has dried (except when allowed in the
manufacturer's instructions).

7.4.2 Humidity. Ensuring the proper relative humidity during

application and cure can be essential for good film performance.
However, different types of coatings require different relative
humidities. The coating manufacturer's technical data sheet
should be consulted. Some coatings cure by reacting with
moisture from the air (e.g., moisture-curing polyurethanes,
silicones, and inorganic zincs). These coatings require a
minimum humidity to cure. However, too high a humidity may cause
moisture-curing coatings to cure too quickly resulting in a
poorer film. In addition, too high a humidity may cause blushing
(whitish cast on surface of dry film) of some solvent-borne
coatings. Blushing is caused when the surface of a coating film
is cooled by evaporation of a solvent to such an extent that
water condenses on the still wet film. Excessive humidity may
also cause poor coalescence of latex coatings since the
coalescing agent may evaporate before enough water evaporates to
cause coalescence of the film.

7.4.3 Wind. Wind can cause a number of problems during spray

application. These include uncontrollable and undesirable
overspray and dry spray caused by too fast evaporation of the
solvents. The wind velocity at which these undesirable effects
occur depends upon the material being applied and the application
parameters. Wind can also blow dust and dirt onto a wet surface
which could lead to future paint breakdown.

7.4.4 Moisture. Paint should not be applied in rain, wind,

snow, fog, or mist, or when the surface temperature is less than
5 degrees F above the dew point. Water on the surface being
painted will prevent good adhesion.

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7.5 Methods of Application. The most common methods of

application are brush, roller, and spray. They are discussed in
detail below. Paint mitts are recommended only for hard to reach
or odd-shaped objects such as pipes and railings when spraying is
not feasible. This is because it is not possible to obtain a
uniform film that is free of thin spots with mitt application.
Foam applicators are useful for touch-up or trim work. Dip and
flow coat methods are beyond the scope of this handbook. Of the
three primary methods, brushing is the slowest, rolling is
faster, and spraying is usually the fastest of all. A comparison
of approximate rates of application by one painter of the same
paint to flat areas is listed in Table 10.

Table 10
Approximate Rates of Paint Application
(From SSPC Good Painting Practice)

Method Square Feet Applied in 8 Hour

Day
Brush 800 - 1400
Roller 2000 - 4000
Air Spray 4000 - 8000
Airless Spray 8000 - 12,000

7.5.1 Selection of Application Method. The choice of an

application method depends on the type of coating, the type of
surface, environmental factors, and cleanup. Alkyd coatings can
easily be applied by brush, but fast drying coatings, such as
vinyls, are difficult to apply by brush or roller. Brushing is
the preferred method for small areas and uneven or porous
surfaces, while rolling is practical on large flat areas. Also,
brushing of primers over rusted steel and dusty concrete is
preferred over spraying. (Note that applying paint over these
substrates should be avoided, if possible.) Spraying is usually
preferred on large areas and is not limited to flat surfaces.
Spraying may not be feasible is some locations and in some
environments because of the accumulation of toxic and flammable
fumes or overspray.

7.5.2 Brush Application. Brushing is an effective method of

paint application for small areas, edges, corners, and for
applying primers. Brush application of primers works the paint
into pores and surface irregularities, providing good penetration
and coverage. Because brushing is slow, usually it is used only
for small areas or where overspray may be a serious problem.
Brush application of paint may leave brush marks with paints that
do not level well, thus creating areas of low film thickness.

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Even a second coat of paint may leave the total coating system
with thin and uneven areas that may lead to premature failure.

Brushes are made with either natural or synthetic

bristles. A drawing of a typical paint brush is shown in Figure
8. Chinese hog bristles represent the finest of the natural
bristles because of their durability and resiliency. Hog
bristles are also naturally "flagged" or split at the ends. This
permits more paint to be carried on the brush and leaves finer
brush marks on the applied coating. Horsehair bristles are used
in cheaper brushes but are an unsatisfactory substitute for hog
hair. Nylon and polyester are used in synthetic bristles or
filaments. The ends are flagged by splitting the filament tips.
Synthetic bristles absorb less water than natural bristles and
are preferred for applying latex paints. However, synthetic
bristles may be softened by strong solvents in some paints.
Thus, natural bristles are preferred for application of paints
with strong solvents.

Brushes are available in many types, sizes, and

qualities to meet the needs for different substrates. These
types include wall, sash and trim (may be chisel or slash-
shaped), and enamel (bristles are shorter). It is important to
use high quality brushes and keep them clean. Brushes with
horsehair or with filaments that are not flagged should be
avoided. The brush should be tapered from side to center (see
Figure 8).

7.5.2.1 Procedure for Brush Application

a) Shake loose any unattached brush bristles by
spinning the brush between the palms of the hand and remove the
loose bristles.

b) Dip the brush to cover one-half of the bristle

length with paint. Remove excess paint on the brush by gently
tapping it against the side of the can.

c) Hold the brush at an angle of about 75 degrees to

the surface. Make several light strokes to transfer the paint to
the surface. Spread the paint evenly and uniformly. Do not
press down hard but use a light touch to minimize brush marks.
If there is time before the paint sets up, cross-brush lightly to
eliminate excessive brush marks.

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Figure 8
Illustration of Parts of Paint Brush

d) Confine painting to one area so that a "wet edge"

is always maintained. Apply paint to a surface adjacent to the
freshly painted surface sweeping the brush into the wet edge of
the painted surface. This helps to eliminate lap marks and
provides a more even coating film.

7.5.3 Roller Application. Roller application is an efficient

method for flat areas where the stippled appearance of the dry
film is acceptable. However, paint penetration and wetting of
difficult surfaces is better accomplished by brush than roller
application. Thus, brush application of primers is preferred
over roller application.

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A paint roller consists of a cylindrical sleeve or

cover which slips onto a rotatable cage to which a handle is
attached. The covers vary in length from 1 to 18 inches and the
diameter from 1.5 to 2.25 inches. A 9-inch length, 1.5-inch
diameter roller, is common. The covers are usually made of
lamb's wool, mohair, or synthetic fibers. The nap (length of
fiber) can vary from 0.25 to 1.25 inches. Longer fibers hold
more paint but do not give as smooth a finish. Thus, they are
used on rougher surfaces and chain link fence, while the shorter
fibers are used on smooth surfaces. Use of extension handles
makes the application of paint to higher surfaces easier.
However, use of a long extension handle usually results in a less
uniform film. Use a natural fiber roller (for example, wool-
mohair) for solvent base paints and a synthetic fiber roller for
latex paints.

7.5.3.1 Procedures for Roller Application. Rollers are used

with a tray which holds the coating or a grid placed in a 5-
gallon can (Figure 9). Application procedure is described below.

Figure 9
Equipment Used in Applying Paint by Roller

a) If a tray is being used, fill it half full with

premixed paint. If a grid or screen is being used, place it at
an angle in the can containing premixed paint.

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b) Immerse the roller completely in the paint and

remove the excess by moving the roller back on the tray or grid.
Skidding or tracking may occur if the roller is loaded with too
much paint.

c) Apply the paint to the surface by placing the

roller against the surface forming a "V" or "W" of a size that
will define the boundaries of the area that can be covered with
the paint on a loaded roller. Then roll out the paint to fill in
the square area. Roll with a light touch and medium speed.
Avoid letting the roller spin at the end of a stroke. Always
work from a dry adjacent surface to a wet surface. The wet edge
should be prevented from drying to minimize lap marks.

d) Use a brush or foam applicator to apply paint in

corners, edges, and moldings before rolling paint on the adjacent
areas.

7.5.4 Spray Application. Spray application is the fastest

technique for applying paint to large areas. Spray application
also results in a smoother, more uniform surface than brushing or
rolling. There are several types of equipment: conventional
air, airless, air-assisted airless, high-volume, low-pressure
(HVLP), electrostatic, multi-component, thermal, and powder.
Conventional air and airless were most commonly used. However,
with changing VOC requirements the other methods are being used
more. Air or air-assisted methods of spraying, including HVLP,
rely on air for paint atomization. Jets of compressed air are
introduced into the stream of paint at the nozzle. The air jets
break the paint stream into tiny particles that are carried to
the surface on a current of air. The delivery of the paint to
the nozzle may be assisted using hydraulic pressure. In airless
spray, paint is forced through a very small nozzle opening at
very high pressure to break the exiting paint into tiny droplets.
A general comparison of properties of conventional air and
airless spray are given in Table 11. Note that specific
application rates, the amount of overspray, and other properties
depend to a great extent upon the type of paint, and may vary
from those listed in the table. Air methods other than
conventional have been developed to overcome some of the
environmental and other concerns of air and airless spray. These
differences are discussed separately for each method below.

7.5.4.1 Conventional or Air Spray Equipment. The conventional

method of spray application is based on air atomization of the
paint. The basic equipment (air compressor, paint tank, hoses
for air and paint, spray gun) is shown in Figure 10. The coating
material is placed in a closed tank (sometimes called a pot)
connected to the nozzle by a hose and put under regulated

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pressure using air from the compressor. A hose from the air
compressor to the nozzle supplies the air required for
atomization of the paint. The tank may be equipped with an
agitator for continuously mixing paints with heavy pigments. The
air compressor must have sufficient capacity to maintain adequate
and constant air pressure and airflow for paint atomization at
the nozzle, for paint flow from the tank to the nozzle, for
powering the agitator and other job-site requirements. A
constant flow of air from the compressor is required for proper
painting. Loss of pressure at the nozzle can cause pulsating
delivery of the paint as opposed to the desired constant flow.
(Data sheets from paint manufacturers give recommended air
pressures for spraying.)

a) Air Hose. The air hose connecting the compressor

to the tank must be of sufficient diameter to maintain adequate
air pressure. Required diameter of the fluid hose connecting the
gun and tank depends on volume and pressure of paint required at
the gun. The hose should be kept as short as possible,
especially when spraying coatings with heavy pigments, to avoid
settling of pigments within the supply hose. Also, the fluid
hose must be resistant to paints and solvents that flow through
it. As with blasting equipment, the air supply must be free of
moisture, oil, and other impurities. Oil and water should be
removed by separator or extractor attachments to the compressor.

Table 11
Comparison of Conventional Air and Airless Spray

Property Conventional Air Airless

Coverage, sq ft/day 4-8000 6-10,000
Overspray Considerable Some
Transfer efficiency Poor (about 30 Fair (35-50)
"Bounce back" percent) Minor
Hoses Significant 1 (fluid)
Penetration of corners, 2 (air and fluid)
crevices and cracks Moderate
Film build per coat Fair Good
Versatility Fair Fair
Paint clogging problems Good More
Operator control Few Poor
Safety during painting Good Poor
Safety during cleanup Fair Poor
Fair

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Figure 10
Schematic Drawing Illustrating Basic Parts of Conventional
Air Spray Application Equipment

b) Gun or Nozzle. The gun or nozzle is a relatively

complex device (Figure 11). It consists basically of 10 parts:

(1) Air nozzle or cap that directs the compressed

air into the stream of paint to atomize it and carry it to the
surface.

(2) Fluid nozzle that regulates the amount of

paint released and directs it into the stream of compressed air.

(3) Fluid needle that controls the flow of fluid

through the nozzle.

(4) Trigger that operates the air valve and fluid

needle.

(5) Fluid adjustment screw that controls the fluid

needle and adjusts the volume of paint that reaches the fluid
tip.

(6) Air valve that controls the rate of airflow

through the gun.

(7) Side port control that regulates the supply of

air to the air nozzle and determines the size and shape of the
spray pattern.

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(8) Gun body and handle designed for easy

handling.

(9) Air inlet from the air hose.

(10) Fluid inlet from fluid hose.

c) Air Nozzle. Two general types of air nozzles are

available: external atomization and internal atomization. In
both types, outer jets of air atomize the wet paint (see Figure
12). In the external type, paint is atomized outside the nozzle,
while in the internal type paint is atomized just inside the
nozzle opening. The type selected depends on the type of paint
to be sprayed and the volume of air available. The external type
is the more widely used. It can be used with paints and most
production work. The spray pattern can be adjusted. A fine mist
can be obtained which can result in a smooth even finish. Nozzle
wear and buildup of dry material are not major problems. The
internal-mix air nozzle requires a smaller volume of air and
produces less overspray and rebound than the external type. The
size and shape of the spray pattern of the internal-mix nozzle
cannot be adjusted. Catalyzed and fast drying paints tend to
clog the openings of internal-air nozzles. These coatings should
be sprayed with an external-mix nozzle.

d) Setting-Up, Adjusting Equipment, and Shutting-Down

Procedures. Both the pressure on the paint and the air pressure
at the gun must be properly regulated to obtain the optimum in
film performance. A properly adjusted nozzle will produce a fan
that is about 8 inches wide, 10 inches from the gun. The shape
of the spray pattern produced may vary from round to oval. The
pattern must have well defined edges with no dry spray at the
ends or heavy film buildup in the middle (Figure 13). Coating
manufacturers provide guidance on appropriate equipment and
pressures for application of their coatings. Additional job-site
adjustments may be necessary. The aim is to obtain a wet looking
film that is properly atomized with as little overspray as
possible. To minimize bounce back and dry spray, the atomizing
air pressure should be kept as low as possible. Common spray
pattern problems and their cause and remedy are listed in Table
12. The gun should be taken apart and cleaned at the end of each
day and the air cap and fluid tip should be cleaned with solvent.
Pivot points and packing should be lubricated with lightweight
oil. Leaving a gun in a bucket of solvent overnight will likely
cause the gun to become plugged and lead to premature failure of
the gun. The shutting-down procedure is detailed in the
instructions supplied by the manufacturer of the spray equipment
and these instructions should be followed. Other worker safety
issues are discussed in the section on safety.

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Figure 11
Drawing of Air-Spray Gun

Figure 12
Cross-Sectional Drawing of Nozzle of Air-Spray Gun

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Figure 13
Illustration of Proper Spray Patterns
(Note that the patterns are uniform throughout.)

Table 12
Common Conventional Air-Spray Problems and Their Causes
and Remedies

Description Cause Remedy

Thick center; Atomizing air Increase air pressure;

thin ends; pressure too low; decrease fluid
pinholes too much fluid pressure or use
to gun smaller nozzle

Hourglass Fluid pressure Increase fluid

shape; dry low; air pressure; reduce
spray on ends pressure too air pressure; adjust
high; too wide pattern control;
a spray pattern reduce paint viscosity

Teardrop Problem with gun Remove and clean air

shape; - nick in needle nozzle; replace any
thicker at seat; partially bent parts or tighten
bottom clogged orifice air nozzle
or slightly bent
needle or loose
nozzle

"Boomerang" Dried paint has Dissolve dried paint

clogged one of with thinner; do not
the side port probe into nozzle
holes of the air with metal devices
nozzle

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7.5.4.2 Airless Spray

a) Equipment. Airless spray relies on hydraulic

pressure alone. Atomization of paint is accomplished by forcing
the material through a specially shaped orifice at pressures
between 1000 and 3000 psi. Because of the high pressures,
extreme care must be taken to prevent worker injury. The spray
manufacturer's instructions must be followed carefully. The
basic parts of airless spray equipment are a high-pressure paint
pump, a fluid hose, and an airless spray gun. The high-pressure
pump must deliver sufficient pressure and material flow to
produce a continuous spray of paint. The fluid hose must be able
to withstand the very high pressures required to deliver the
paint to the gun and atomize it. A filter screens out particles
that might clog the tip. Since atomization is controlled by the
size and shape of the orifice of the tip, a different tip is used
to obtain different patterns and atomization rates. The tip
angle controls the fan width. Tips having the same orifice size
but different angles deliver the same amount of paint, but the
area covered with one pass is different. Viscous materials
require a larger tip than less viscous materials. Coating
manufacturers recommend tip sizes on their data sheets. The
larger the orifice, the greater the production rate. But, if too
large an orifice is used for a thin coating, the rate of delivery
may be such that the operator cannot keep up with the flow. This
will result in sagging and running of wet paint. Airless spray
is available with heaters to reduce paint viscosity, permitting
spraying of coatings having higher ambient viscosities at a
faster production rate.

b) Setting-Up, Adjusting Equipment, and Shutting-Down

Procedures. The manufacturer's instructions should be followed
for setting up the spray equipment. To minimize tip clogging
problems, airless spray equipment must be scrupulously clean
before setting-up for a spray application and the coating must be
free of lumps. The manufacturer's recommendations should be
followed rigorously for the setting-up, using, and shutting-down
procedures. Since the pressures used are high, two safety
features are required for guns: a tip guard and a trigger lock.
The tip guard prevents the operator from placing a finger close
to the tip and injecting paint into the skin. The trigger lock
prevents the trigger from accidentally being depressed. Other
safety measures include never pointing the gun at any part of the
body; not making adjustments without first shutting off the pump
and releasing the pressure; making sure the fluid hose is in good
condition, free of kinks, and bent into a tight radius; and using
only high-pressure hose fittings. Also, never clean systems
containing aluminum with chlorinated solvents. Explosions may
occur. Causes of and remedies for faulty patterns are described

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in Table 13. Additional problems that may occur with airless

spraying may be associated with excessive pressure, undersized
equipment, and too long or too small paint hoses. Undersized
spray equipment, including hoses, may result in lower production
rates, a pebbly-appearing film caused by poor atomization (nozzle
tip too large), and thin films. Air supply hoses that are too
long or too small may cause instability of the pump, poor
atomization of the paint, or a pulsating spray pattern.

Table 13
Common Airless-Spray Problems and Their Causes and Remedies

Remedy Description Cause

Thick center, Inadequate fluid Increase fluid
pressure,
thin ends, delivery or decrease paint
pinholes improper viscosity, choose larger
atomization tip orifice, or reduce
and number of guns using one
pump
hour-glass
shape

Teardrop Clogged or worn Clean nozzle tip,

replace
shape coating nozzle tip if necessary
thicker

Rippling, Pulsating fluid Increase supply to air

uneven pattern delivery or motor, reduce number of
suction leak guns using one pump,
choose smaller tip
orifice, clean tip
screen and filter, or
look for hose leak

Round pattern Worn nozzle tip Replace worn tip,

or fluid too decrease fluid viscosity
viscous for tip increase pressure, or
size choose correct tip
orifice
Fluid spitting Air entering Check for hose leak,
system, dirty clean gun, or adjust
gun, or wrong cartridge and replace
cartridge if necessary
adjustment

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7.5.4.3 Air-Assisted Airless Spray. Air-assisted airless spray

uses air to help atomize paint as compared with only fluid
pressure in the airless system. Thus, a lower hydraulic pressure
(typically 500 to 1000 psi) can be used. Air pressure is
typically 10 to 15 psi. Air-assisted airless spray provides a
finer spray than airless spray, and the lower hydraulic pressure
provides improved operator control. Consequently, finishes tend
to be smoother with fewer runs and sags. Transfer efficiency is
about the same as airless spray, but air-assisted airless spray
is more expensive to maintain.

7.5.4.4 High-Volume, Low-Pressure Spray. HVLP spray is an air

spray technique that uses low pressure and large volumes of air
to atomize the paint. It has much better transfer efficiency
that conventional air spray and some systems have been found to
meet the 65 percent transfer efficiency requirement of
California's South Coast Air Quality District. Because of the
lower air pressures, there is also less bounce back than with
conventional systems. Turbine air-supply systems, along with
large (1-inch diameter) hoses are commonly supplied with the
systems. Since the air supply is not turned off when the trigger
is released, air flows continuously through a bleeder valve in
the gun. An HVLP gun can be equipped with different fluid and
air tips depending upon several variables: the desired spray
pattern (wide fan to narrow jet), viscosity of the finish, and
output of the turbine. Although some special training of
painters may be required because of differences between
conventional air systems and HVLP, such as less recoil, higher
delivery volumes and continuous flow of air, an experienced
operator has good control.

Conversion kits for air compressor systems are

available which allow the use of them with HVLP systems. Spray
techniques may be slightly different depending upon the source of
pressurized air.

7.5.4.5 Multi-Component Spray. Multi-component (or plural-

component) spray equipment combines components of multi-component
paints in the nozzle. The equipment is more complicated than
other spray equipment, and its use is usually confined to large
or specialized coating applications. The components are metered
to the gun in the proper relative volumes, mixed and then
atomized by one of the previously described techniques. Thus,
pot life is not a factor in application of multi-component
coatings. However, it is essential that the metering be done in
accordance with the coating manufacturer's instructions. Volume
mixing ratios are usually from 1:1 to 1:4. Heating of the
components before mixing is also provided with some equipment.
By heating the components, both the viscosity during application

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and the cure time can be altered. The equipment is cleaned by

purging with solvent. Because of the complicated nature of the
equipment, specialized operator training and skilled operators
are required. Initial and maintenance costs are also greater
than for other spray techniques.

7.5.4.6 Electrostatic Spray. In hand-held electrostatic spray

systems, a special protruding part of the gun is given a high,
negative voltage which places a negative charge on the spray
droplets as they come from the gun. The surface being painted is
grounded. This causes the paint droplets to be attracted to the
grounded surface to be painted. Because there is an electrical
attraction between the paint droplets and the object being
painted, a very high percentage of droplets lands on the surface.
That is, the transfer efficiency is high and there is minimal
overspray. Also, some droplets will be attracted to the edges
and the back of the surface, if they are accessible. This is
called the wraparound effect. Specially formulated paints are
required for electrostatic spraying. Also, painting is
restricted to use on conductive substrates, such as steel or
galvanized steel. Only one coat of paint may be applied to the
base metal by electrostatic spraying since a painted surface is
not conductive. Electrostatic spray is an ideal spraying method
for piping, fencing, channels, and cables because of the
wraparound effect and minimal overspray. However, because of
high voltage, special safety requirements must be met, including
grounding the power supply and the operator.

7.5.4.7 Powder Spraying. Powder coatings, usually epoxies, are

specially prepared polymeric coatings. They are applied to
preheated conductive surfaces, such as steel, by special
electrostatic spray equipment or in a fluidized bed. Once
applied, the coated component is heated to fuse the powder into a
continuous coating film. This technique is commonly used in shop
applications because heating can be done in an oven, there are no
volatile solvents to control and material that did not stick to
the surface can be collected and reused. Portable systems are
also available and can be used in special situations.

7.5.4.8 Thermal Spraying. Thermal spraying, sometimes called

metallizing, is a process in which finely divided metals are
deposited in a molten or nearly molten condition to form a
coating, usually on steel. Equipment and techniques are
available for flame or electric arc spraying of pure zinc, pure
aluminum, or an 85 percent zinc, 15 percent aluminum alloy. The
coating material is available in the form of a powder or wire,
with wire used more frequently. Once the metal becomes molten,
it is delivered to the surface with air or gas pressure. It
forms a porous coating that protects steel by cathodic protection

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in a variety of environments. For more severe service such as

very acid or alkaline conditions, or fresh or salt water spray,
splash, or immersion, the coating may be sealed with a thin
conventional organic coating or silicone. A white-metal blasted
surface is required. Metal spray coatings are normally very
abrasion resistant and provide excellent corrosion control.

Thermal spraying of metals is best accomplished in a

shop environment, but can also be done in the field.
DOD-STD-2138(SH) describes the wire flame spraying of aluminum
using oxygen-fuel gas. SSPC Guide 23, Coating Systems describes
thermal spray metallic coating systems.

7.5.4.9 Application Technique. Proper application technique is

essential for obtaining quality films. Poor technique can result
in variations in paint thickness, holidays (small holes), and
other film defects, and wasted time and materials. The same
basic techniques described below are used for both conventional
and airless spraying:

a) Stroking. With the spray gun at a right angle to

the work, the wrist, arm, and shoulder are moved at a constant
speed parallel to the surface. Holding the gun at an upward or
downward angle to the surface will result in a non-uniform
coating thickness and may increase the problem with dry spray or
overspray. Also, changing the distance between the gun and the
surface, arcing, as illustrated in Figure 14, will result in a
non-uniform coating thickness. For large flat surfaces, each
stroke should overlap the previous one by 50 percent as shown in
Figure 15. This produces a relatively uniform coating thickness.
The stroke length should be from 18 to 36 inches, depending upon
the sprayer's arm length and comfort. Surfaces of greater length
should be divided into smaller sections of appropriate length
(Figure 16). Each section should slightly overlap the previous
one along the lines where they are joined.

b) Triggering. The spray gun should be in motion

before triggering and continue briefly after releasing at the end
of a stroke. This is illustrated in Figure 17. Proper
triggering also keeps the fluid nozzle clean, reduces paint loss,
prevents heavy buildup of paint at corners and edges, and
prevents runs and sags at the start and end of each stroke.

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Figure 14
Illustration of Improper Movement of Spray Gun
When Applying Paint

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Figure 15
Illustration of Proper Procedure for Spray Painting
Large Flat Surfaces

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Figure 16
Schematic to Illustrate Proper Painting of Large Vertical
Surfaces

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Figure 17
Illustration of Proper "Triggering" of Spray Guns

c) Distance. Distance between the nozzle and the

surface being painted depends on atomization pressure and the
amount of material delivered. This distance usually varies from
6 to 12 inches for conventional spraying and from 12 to 15 inches
for airless spraying. If spray gun is held too close to the
surface, heavy paint application and sagging or running may
occur. If the gun is held too far away from the surface, a dry
spray with a sandy finish may result. Such paint films usually
contain holidays (small holes) and provide an unacceptable
surface.

d) Corners. Both inside and outside corners require

special techniques for uniform film thickness. Each side of an
inside corner should be sprayed separately as shown in Figure 18.
Too thick a layer of paint can easily be applied to an inside
corner. But when too thick a layer is applied, the coating may
shrink or pull away from the inside corner causing a void
underneath the coating. This will lead to premature failure. An
outside corner is first sprayed directly, as shown in Figure 19,
and then each side is coated separately. On an outside corner,

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the coating tends to pull away from the corner. Thus, the
coating on the corner tends to be too thin. Outside edges should
be ground so that the edge is rounded before painting.

Figure 18
Proper Spray Painting of Inside Corners

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Figure 19
Proper Spray Painting of Outside Corners

e) Welds. Welds are usually rougher than the adjacent

steel and a uniform coating is more difficult to achieve.
Failure often occurs first over welded areas. Thus, after
grinding the welds to smooth them, a coat of paint should be
brushed over the welds. Then the entire surface can be painted
by spray. With this extra coating over the welds, paint often
lasts as long over welds as on the adjacent flat areas.
f) Nuts, Bolts, and Rivets. It is a good coating
practice to brush-coat these areas before spraying the flat
areas. Paint can be worked into crevice and corner areas. Nuts,
rivets, and bolts should be sprayed from at least four different
angles to prevent thin coatings caused by shadowing effects
(Figure 20).

g) Common Errors. Some common errors and the results

that are produced in spray painting are summarized in Table 14.

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Figure 20
Schematic Illustrating Importance of Spraying Surfaces With
Protruding Parts From All Directions to Avoid "Shadowing Effect"

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Table 14
Spray Painting Errors

Error Result
Improper spraying Spray pattern varied from narrow to wide
technique (e.g., Variation of sheen from overspray
arcing, tilting Uneven film thickness
gun)
Improper fan width Inadequate or excessive film build on
complex substrate shapes, such as "I" or
"H" beams
Spray gun too Excessive film build
close to surface Runs, curtains, sags
Poor paint adhesion from improper curing
Wrinkling during and after surface curing
Excessive paint used
Orange peel pattern or blow holes
Spray gun too far Film build too thin
from surface Non-uniform film thickness
Dry spray
Uneven angular sheen from overspray
earlier work

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