012-05418A

Instruction Manual and 7/94

Experiment Guide for
the PASCO scientific
Model SE-7997

LabNet Geiger-Müller Interface

for use with the Mac 65 Computer Interface

R
PTE G-M
ADA LE
CAB 22 SE D E TE C TO 9R7
-7 98 1
5 9
CI- 6 S E-798 5 S E-7
PLASTIC by LabNe t

SOURCE
STORACE

LEAD

© 1994 PASCO scientific $7.50

012-05418A LabNet G-M Interface

Table of Contents

Section Page
Copyright, Warranty and Equipment Return ...................................................... ii
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
Warranty Check ................................................................................................ 2
Using the Science Workshop Program ............................................................... 3
Selecting Data Displays: ................................................................................... 4
Recording Data in an Experiment: ..................................................................... 5
Experiment 1: Introductory Activity ................................................................. 7
Experiment 2: Random Events ........................................................................ 11
Experiment 3: Half-Life Experiment ............................................................... 15
Experiment 4: Radiation Shielding .................................................................. 19
Experiment 5: Inverse Square Law .................................................................. 23
Appendix: Nuclear Safety ............................................................................... 26
Technical Data ............................................................................... 26

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LabNet G-M Interface

Copyright, Warranty and Equipment Return

Please—Feel free to duplicate this manual

subject to the copyright restrictions below.

Copyright Notice Equipment Return

The PASCO scientific Model SE-7997 Geiger-Müller
Interface manual is copyrighted and all rights reserved.
However, permission is granted to non-profit educational
institutions for reproduction of any part of this manual
providing the reproductions are used only for their
laboratories and are not sold for profit. Reproduction
under any other circumstances, without the written
consent of PASCO scientific, is prohibited.
Limited Warranty
PASCO scientific warrants this product to be free from
defects in materials and workmanship for a period of one
year from the date of shipment to the customer. PASCO
will repair or replace, at its option, any part of the product
which is deemed to be defective in material or workman-
ship. This warranty does not cover damage to the product
caused by abuse or improper use. Determination of
whether a product failure is the result of a manufacturing
defect or improper use by the customer shall be made
solely by PASCO scientific. Responsibility for the return
of equipment for warranty repair belongs to the customer.
Equipment must be properly packed to prevent damage
and shipped postage or freight prepaid. (Damage caused
by improper packing of the equipment for return ship-
ment will not be covered by the warranty.) Shipping
costs for returning the equipment, after repair, will be
paid by PASCO scientific.
Should the product have to be returned to PASCO
scientific for any reason, notify PASCO scientific by
letter, phone, or fax BEFORE returning the product.
Upon notification, the return authorization and
shipping instructions will be promptly issued.
ä NOTE: NO EQUIPMENT WILL BE
ACCEPTED FOR RETURN WITHOUT AN
AUTHORIZATION FROM PASCO.
When returning equipment for repair, the units
must be packed properly. Carriers will not accept
responsibility for damage caused by improper
packing. To be certain the unit will not be
damaged in shipment, observe the following rules:
➀ The packing carton must be strong enough for the
item shipped.
➁ Make certain there are at least two inches of
packing material between any point on the
apparatus and the inside walls of the carton.
➂ Make certain that the packing material cannot shift
in the box or become compressed, allowing the
instrument come in contact with the packing
carton.

Address: PASCO scientific

10101 Foothills Blvd.
Roseville, CA 95747-7100

Phone: (916) 786-3800

FAX: (916) 786-3292
Credits
email: techsupp@pasco.com
This manual authored by: Dave Griffith web: www.pasco.com

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012-05418A LabNet G-M Interface

Introduction

About This Manual Description

These instructions describe the hardware that makes up the
PASCO SE-7997 Nuclear Sensor for Mac65 (CI-6550).
This manual also includes a brief section about the
Science Workshop program that is included with the
Mac65 interface, and an experiments section that
contains suggested experiments.
What’s Included
The PASCO SE-7997 Nuclear Sensor comes in a
storage box. In contains the LabNet Geiger-Müller
Interface (LGI), a clamp for holding the G-M tube, a
small container for storing radioactive sources (sources
not included), a small container with pieces of 1”
square lead, a small container with pieces of 1” square
plastic, an adapter cable (Model CI-6522) for connect-
ing the G-M tube to the Mac65 interface, and this
instruction manual.
The LabNet G-M Interface (LGI) has a sturdy acrylic
housing and a built-in power supply. A neon light
inside the housing indicates when the power is on. A
light emitting diode (LED) inside the housing flashes
when the sensor detects an event. The delicate mica
window of the G-M tube allows detection of alpha,
beta, and gamma radiation. The housing has two cords.
One is the power cord and the other is the signal cable.
The modular phone plug at the end of the signal cable
connects to the CI-6522 adapter cable (included). The
stereo phone plug on the end of the adapter cable goes
into a digital channel on the Mac65 interface box.
Digital channels
Plug for G-M tube Adapter cable Computer Interface
Figure 1 Connecting to Interface

A Word about the LabNet Geiger-Müller

Interface (LGI)
R
The SE-7997 Nuclear Sensor for the Mac65 includes
PTE G-M
ADA LE
CAB 22
6 5
SE D E TE C TO 9R7
-7 98 1
S E-798 5 S E-7
9
an adapter cable for connecting the G-M tube to the
CI-
by LabNe t
Mac65 interface box. With the proper adapter plugs
(not included), the LabNet G-M Interface can be
connected externally to the fifteen pin game port of an
IBM or IBM compatible computer, or the game port of
PLASTIC
an Apple II+, IIe, IIc, or IIGS computer. An IBM
SOURCE adapter package (including software), and an Apple II
STORACE
adapter package (including software), are available
from LabNet, Inc.
LabNet, Inc.
LEAD 18039 Trailridge Road
Omaha, NE 68135
phone: (402) 896-8876
LabNet, Inc., specializes in education-oriented com-
Additional Recommended Equipment puter applications. The LabNet staff has a combined
• radioactive sources total of over fifty years of experience in science and
• right angle clamp electronics education, and twenty years of experience
• isogenerator kit (for half-life experiment) with computers.
• base and support rod
• meter stick or metric ruler
Please see the PASCO catalog for more information.

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LabNet G-M Interface 012-05418A

Warranty Check ➅ In the Experiment Setup window, click-and-drag

the digital sensor plug icon to the digital channel 1
The LabNet Geiger-Müller Interface (LGI) detector
icon. Select “Geiger Counter” from the list of sen-
was designed and built with safety and ruggedness in
sors. Click-and-drag a Digits data display icon to
mind; however like many Geiger-Müeller tubes, the
the sensor icon. Select “Counts per Time Period”
detection end of the tube is a fragile sheet of mica so
from the list of calculations to display. Click on
thin that the entire end “window” has a thickness of
“MON” or press Command-M on the keyboard to
only about .01 inch. With reasonable care, the tube
begin monitoring the data. The Digits data display
will last for many years. Tube failure can be caused by
should begin showing the counts per second. (Click
puncture or by microscopic cracking of the mica
on “STOP” or press Command-(period) to end.)
window. In either case, the mixture of gases in the tube
becomes contaminated by air and the tube will no
longer function. The LGI unit is permanently sealed
when manufactured. There are no user-serviceable
parts. Voltages above 450 volts DC are required for
normal operation of the tube, and therefore, any
opening of the unit represents a serious hazard and
voids the warranty. LabNet will replace defective units
subject to the warranty policy. Every LGI unit is
operationally tested before it is shipped, however....

➤NOTE: It is very important to protect your Figure 2

investment by completing the user warranty
verification test as soon as possible after the
LGI arrives.
Here is the warranty verification test:
Connect the Mac65 interface to the computer, turn
on the interface, and then turn on the computer.
➀ Carefully remove the plastic protective cap from
the end of the LGI unit. Using the clamp supplied,
mount the LGI unit on a base and support rod (not
included) with a right angle clamp (not included).
➁ Position a known, active, beta or gamma source di-
rectly under the detector and adjust the height of
the detector so that it is 1 to 2 cm above the radia-
tion source.
➂ Plug the power cord from the unit into a 120 volt
outlet. The small neon “power” light at the rear of
the circuit board should light up.
➃ Connect the signal cable from the LGI into the
CI-6522 adapter cable. Attach the stereo phone
plug of the adapter cable to digital channel 1 of the
Mac65 (CI-6550) interface. The signal cable is no
more dangerous to handle than a typical telephone
cord. The order of steps 3 and 4 is not critical.
➄ Begin the Science Workshop program. The
“counts” LED light that is located on the LGI cir-
cuit board near the Geiger-Müeller tube should be
flashing faintly and randomly.
2
Experiment Setup window and Digits data display
If the unit does not seem to operate, refer to the
Troubleshooting section below.
Troubleshooting
The LGI unit is very reliable. Most apparent failures
can be easily corrected by the user. Please read the
suggested solutions below.
Neon power light not “ON”
Check the wall outlet with some other appliance.
Neon light may be defective. If the neon light is
the only problem, the unit will still operate. Con-
tact PASCO about repairs.
Green LED ‘counts’ light does not flash when near
a known active beta or gamma source.
LED may be defective. If the LED is the only
problem, the unit will still operate. Contact PASCO
about repairs.
The G-M tube may be defective. To test further,
tune a small transistor radio to a ‘quiet’ spot on the
dial and place the radio next to the LGI. You
should be able to hear the transistor radio speaker
clicking when a known active beta or gamma
source is near the detector tube. Contact PASCO
about repairs.
012-05418A LabNet G-M Interface

Using the Science Workshop Program

User’s Guide and Balloon Help Experiment Setup Window:

The Mac65 (CI-6550) computer interface User’s Guide
gives a complete description of the Science Workshop
program. Please refer to it for more information. The Sci-
ence Workshop program also has over a hundred Balloon
Help messages (available under System 7) covering every
feature. To use Balloon Help, select “Show Balloons”
from the Help menu (indicated by the question mark icon
in the upper right corner of the screen).
Part of the Experiment Setup window looks like the front
of the Mac65 interface box. There are icons to represent
the four digital and three analog channels. The ‘control’
section of the Experiment Setup window has “REC”
(record), “MON” (monitor), and “STOP” buttons as well
is information about recorded data sets and buttons for
“REC OPT…” (recording options), the Science Work-
shop signal generator, and the Notes window.

Signal generator button

Setting Up an Experiment Notes window button

➤NOTE: Some of the suggested activities in the

experiments section may be included as Science
Workshop documents on the Experiment Guide dis-
kette that comes with the Mac65 interface. Check
the listing in the User’s Guide. If the experiment is
included on the Experiment Guide diskette, double-
click on the icon or name of the experiment to begin.
Starting Science Workshop
Double click on the icon of the Science Workshop pro-
gram to open the application. After the opening ‘title’
screen appears, an untitled document opens with an Ex-
periment Setup window.
Record Monitor Stop Mac65 interface
button button button front panel
Two of the icons found below the interface box on the
Experiment Setup window represent the plug on the end
of a sensor’s cable. One icon represents the stereo phone
plug on a digital sensor, or the plug on the end of the CI-
6522 Adapter Cable used with the LabNet G-M tube. The
other icon represents the DIN plug on an analog sensor
such as a temperature sensor.
Digital sensor plug icon
Analog sensor plug icon
Analog Output
Signal icon

Between the sensor plug icons are six icons representing

the different types of data displays in Science Workshop.
(1)
They are the Digits display, Meter display, Scope display,
FFT display, Table of data, and Graph.

(2) (3) (4)

(1) Data Digital sensor Data display Voltage Sensor Analog sensor
Sets list plug icon icons icon plug icon
(2) Recording (3) Signal Generator (4) Notes Window
Options button Window button button

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Sensors Selecting Data Displays

Click-and-drag the digital sensor plug icon to the digital To select a data display, click-and-drag the icon of the
channel 1 icon (just as if you were plugging the sensor data display you want to use to the sensor icon.
into the interface box). Select “Geiger Counter” from the
list of digital sensors. Click “OK” to return to the Experi-
ment Setup window. You will see the sensor icon in the
area below digital channel 1 with an arrow pointing at the
channel.

Because the Science Workshop program can modify the

recorded data from the Geiger Counter sensor, a list of
calculations will appear. Select the calculation or calcula-
tions that you want, and then click “Display”.

List of digital sensors

Double-click on the sensor icon to open the Sensor Setup

dialog box.

The data display will open with the name of the calcula-
tion you selected in the title bar, and icons to indicate the
sensor and the channel. If you selected a Digits display or
a Meter, for example, one display or meter will open for
each calculation you picked. If you selected a Table or
Graph, the table will have one column for each calcula-
tion you picked, or the graph will have one plot for each
calculation you picked.

Sensor Setup dialog box

One second (1.000 sec) is the default setting for the Count
Time Period. To change the Count Time Period, highlight
the default value, type in the new value and then click on
“OK”.

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Recording Data in an Experiment

Setup the equipment for the experiment as described in
the experiment section or the Notes window in the Sci-
ence Workshop document. When you are ready to record
data, do one of the following:
• Click on “REC” button
• Press Command-R on the keyboard
• Select “Record” from the Experiment menu
If you want to monitor data instead of record it, do one of
the following:
• Click on “MON” button
• Press Command-M on the keyboard
Select the location where you want the document to be
• Select “Monitor” from the Experiment menu
stored, and enter a filename for the document.
When you are ready to end data recording, do one of the
following:
• Click on “STOP” button
• Press Command-(period) on the keyboard
• Select “Stop” from the Experiment menu
See the Science Workshop User’s Guide for more infor-
mation about monitoring and recording data, setting up
“Start” and “Stop” conditions for recording data, record-
ing multiple sets of data, using different data displays, and
other details about data collection and analysis.

Deleting Data Quitting Science Workshop

To delete data, click on the run of data in the data sets list
in the Experiment Setup window. Press “delete” on the
keyboard. An alert dialog box will prompt you to either
cancel the process, or continue. You can select more than
one set of data at a time using the shift key or command
key. See the User’s Guide for details on deleting data sets.
To end an experiment, select “Quit” from the File menu
or press Command-Q on the keyboard. If you recorded
data or modified the Experiment Setup window, you will
be prompted to either quit without saving the data and/or
changes, cancel the “Quit”, or save the data and/or
changes.

Saving an Experiment
When you are finished with an experiment, you can save
the Science Workshop document you created, and the data
you recorded. To save an untitled experiment, select
“Save” from the File menu. To save the changes you have
made to a previously saved experiment, select “Save
As…” from the File menu.

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Copy-Ready Experiments
The following experiments are written in worksheet form.
Fell free to photocopy them for use in your lab.
The experiments are not written to be performed in any particular order,
although it is recommended that the introductory activity be done first.

➤NOTE: The first paragraph in each experiment lists all the equipment needed
to perform the experiment. Be sure to read this equipment list first, as the
requirements vary with each experiment.

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Experiment 1: Introductory Activity

EQUIPMENT NEEDED
- Macintosh computer - LGI and CI-6522 Adapter Cable
- Mac65 Interface (CI-6550) - Base and support rod (ME-9355)
- Science Workshop program - Right angle clamp (SE-9444)
- Printer (optional) - Radioactive sources (alpha, beta, gamma)*

(* The PASCO SN-8110 Radioactive Sources (set of 3) are mounted in 2.5 cm diameter sealed
plastic disks. No licensing is required. They consist of Polonium-210 (alpha, gamma), Stron-
tium-90 (beta), and Cobalt-60 (beta, gamma).)

Purpose
The LabNet Geiger-Müller Interface (LGI) provides simple, flexible, ways for you to explore the
characteristics of radioactive materials. You can collect real time data for radioactive substances
and display the data in several ways. Any collected data can be saved and recalled later. Try the
suggested activities listed below to become familiar with the nuclear sensor.

Theory
Refer to the Technical Data Appendix for information about the operation of a Geiger-Müller
tube and typical tube characteristics.

Setup:
➀ Connect the Mac65 interface to the computer, turn on the interface, and turn on the computer.
➁ Carefully remove the plastic protective cap from the end of the LGI. Clamp the LGI unit verti-
cally about 1 or 2 cm above a beta source. Plug the LGI power cord into a wall outlet. Connect
the modular phone plug on the end of the signal cord into the CI-6522 Adapter Cable. Plug the
adapter cable into digital channel 1.
➂ Prepare the computer to record data. Find the Science Workshop document titled “Nuclear Sen-
sor” in the Sensor Files folder on the Experiment Guide diskette. Double click on the icon or
name of the document. Follow the instructions in the Notes window. The document will open
with a Digits display for Counts per Second and a Graph display of Counts per Second versus
Time. (Note: To bring the Digits or Graph display to the top, click on its window or select the
name of the display from the list at the end of the Display menu.) The Graph is set to display
counts per second for 100 seconds.

Data Recording:
Reminder: You can start recording data by doing the following:
• click on the “REC” button,
• press “Command-R” on the keyboard,
• select “Record” from the Experiment menu.
To end data recording,
• click on the “STOP” button,
• press “Command-(period)” on the keyboard,
• select “Stop” from the Experiment menu.

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LabNet G-M Interface 012-05418A

➃ Begin recording data. Data should appear in the Digits display and also on the Graph. After data
recording stops, “Run #1” will appear in the list of data sets in the Experiment Setup window.
➄ Replace the beta source with an active alpha source and repeat the data recording. The new data
will be plotted ‘on top of’ the data from Run #1 in the Graph. (Note: The scale for the beta source
may be too high for the data from the alpha source. If you can’t see the data, click on the “Zoom
Out” tool in the vertical scroll bar to rescale the vertical axis.) After data recording stops, the Run
#2 data will be the only data visible in the Graph.
➅ Replace the alpha source with an active gamma source and repeat the data recording.
➆ Finally, remove all sources and repeat the data recording to find the background count (the count
of naturally occurring radiation).

Analyzing the Data

➀ Select “New Table” from the Display menu. The Table will display the data for the last run – the
measurement of the background count. Click on the “Digits” button in the top area of the Table
and change the number of digits to “zero”.

“Digits button”

Then click on the Statistics button in the upper left area of the Table to view the minimum, maxi-
mum, and mean of the background counts. Record the mean in Data Table 1 at the end of this
section.
➁ Use the “Data” popup menu to select Run #3 (the data for the gamma source). Record the mean
for the gamma source in Data Table 1. Use the popup menu again to select Run #2 (the data for
the alpha source). Record the mean for the alpha source in Data Table 1. Select Run #1 (beta) and
record the mean for the beta source in Data Table 1.
➂ Click on the Graph or select it from the list at the end of the Display menu to make it active. Use
the “Data” popup menu in the left part of the plot to view each data run (background, gamma,
alpha, and beta). For each data run, use the “Smart Cursor” tool (second from left, top row, lower
left corner of the Graph) to find the ‘bucket’ in the histogram with the highest count. Record the
‘Bucket Max’ and ‘Bucket Min’ for each type of radiation in Data Table 2.

Optional
If a printer is available, print the graph of each data run. Select “Print Active Display” from the
File menu, or press Command-P on the keyboard.

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Data Table 1.1

Type of Radiation Mean of counts per second after 100 sec.

Beta
Alpha
Gamma
Background

Data Table 1.2

Type of Radiation Bucket Max. Bucket Min.

Beta
Alpha
Gamma
Background

Questions
➀ In the Graph, what is the general shape of the histogram for each active source?
➁ Which source has the most activity? Which source has the least activity?
➂ For each type of radiation, how does the mean of counts per second compare to the ‘Bucket Max’ and ‘Bucket
Min’?

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Notes:

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Experiment 2: Random Events

EQUIPMENT NEEDED
- Macintosh computer - LGI and CI-6522 Adapter Cable
- Mac65 Interface - Base and support rod (ME-9355)
- Science Workshop program - Right angle clamp (SE-9444)
- printer (optional) - Radioactive sources (alpha, beta, gamma)*
- 1” lead square (included with SE-7997)

(* The PASCO SN-8110 Radioactive Sources (set of 3) are mounted in 2.5 cm diameter sealed
plastic disks. No licensing is required. They consist of Polonium-210 (alpha, gamma), Stron-
tium-90 (beta), and Cobalt-60 (beta, gamma).)

Purpose
In this experiment you will explore the behavior of random radioactive events over a period of
time.

Theory
Radioactive decay is strange and mysterious for several reasons. Besides the obvious fact that
none of our senses can detect individual decay events, the nuclear decay process seems at the
same time to be random yet predictable. How can a random event be predictable? This analogy
may be helpful. Think about making popcorn. As you heat the kernels of corn, it would be very
difficult to say exactly which kernel is going to explode next, yet it is fairly easy simply by lis-
tening to say how many kernels pop per second. In the same way, it is impossible to say which
nucleus will become unstable enough to decay next, however it is fairly easy to use a Geiger
counter to count the number of nuclei which do decay per second at all the locations in the radio-
active sample. If you “listened” to the nuclear decay of a radioactive sample with a good Geiger
counter, and plotted counts per second over a period of time, what would the results look like?

Setup:
➀ Connect the Mac65 interface to the computer, turn on the interface, and turn on the computer.
➁ Carefully remove the plastic protective cap from the end of the LGI. Clamp the LGI unit verti-
cally about 1 or 2 cm above a beta source. Plug the LGI power cord into a wall outlet. Connect
the modular phone plug on the end of the signal cord into the CI-6522 Adapter Cable. Plug the
adapter cable into digital channel 1.
➂ Prepare the computer to record data. Find the Science Workshop document titled “Random
Events (Nuclear Sensor)” in the Physics Experiments folder on the Experiment Guide diskette.
Double click on the icon or name of the document. Follow the instructions in the Notes window.
The document will open with a Table display for Counts per Second and a Graph display of
Counts per Second versus Time. (Note: To bring the display to the top, click on its window or
select the name of the display from the list at the end of the Display menu.) The displays are set
to show counts per second for 120 seconds.

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LabNet G-M Interface 012-05418A

Data Recording:
Reminder: You can start recording data by doing the following:
• click on the “REC” button,
• press “Command-R” on the keyboard,
• select “Record” from the Experiment menu.
To end data recording,
• click on the “STOP” button,
• press “Command-(period)” on the keyboard,
• select “Stop” from the Experiment menu.
➃ Begin recording. Data should appear in the Table display and also on the Graph. After 120 sec-
onds, data recording stops and “Run #1” will appear in the list of data sets in the Experiment
Setup window. Record the value of the “Mean” in Data Table 1.
➄ Repeat data recording four more times. At the end of each data run, record the value of the
“Mean” in Data Table 1.
➅ Repeat data recording again, but use a 1” lead square to block the path of radiation for approxi-
mately 5 seconds near the midpoint of the 120 second recording period. Record the value of the
“Mean” in Data Table 2.
➆ Repeat data recording again, but use a 1” lead square to block the path of radiation for approxi-
mately 10 seconds near the midpoint of the 120 second recording period. Record the value of the
“Mean” in Data Table 2.

Analyzing the Data

➀ From Data Table 1, determine the overall average for the first five data runs.
➁ Switch to the Graph display. Use the “Stats” popup menu in the right hand area of the plot to
select “Histogram, 50 Divisions”.

Use the “Data” popup menu in the area to the left of the vertical axis to select “Run #1”. Click on
the “Autoscale” button (top row, right hand button, lower left corner of the Graph) to resize the
graph to fit the data. Study the overall shape of the histogram for Run #1. If a printer is available,
print the active display.

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➂ Use the “Data” popup menu to select “Run #2”. Autoscale the graph, study the overall shape of the
histogram, and print the active display if possible. Repeat this process for the remaining data runs.

Data Table 2.1

Trial Value of the Mean

Run #1
Run #2
Run #3
Run #4
Run #5
Average

Data Table 2.2

Trial Value of the Mean

Run #6 (5 second block)
Run #7 (10 second block)

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Questions
➀ How much effect did momentarily blocking the path for five seconds have on the value of the mean? How
much effect did blocking the path for ten seconds have on the value of the mean?
➁ Describe in words the shape of the histogram for data runs 1 through 5. What else has a distribution of values
that looks like the histogram for these data runs?
➂ Describe the shape of the histogram for data runs 6 and 7.

Optional Questions
➀ Is there any way to change the average count rate for a radioactive substance?
➁ Does the average count rate remain the same until all the radioactivity stops?
➂ How has the radioactive material changed when all the radioactivity stops?

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Experiment 3: Half-Life Experiment

EQUIPMENT NEEDED
- Macintosh computer - LGI and CI-6522 Adapter Cable
- Mac65 Interface - Base and support rod (ME-9355)
- Science Workshop program - Right angle clamp (SE-9444)
- Printer (optional) - Radioactive isotope with short half-life*
- Watch glass (or similar shallow dish)

(* The PASCO SN-7995 Isogenerator Kit provides short-lived nuclides for half-life experiments.
A solution is passed through a column containing Cesium-137 to produce Barium-137m, which
has a half-life of 2.6 minutes, and emits 662 keV gamma radiation. If properly cared for, the
generator can be used hundreds of times. No licensing is required.)

Purpose
The time required for the counts per time period of a radioactive sample to fall to half of its pre-
vious value is called the half-life of the radioactive isotope. In this experiment you will deter-
mine the half-life of a radioactive isotope.

Theory
The number of counts per second (c/s) produced by a radioactive source gradually becomes
smaller and smaller as time goes on. If that didn’t happen, then the radioactive waste we are so
concerned about these days would never become less dangerous. We know that all radioactive
substances have count rates which change toward zero counts per second. Eventually, even the
most dangerous radioactive waste becomes safe. This might take only minutes, but could take
thousand or even millions of years, depending on the kind of nucleus involved. A simple analogy
involving popcorn might help you understand how the number of counts per second can become
smaller. The number of kernels per second which pop is fairly constant as the corn starts popping
vigorously, but eventually the rate trails off until just a few kernels explode per second. Actually
there is something about the popping corn which does not change. For popcorn it is nearly true
that in each equal time interval, the same fraction of remaining unpopped kernels do in fact
pop. For example, let’s say that one half of the remaining unpopped kernels pop each minute. If
you start with 100 kernels, then 50 pop and 50 remain kernels at the end of one minute. In the
next minute half of the remaining 50 pop, so there are 25 kernels left. One more minute and half
of the remaining 25 kernels pop leaving 12 or 13 kernels, and so it goes. Fewer and fewer ker-
nels per second actually pop but the same fraction of unpopped kernels pop each minute. This is
approximately how corn pops, but it is exactly the way that radioactive nuclei decay. In each unit
of time, the same fraction of unchanged nuclei decay into different elements. The time re-
quired for the counts per second of a radioactive sample to fall to half of its previous value is
called the half-life of the radioactive isotope. The half-life value is a property of the nucleus itself
and does not depend on temperature, pressure or any other measurable property. This is a clock
which can’t be changed without changing the nucleus itself.
What do you think a graph of counts per second would look like as time goes on for a type of
nucleus which decays rapidly?

15
LabNet G-M Interface 012-05418A

Setup:
➀ Connect the Mac65 interface to the computer, turn on the interface, and turn on the computer.
➁ Carefully remove the plastic protective cap from the end of the LabNet Geiger-Müller Interface
(LGI). Clamp the LGI unit vertically so it will be 1 or 2 cm above the watch glass that will hold
the liquid containing the radioactive isotope. Plug the LGI power cord into a wall outlet. Connect
the modular phone plug on the end of the signal cord into the CI-6522 Adapter Cable. Plug the
adapter cable into digital channel 1.
➂ CAREFULLY read and follow all the instructions for preparing, using, and storing the short half-
life radioactive source. Also read and follow the instructions about disposing of the liquid contain-
ing the radioactive isotope.
➃ Prepare the computer to record data. Find the Science Workshop document titled “Half-Life
(Nuclear Sensor)” in the Physics Experiments folder on the Experiment Guide diskette. Double
click on the icon or name of the document. Follow the instructions in the Notes window. The
document will open with a Graph display of Counts per Time Period versus Time. Each time
period is 5 seconds.

➤NOTE: To bring the display to the top, click on its window or select the name of the display
from the list at the end of the Display menu.

The display is set to show counts per second for 10 minutes.

➄ Drain about 10 drops of liquid through the radioisotope “cow” into the watch glass. Place the
watch glass under the G-M tube of the LGI.

Data Recording:
Reminder: You can start recording data by doing the following:
• click on the “REC” button,
• press “Command-R” on the keyboard,
• select “Record” from the Experiment menu.
To end data recording,
• click on the “STOP” button,
• press “Command-(period)” on the keyboard,
• select “Stop” from the Experiment menu.

Autoscale icon

➅ Begin recording. Data should appear in the Graph. After 10 minutes, data recording stops and
“Run #1” will appear in the list of data sets in the Experiment Setup window. Click on the
“Autoscale” button to resize the graph to better fit the data.
➆ Dispose of the liquid containing the radioactive isotope as directed by your instructor.

16
012-05418A LabNet G-M Interface

Analyzing the Data

➀ Use the Smart Cursor tool to find the initial count rate (counts per five seconds). Convert this
value to counts per second. Record the value in the Data Table.

Smart Cursor icon

➁ Use the Smart Cursor tool to find the time at which the count rate is one-half the initial count
rate. Record the time in the Data Table. Convert the count rate to counts per second and record
the value in the table.
➂ If a printer is available, select “New Table” from the Display menu, and print the Table of data.
Graph the data on a piece of semi-log graph paper. (Alternative: If you have an analysis program
like Graphical Analysis from Vernier Software, export the Table of data as a TEXT file, open the
data in the analysis program, and use the program to create a semi-log graph of the data.)

Data Table 3.1

Initial Value (c/s)

Time at half-max. (half-life)
Value at half-max. (c/s)

Questions
➀ How long will it take for Ba-137m to decay to 1/8th of the original counts/second?
➁ From your data, what is the calculated half-life of Barium-137m? How does this compare to a handbook value?
➂ What advantage does using semi-log graph paper have compared to conventional graph paper?

Optional Questions
➀ Is there any way to reduce the time it takes for Barium-137m to decay to 1% of its original activity?
➁ Does the time it takes to decay 1% of its original activity depend on how much radioactive material there is to
start with?
➂ How are the Barium-137m nuclei different after they decay? What element does Barium-137m change into
when it decays?

17
LabNet G-M Interface 012-05418A

Notes:

18
012-05418A LabNet G-M Interface

Experiment 4: Radiation Shielding

EQUIPMENT NEEDED
- Macintosh computer - LGI and CI-6522 Adapter Cable
- Mac65 Interface - Base and support rod (ME-9355)
- Science Workshop program - Right angle clamp (SE-9444)
- printer (optional) - Radioactive sources (alpha, beta, gamma)*
- 1” lead squares ** - 1” plastic squares **
- 1” paper squares
(* The PASCO SN-8110 Radioactive Sources (set of 3) are mounted in 2.5 cm diameter sealed
plastic disks. No licensing is required. They consist of Polonium-210 (alpha, gamma), Stron-
tium-90 (beta), and Cobalt-60 (beta, gamma).)
(** Included with the SE-7997 LabNet Gieger Müller Interface.)

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the penetrating ability of three common types of
nuclear radiation and the ability of different materials to absorb the energy associated with
nuclear radiation.

Theory
Because in many ways nuclear radiation behaves as though the radiation were tiny “bullets”, it
makes sense that different materials absorb the energy of nuclear radiation in different ways. The
nature of the material through which nuclear radiation moves does influence how much energy is
absorbed.

Setup:
➀ Connect the Mac65 interface to the computer, turn on the interface, and turn on the computer.
➁ Carefully remove the plastic protective cap from the end of the LabNet Geiger-Müller Interface
(LGI). Clamp the LGI unit vertically. Plug the LGI power cord into a wall outlet. Connect the
modular phone plug on the end of the signal cord into the CI-6522 Adapter Cable. Plug the
adapter cable into digital channel 1.
➂ Prepare the computer to record data. Find the Science Workshop document titled “Shielding
(Nuclear Sensor)” in the Physics Experiments folder on the Experiment Guide diskette. Double
click on the icon or name of the document. Follow the instructions in the Notes window. The
document will open with a Table display of Counts per Time Period. Each time period is 15
seconds. Each run of data recording will last 60 seconds. The “Statistics” for the Table are ‘on’.
(Note: To bring the display to the top, click on its window or select the name of the display from
the list at the end of the Display menu.)

19
LabNet G-M Interface 012-05418A

Data Recording:
Reminder: You can start recording data by doing the following:
• click on the “REC” button,
• press “Command-R” on the keyboard,
• select “Record” from the Experiment menu.
To end data recording,
• click on the “STOP” button,
• press “Command-(period)” on the keyboard,
• select “Stop” from the Experiment menu.
➃ Prepare to measure the average background radiation count. Move all radiation sources at least 10
feet from the Geiger counter. Click on “REC” to begin recording data. The recording will auto-
matically stop after 60 seconds. Record the “Mean” as the average background radiation count
(per 15 second interval) in Table 1.

After you record the “Mean”, delete the run of data by selecting it in the data sets list and pressing
“Delete” on the keyboard. (An alert box will open to make sure you want to delete the data run.)
➄ Measure the radiation counts from an unshielded alpha source. Position the sealed alpha source 1
or 2 cm directly under the Geiger-Müller tube. Click on “REC” to record counts for 60 seconds.
Record the “Mean” as the unshielded alpha source radiation count in Table 1.

20
012-05418A LabNet G-M Interface

➅ Now measure the radiation counts from a shielded alpha source. Click-and-hold on the “Add-a-
Column” popup menu to add another column to the Table.

Add-a-Column popup menu

Select “Counts Per Time Period” from the popup menu.

Place one small square of paper on top of the sealed alpha source, and record the counts for 60 seconds. Record
the “Mean” as the “One Layer” shielded alpha source radiation count.
➆ Click-and-hold on the “Add-a-Column” popup menu to add another column to the Table. Select “Counts Per
Time Period” from the popup menu. Place another small square of paper on top of the alpha source. Record the
counts for 60 seconds. Record the “Mean” as the “Two Layer” shielded alpha source radiation count.
➇ Repeat the steps until you have a total of five small squares of paper on top of the alpha source. Determine and
record the radiation counts for each trial. When you are done with the alpha source, delete the data runs.
➈ Replace the sealed alpha source with a sealed beta source. Repeat the steps, recording counts for the unshielded
beta source and then for the source with zero through five thicknesses of paper on top. Determine and record the
radiation counts per minute for each trial. When you are done with the beta source, delete the data runs.
➉ Replace the sealed beta source with a sealed gamma source and repeat the data recording process again. Deter-
mine and record the radiation counts per minute for each trial. When you are done with the gamma source,
delete the data runs.
11 Record data for all three radiation sources for two more shielding materials, thin plastic and thin lead. Follow the
same procedure used in recording data for the paper shielding material. If you find that the activity falls as low
as the background radiation count, then you can assume that all the energy of that particular radiation is ab-
sorbed by the shield, and additional shielding is not necessary.

21
LabNet G-M Interface 012-05418A

Analyzing the Data

Average background counts = ________

Data Table 4.1

Radiation Counts per Fifteen Second Intervals
PAPER: Layers of Shielding Material
Source zero one two three four five
alpha
beta
gamma

PLASTIC: Layers of Shielding Material

Source zero one two three four five
alpha
beta
gamma

LEAD: Layers of Shielding Material

Source zero one two three four five
alpha
beta
gamma

Questions
➀ Which type of radiation is the most penetrating?
➁ Which type of radiation is the least penetrating?
➂ What generalization can you make about the effect of the thickness of the shielding material on the count rate?
➃ What generalization can you make about the effect of the density of the shielding material on the count rate?

Optional Questions:
➀ Since the energy of the radiation is absorbed by the shield, what effect does the absorbed energy have on
the shield?
➁ Why is there a difference in the penetrating ability of the three basic radiation types?
➂ How effective are other shielding materials such as air or water in stopping radiation?
➃ What material is the most effective in absorbing the energy of nuclear radiation?

22
012-05418A LabNet G-M Interface

Experiment 5: Inverse Square Law

EQUIPMENT NEEDED
- Macintosh computer - LGI and CI-6522 Adapter Cable
- Mac65 Interface - Base and support rod (ME-9355)
- Science Workshop program - Right angle clamp SE-9444)
- Printer (optional) - Radioactive sources (alpha, beta, gamma)*
- Metric ruler
(* The PASCO SN-8110 Radioactive Sources (set of 3) are mounted in 2.5 cm diameter sealed
plastic disks. No licensing is required. They consist of Polonium-210 (alpha, gamma), Stron-
tium-90 (beta), and Cobalt-60 (beta, gamma).)

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the relationship between the distance to a radio-
active source and the measured activity from the source.

Theory
One of the most common natural laws is the inverse square law. As one famous scientist put it,
“the inverse square law is characteristic of anything which starts out from a point source and
travels in straight lines without getting lost.” Light and sound intensity both behave according to
an inverse square law when they spread out from a point source. Your intuition says that as you
move away from a point source of light like a light bulb, the light intensity becomes smaller as
the distance from the bulb becomes larger . The same is true for sound intensity as you move
away from a small radio speaker. What may not be as obvious is that if you move twice as far
from either of these sources, the intensity becomes one fourth as great, not half as great. In a
similar way, if you are at the back of an auditorium listening to music and you decide to move
three times closer, the sound intensity becomes nine times greater. This is why the law is called
the inverse square law. Does nuclear radiation behave this way as well? If you measure the
counts per second at a distance of 1 centimeter, what will the counts per second be at 2 centime-
ters or at 4 centimeters?

Setup
➀ Connect the Mac65 interface to the computer, turn on the interface, and turn on the computer.
➁ Carefully remove the plastic protective cap from the end of the LabNet Geiger-Müller Interface
(LGI). Clamp the LGI unit vertically about 1 or 2 cm above an active beta source. Plug the LGI
power cord into a wall outlet. Connect the modular phone plug on the end of the signal cord into
the CI-6522 Adapter Cable. Plug the adapter cable into digital channel 1.
➂ Prepare the computer to record data. Find the Science Workshop document titled “Inverse Square
(Nuclear Sensor)” in the Physics Experiments folder on the Experiment Guide diskette. Double
click on the icon or name of the document. Follow the instructions in the Notes window. The
document will open with a Table display of Counts per Time Period. Each time period is 40
seconds. Each run of data recording will last 120 seconds. The “Statistics” for the Table are ‘on’.
(Note: To bring the display to the top, click on its window or select the name of the display from
the list at the end of the Display menu.)

23
LabNet G-M Interface 012-05418A

➃ Carefully measure the distance from the top of the active source to the “A” calibration mark found
on the printed circuit board inside the acrylic housing of the LGI near the detector tube (see the
figure). Record the distance in the Data Table as the initial distance.

COU
Acrylic housing

ABCDEFGH Calibration letters

Detector tube

LabNet Geiger-Müller Interface

Data Recording:
Reminder: You can start recording data by doing the following:
• click on the “REC” button,
• press “Command-R” on the keyboard,
• select “Record” from the Experiment menu.
To end data recording,
• click on the “STOP” button,
• press “Command-(period)” on the keyboard,
• select “Stop” from the Experiment menu.
➄ Prepare to measure the radiation count. Click on “REC” to begin recording data. The recording
will automatically stop after 120 seconds. Record the “Mean” as the average radiation count for
the initial distance in the Data Table.

24
012-05418A LabNet G-M Interface

➅ Move the LGI unit 2 cm farther from the source. Carefully measure the distance and record it in
the Data Table. Click on “REC” to begin recording data. The recording will automatically stop
after 120 seconds. Record the “Mean” as the average radiation count for the second distance..
➆ Repeat the previous steps until you have recorded data at five to seven different distances.
(Optional: If possible, repeat the procedure using an alpha source and then repeat the procedure
using a gamma source.)

Analyzing the Data

➀ Calculate the square of the distances and also the inverse square of the distances in the third and
fourth columns of the Data Table.

Data Table 5.1: (Beta Source)

Data Distance Distance 1/Distance Mean of the Product
Point (D) Squared Squared Radiation (Mean) x
(D^2) (1/D^2) Counts (D^2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

➁ Using standard graph paper make a graph of the mean of the radiation counts versus distance
from the source.
➂ Using standard graph paper make a graph of the mean of the radiation counts versus the inverse
square of the distance from the source.
➃ Using log-log paper make a graph of the mean of the radiation counts versus distance from the source.

Questions
➀ Does nuclear radiation follow the inverse square law? Justify your answer.
➁ Is the product of the mean of the radiation counts and the square of distance from the source
a fairly constant value?
➂ What first action would be important to protect yourself from the radiation released from a bro-
ken container of radioactive material?

Optional Questions:
➀ Does alpha and gamma radiation have the same relationship to distance from the source as
beta radiation?
➁ How would the risk of exposure to radioactive substances be different if nuclear radiation fol-
lowed an inverse cube law?
➂ If radiation does follow an inverse square law, is it possible to reduce the counts per second to zero?

25
LabNet G-M Interface 012-05418A

Appendix

Nuclear Safety Geiger-Müller Tube Technical Data

Most radioactive sources available to educators are Background
very low level isotopes referred to as “license free” Simple Geiger-Müller tubes similar to the type used
sources. This does not mean, however, that these
in the LGI are referred to as mica end window tubes.
materials represent no hazard to students. The Nucleus,
The stainless steel tube is hermetically capped with a
P.O. Box R, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 37830, has
provided the following guidelines for use of low-level thin sheet of mica only .001 to .002 grams in mass.
radioactive materials in classroom environments: The interior of the sealed tube has an anode rod
running the length of the long axis of the tube, and
➀ Eating, drinking, and the application of cosmetics
the tube contains neon gas spiked with a halogen
in the laboratory are not permitted.
contaminant. When an incoming alpha, beta or
➁ Pipetting by mouth is never permitted. Use suction gamma causes a neon atom to lose an electron, the
devices such as pipette fillers. ejected electron finds itself pushed very strongly
➂ Gloves and lab coats should be worn when working toward the anode rod while the neon ion is pushed
with all liquid radioisotopes. strongly toward the steel case of the tube. Along the
➃ Before leaving the lab, wash your hands thoroughly way, collisions with these charged particles cause
then check for possible contamination with a sur- other neon atoms to lose their electrons. From a
vey instrument. singular disintegration, an avalanche builds in a few
microseconds, as momentary conduction through the
➄ All radioactive liquid wastes are to be poured into
the liquid waste container, NEVER into a sink. neon gas occurs, driven by the 450 to 500 volt
potential between anode rod and case. As neon ions
➅ Report ALL spills, wounds, or other emergencies to acquire electrons from the case, the neon atoms
your instructor.
return to an excited metastable state. This means that
➆ Maintain good housekeeping at all times in the lab. the neon atoms, although now neutral, still have
➇ Store radioactive materials only in the designated energy to give up before they return to their ground
storage area. Do not remove sources from the lab. state. This energy would keep the tube continuously
discharging. The halogen gas contaminant is de-
Typical Geiger-Müeller Tube signed to “quench” this continuous discharge by
Characteristics absorbing the energy released by the neon as it falls
Sensitivity alpha, beta, gamma from its neutral metastable excited state to the ground
state. Typically, it takes 100 microseconds for the
Window thickness 1 to 2 mg/sq. cm.
avalanche of neon ions to be neutralized to their
Gas filling Neon + Halogen ground state.
Starting voltage 400 V DC
Operating voltage 450 V DC to 550 V DC
Dead time 100 microseconds
Background from unit 10 counts per minute max.
Capacitance 4 picofarads
Operating temp. range -40 to +75 degrees C.
Tube life 10 billion counts

26
 Technical Support

Feedback Contacting Technical Support

If you have any comments about the product or
manual, please let us know. If you have any sugges-
tions on alternate experiments or find a problem in the
manual, please tell us. PASCO appreciates any
customer feedback. Your input helps us evaluate and
improve our product.
To Reach PASCO
For technical support, call us at 1-800-772-8700
(toll-free within the U.S.) or (916) 786-3800.
fax: (916) 786-3292
e-mail: techsupp@PASCO.com
web: www.pasco.com
Before you call the PASCO Technical Support staff,
it would be helpful to prepare the following infor-
mation:
➤ If your problem is computer/software related,
note:
- Title and revision date of software;
- Type of computer (make, model, speed);
- Type of external cables/peripherals.
➤ If your problem is with the PASCO apparatus,
note:
- Title and model number (usually listed on the
label);
- Approximate age of apparatus;
- A detailed description of the problem/sequence
of events. (In case you can’t call PASCO right
away, you won’t lose valuable data.);
- If possible, have the apparatus within reach
when calling to facilitate description of indi-
vidual parts.

➤ If your problem relates to the instruction manual,

note:
- Part number and revision (listed by month and
year on the front cover);
- Have the manual at hand to discuss your ques-
tions.