Ingles Medicina Ciclo 2

INGLES MEDICINA CICLO 2
PRIMERA LESSON
first:
(adverb) used at the beginning of a story or a point to talk about initial actions or feelings
First, I printed my notes. Then I went to the meeting.
while:
(conjunction) happening at the same time as another activity
Could you finish the latest report while I start the new one.
by the time:
(expression) used to talk about the end point of an activity or to emphasize the length of an
amount of time
By the time I get home, it will be dark.
later:
(adverb) used to talk about an activity that will happen after the time being discussed
I walked to work, and later I took the bus home.
after that:
(expression) used to explain that an action follows another action
I’ll write up the minutes, and after that we can have lunch.
Forma
El past continuous se forma con el auxiliar "was - were + verbo + -ing".

 I was working. (Trabajaba / estaba trabajando.)
 He was smoking. (Él fumaba / estaba fumando.)
 We were eating. (Comíamos / estabamos comiendo.)
Contracciones: was not y were not se contraen a menudo en la forma negativa e
interrogativa.
 I wasn't working. (No trabajaba / No estaba trabajando.)
 He wasn't smoking. (Él no fumaba / Él no estaba fumando)
 Weren't we eating? (¿No comíamos? / ¿No estábamos comiendo?)
Usos
El past continuous se utiliza mucho en las descripciones.

 The cat was sitting in front of a woodfire. (El gato estaba sentado delante de una
hoguera.)
 The accountants were preparing the monthly figures. (Los contables estaban
preparando las cifras del mes.)
Se emplea para expresar una acción continua interrumpida por un hecho inesperado.
 When I arrived, Mary was talking to Tom. (Cuando llegué, Mary estaba
hablando con Tom.)
 I was talking to Peter when the phone rang. (Estaba hablando con Peter cuando el
teléfono sonó.)
También lo utilizamos para describir una acción en su desarrollo en un momento
concreto del pasado.
 What were you doing at midnight last night? I was
watching television. (¿Qué estabas haciendo ayer a las doce de la noche? Estaba
viendo la televisión.)
Se utiliza para presentar dos acciones que se desarrollan simultáneamente en el pasado
y que van unidas por la conjunción while.
 The children were watching TV while I was writing the report. (Los niños veían la
televisión mientras yo redactaba el informe.)
EXAMPLES:
 I
w as w alking
to the office the same way I had walked nearly every day that month when I
suddenly
saw
a new building.
 When I

met
him I

w as feeling
a little unwell.
Last time I had emailed too late to reserve a table, so this time I emailed really early and
w as w aiting
patiently for a reply when my computer
broke dow n
lesson 2
punctual:
(adjective) arriving or finishing at the planned or expected time
You need to be punctual to the meeting today, please.
productive:
(adjective) producing a large quantity of work
I was very productive yesterday. I replied to all my emails and attended four
meetings.
diligent:
(adjective) a person who works hard and pays attention to detail
He is very diligent. He spent all day correcting tiny errors in the report.
presentable:
(adjective) looking neat, clean and appropriate for the situation
It is important to be presentable. Please don’t wear T-shirts or jeans.
cooperative:
(adjective) willing to work well with other people
We will have to be cooperative if we want this merger to work.
adaptable:
(adjective) able to adjust quickly to change and use skills in a variety of ways
In my job, I work with children, teenagers, adults and older people so I have to be
very adaptable.
take the initiative:
(expression) to set actions in motion and take responsibility for them
Nobody asked me to do it, but I took the initiative to email the team about next week’s
meeting.
Used to
"Used to + infinitivo" se emplea para expresar una acción habitual o un hecho del pasado que
ya no tiene lugar en el presente.
 I used to smoke. (Yo fumaba / solía fumar. [pero ya no fumo])
 Terrence used to be a doctor. (Terrence era médico. [pero ya no lo es]) [Puede que
esté jubiIado o que haya cambiado de profesión.]
La forma negativa es didn't use to.
 I didn't use to have such short hair. (Antes, no tenía / solía tener el pelo tan corto.)
La forma interrogativa es "Did + sujeto + use to + infinitivo sin to".
 Did she use to be a teacher? (¿Era profesora?)
 Did they use to live in London? (¿Vivían en Londres?)
 Did you use to work for IBM? (¿Trabajabas para IBM?)
 Where did you use to live when you were a student? (¿Dónde vivías cuando eras
estudiante?)
To be used to
"To be used to + verbo + -ing" = estar acostumbrado a + verbo.

 I'm used to driving in Paris. (Estoy acostumbrado a conducir en París.)
 I'm not used to getting up early in the morning. (No estoy acostumbrado a
levantarme temprano por la mañana.)
 Is he used to giving presentations of the company? (¿Está acostumbrado a
presentar la empresa?)
 He wasn't used to speaking French when he arrived in Paris. (No estaba
acostumbrado a hablar francés cuando llegó a París.)
"To be used to + sustantivo" = estar acostumbrado a + sustantivo.
También se puede utilizar esta expresión seguida de un sustantivo.
 I'm used to English food. (Estoy acostumbrado a la comida inglesa.)
 I'm not used to the heat. (No estoy acostumbrado al calor.)
"Get used to + verbo + -ing o get used to + sustantivo" = acostumbrarse a algo
 I'll never get used to the new computer system. (Nunca me acostumbraré al nuevo
sistema informático.)
 I got used to my new car quickly. (Me acostumbré rápido a mi nuevo coche.)
 We've got used to living in France. (Nos hemos acostumbrado a vivir en Francia.)
 You'll get used to it. (Os acostumbraréis.)
Lesson 3
motion sickness:
(noun) a feeling of nausea or dizziness caused by being in a moving vehicle such as a ship or
car
She had terrible motion sickness when she was on the boat.
overbook:
(verb) to allow more people to buy tickets, reserve rooms, etc. than are available
Airlines often overbook flights to make sure they are full.
misplace:
(verb) to put something somewhere and then forget its location
He misplaced his passport and could not get on the airplane.
delay:
(verb) to happen later than planned, often used in passive form
My flight was delayed by six hours due to bad weather.
crowded:
(adjective) filled with too many people or things, often without order
The swimming pool was so crowded that there was no space to swim.
strike:
(noun) a period of time when workers stop working to make their employer accept their
demands
There are no trains running all day because of the strike.
contemporary:
(adjective) of the present time
The town hall has a contemporary style.
cosmopolitan:
(adjective) with people from different parts of the world
London is an extremely cosmopolitan city.
picturesque:
(adjective) very pretty; interesting in an old-fashioned way
The mountains are very picturesque.
lively:
(adjective) full of activity
The party was extremely lively.
polluted:
(adjective) dirty or unclean, usually with chemicals or waste
Unfortunately the beach was very polluted.
Usos
El present perfect es un tiempo que indica una relación entre el presente y el pasado.
Se emplea en los siguientes casos:
Cuando el momento en el que se produce la acción no se precisa porque lo más
importante es la acción en sí misma.
Observa las dos frases:
 I phoned him yesterday. (Lo llamé ayer.): simple past
 I've phoned him. (Lo he llamado.): present perfect
Para describir una acción que empezó en el pasado y que todavía continúa en el
presente:
 I have always lived en Liverpool. (Siempre he vivido en Liverpool.)
Con la partícula just para describir una acción que acaba de terminar:
 I have just finished. (Acabo de terminar.)
 He has just called. (Acaba de llamar.)
En inglés americano, el 'simple past' se utiliza en este caso. (ej.: I just finished).
Con las palabras siguientes:

 yet (todavía / hasta ahora)
 ever (alguna vez / nunca)
 lately (últimamente)
 recently (recientemente)
 already (ya)
Ejs.:
 Have you ever been to the USA? (¿Has estado alguna vez en Estados Unidos?)
 Have you already seen that film? (¿Ya has visto esta película?)
 Have they arrived yet? (¿Ya han llegado?)
 I haven't seen him recently. (No lo he visto últimamente.)
Con una palabra o una frase que indica un período de tiempo no terminado:
 this morning (esta mañana)
 this afternoon (esta tarde)
 this evening (esta noche)
 this week (esta semana)
 this month (este mes)
 today (hoy)
 etc.
Ejs.:
 I haven't read the paper today. (No he leído el periódico hoy.) [El día no ha
acabado.]
 We have done a lot of work this afternoon. (Hemos trabajado mucho esta tarde.) [La
tarde no ha acabado.]
For y since
For y since significan generalmente desde (hace) con el 'present perfect'.

 I've worked with this company for ten years. (Trabajo en esta empresa desde
hace diez años.)
 I've worked with this company since 1994. (Trabajo en esta empresa desde el año
1994.)
a. 'For' indica un período de tiempo

For 5 days desde hace cinco días (con el 'present perfect') o durante cinco días [o sólo cinco
días] (con el 'simple past').
For 2 hours desde hace dos horas (con el 'present perfect') o durante dos horas [o sólo dos
horas] (con el 'simple past').
For 3 weeks desde hace tres semanas (con el 'present perfect') o durante tres semanas [o
sólo tres semanas] (con el 'simple past').
 I have worked here for five days.(Trabajo aquí desde hace cinco días.)
 I worked here for five days. (Trabajé aquí durante cinco días.)
b. 'Since' indica una fecha o introduce el momento de inicio de una acción

Significa a partir de este momento y hasta el momento presente.
 He has been here since six o'clock. (Está aquí desde las seis.)
 She's lived in Paris since she was seven. (Vive en París desde los siete años.)
 I've known him since 1995. (Lo conozco desde 1995.)
Ejemplos con el present perfect y el simple past:
 He's played football for 2 years and he loves it. (Juega al fútbol desde hace 2 años,
y le gusta mucho = todavía lo practica.) [present perfect]
 He played football for 2 years and then quit because he hated it. (Jugó al
fútbol durante 2 años y paró porque no le gustaba = ya no juega.)[simple past]
 She has lived in Wales all her life and probably will never move. (Ha vivido en Gales
toda su vida y no se irá probablemente nunca = todavía vive allí.)[present perfect]
 She lived in Wales all her life and insisted on being burried there. (Vivió en Gales
toda su vida e insistió para que la enterraran allí = ha fallecido.)[simple past]
 I've smoked since I was 20 and I plan on stopping soon. (Fumo desde que tengo 20
años y pienso parar = sigo fumando)[present perfect]
 I smoked for two years and then stopped. (Fumé durante dos años y paré = ya no
fumo.)[simple past]
c. Para preguntar cuánto tiempo ha pasado desde que una acción empezó se
utiliza 'how long' (desde cuándo)
 How long have you lived in Madrid? (¿Desde cuándo vives en Madrid ?)
 How long have you been here? (¿Desde cuándo estás aquí?)
 How long did you live in Madrid? (¿Cuánto tiempo has vivido en Madrid?)
Examples:
Was your flight delayed? I thought you would be here at 6:30 p.m. (be)
Have you eaten
at this restaurant before? (you eat)
didn't know
Alice there was going to be a strike that day. (not know)
linking words
Los conectores siguientes se utilizan para unir dos ideas en una frase o para unir dos frases:
Also = también
 I like skiing. I also like windsurfing. (Me gusta esquiar. También me gusta hacer
windsurf.)
Although = aunque
 Although it is more expensive, I prefer to use good quality ingredients. (Aunque sea
más caro, prefiero utilizar ingredientes de buena calidad.)
And = y
 I have two brothers and one sister. (Tengo dos hermanos y una hermana.)
As = mientras / cuando
 As I was walking along the road, I met Daphne. (Cuando iba andando por la calle,
me encontré con Daphne.)
As (sinónimo de since) = ya que / como
 As I know your family, you don't need to leave a security deposit. (Como conozco a
tu familia, no hace falta que dejes una fianza.)
Because = porque
 I drank a cup of tea because I was thirsty. (Bebí una taza de té porque tenía sed.)
Because of = a causa de / por culpa de / por
 Because of the fog, planes couldn't land. (A causa de la niebla, los aviones no
pudieron aterrizar)
But = pero
 Alison likes strawberries but her sister doesn't. (A Alison le gustan las fresas pero a
su hermana no.)
Despite = a pesar de / pese a
 Despite the rain, we went shopping.(A pesar de que estaba lloviendo, nos fuimos de
compras.)
However = sin embargo
 I love travelling, however this year I'm not going abroad as I have little money. (Me
encanta viajar, sin embargo este año no me voy al extranjero porque no tengo mucho
dinero.)
In addition to = además (de)
 They moved out of their (old) house and in addition to this, they changed their
car. (Se han mudado de casa y además, han cambiado de coche.)
In spite of = a pesar de / pese a
 In spite of the rain, the match took place. (A pesar de la lluvia, se jugó el partido.)
Moreover = además
 He is underqualified. Moreover he doesn't speak German. (No está suficientemente
cualificado. Además, no habla alemán.)
Since = puesto que / ya que
 Since they are so rich, why don't they give more to charity? (Ya que son tan ricos,
¿por qué no hacen más donaciones a organizaciones benéficas?)
So = así que
 He wants a better job so he is taking evening classes. (Quiere un trabajo mejor, así
que está yendo a clases por las noches.)
Therefore = por lo tanto
 Profits are down. Therefore we cannot give pay rises this year. (No hemos tenido
beneficios, por lo tanto no podemos dar aumentos este año.)
Too = también
 I like red wine. I like white wine too. (Me gusta el vino tinto. También me gusta el
vino blanco.)
Too va siempre al final de la frase.
Whereas = mientras que
 I am very sporty whereas my brother is a real couch potato. (Yo soy muy aficionado
a los deportes mientras que mi hermano está siempre apalancado en el sofá.)
Lesson 4
fraud:
(noun) the crime of using deceptive methods to take something valuable from someone,
especially money
The jury found the banker guilty of credit card fraud.
embezzlement:
(noun) the crime of stealing money you were trusted with
The jury convicted the businessman of embezzlement after he stole one million pounds
from the company.
burglary:
(noun) a criminal act where a person enters a property without permission and takes things
There was a burglary at the diamond factory last night!
contingency plan:
(noun) a back up strategy for when things go wrong or badly
Do we have a contingency plan in case of bad weather which might delay the delivery?
arson:
(noun) the crime of purposefully setting a fire to a building or other property
The police do not know how the fire began, but they think it was arson.
Say o tell?
En el estilo indirecto, se utiliza normalmente tell con un objeto indirecto. Tell también se

puede utilizar con "about":
tell + objeto indirecto + about
Estilo indirecto: She told them what he said. (Les contó lo que él dijo.)

Estilo indirecto: She told me about her fight with her boss. (Me contó lo de la discusión con su
jefe.)
Say se puede utilizar para informar de algo en general. El verbo say no va seguido de

objeto indirecto:
Estilo indirecto: He said there was something he could do. (Dijo que podía hacer algo.)
Hay algunas expresiones fijas con tell que no van seguidas de objeto indirecto:

 To tell a lie / lies (contar una mentira / mentiras)
 To tell the truth (decir la verdad)
 To tell a story / stories (contar una historia / historias)
 To tell the difference between things (distinguish) (hacer la diferencia entre
cosas - distinguir)
Cambios en Estilo Indirecto
Pronombres y Posesivos
Cuando se informa de lo que alguien ha dicho, los pronombres y posesivos pueden
sufrir cambios.
Estilo directo: Jane: "I'm really enjoying myself!" (" Me estoy divirtiendo mucho.")

Estilo indirecto: Jan said (that) she was really enjoying herself. (Jane dijo que se estaba
divirtiendo mucho.")
Adverbios de tiempo
Los adverbios de tiempo también sufren cambios en estilo indirecto, dependiendo del
momento en que se cuenta lo que alguien ha dicho ya.
Estilo directo: Jane (dice hoy): "I am going to the dentist today". ("Voy a ir al dentista hoy.")
Estilo indirecto: Tom (dirá mañana): Mary said (that) she was going to the
dentist yesterday. (Mary dijo que ayer iba a ir al dentista.)
Cambios más frecuentes:
 now - then/at that time (ahora - entonces/en ese momento)

 today - yesterday/ on + day of the week (hoy - ayer/el + día de la semana)
 yesterday - the day before/ the previous day/ on + day of the week (ayer - el día
anterior/el + día de la semana)
 this week - last week/ that week (esta semana - la semana pasada/esa semana)
 last year - the year before/ the previous year (el año pasado - el año anterior)
 next month - the following month/ in + month (el mes que viene - el mes
siguiente/en + mes)
 an hour ago - an hour before/ an hour earlier/ at + time (hace una hora - una
hora antes/a las + hora)
Concordancia de tiempos
Cuando informarmos de lo que alguien ha dicho o ha pensado, es normal que se

produzcan cambios en los tiempos verbales puesto que estamos hablando en un
momento diferente.
Estilo directo: Jane (el lunes): "I don't like this movie. I want to leave." ("No me gusta la
película. Quiero irme".)
Estilo indirecto: Mary (el martes): Jane said (that) she didn't like the movie and wanted to
leave. (Jane dijo que no le gustaba la película y que quería irse.)
Las oraciones en estilo indirecto van introducidas siempre por un verbo de opinión o de
pensamiento (dijo) y el verbo de la oración principal en estilo directo (quería).
Cambios en los tiempos verbales
simple present - simple past
Estilo directo: Jim: "I am angry." ("Estoy enfadado".)

Estilo indirecto: Jim said (that) he was angry. (Jim dijo que estaba enfadado.)
present continuous - past continuous

Estilo directo: Jim: "I'm going to the theatre." ("Me voy al teatro".)
Estilo indirecto: Jim told me (that) he was going to the theatre. (Jim me dijo que se iba al
teatro.)
present perfect - past perfect
Estilo directo: Jim: "I have been to New York." ("He estado en Nueva York".)
Estilo indirecto: Jim told me (that) he had been to New York. (Jim me contó que había estado
en Nueva York.)
past - past perfect
Estilo directo: Jim: "I went to the theatre Monday night." ("El lunes por la noche fui al teatro".)
Estilo indirecto: Jim told me (that) he had gone to the theatre Monday night. (Jim me dijo que
el lunes por la noche había ido al teatro.)
can - could
Estilo directo: Jim: "I can speak Japanese." ("Yo sé hablar japonés".)

Estilo indirecto: Jim said (that) he could speak Japanese. (Jim dijo que no sabía hablar
japonés.)
will - would
Estilo directo: Jim: "The train will be late." ("El tren llegará con retraso".)
Estilo indirecto: Jim told me (that) the train would be late. (Jim me dijo que el tren llegaría con
retraso.)
may - might
Estilo directo: Jim: "I may arrive early." ("A lo mejor vengo pronto".)

Estilo indirecto: Jim told me (that) he might arrive early. (Jim me dijo que a lo mejor venía
pronto.)
Tiempos verbales sin cambios
En algunos casos, el tiempo verbal en estilo directo no cambia en estilo indirecto:
Cuando el verbo de opinión o de pensamiento en estilo indirecto está en presente
Estilo directo: "It's going to rain." ("Va a llover".)

Estilo indirecto: She says (that) it's going to rain. (Dice que va a llover.)
Cuando el verbo de opinión o de pensamiento en estilo indirecto está en futuro

Estilo directo: "We need help." ("Necesitamos ayuda".)
Estilo indirecto: I will tell her (that) you need help. (Le diré que necesitamos ayuda.)
Cuando el verbo de opinión o de pensamiento en estilo indirecto está en present perfect
Estilo directo: "Taxes will be raised." ("Los impuestos aumentarán.")

Estilo indirecto: The president has said (that) taxes will be raised. (El presidente ha dicho que
los impuestos aumentarán.)
Cuando se utilizan algunos verbos modales (might, ought, would, could, should, must etc)
en estilo directo
Estilo directo: "We could meet for dinner." ("Podríamos quedar para cenar".)

Estilo indirecto: She said (that) we could meet for dinner. (Dijo que podríamos quedar para
cenar.)
Cuando el verbo de la frase en estilo directo está en perfect tenses
Estilo directo: "I came late because I had lost the address." ("Llegué tarde porque había
perdido la dirección".)
Estilo indirecto: He said (that) he had come late because he had lost the address. (Dijo que
había llegado tarde porque había perdido la dirección.)
Preguntas en estilo indirecto
Preguntas cerradas
Para transformar una pregunta cerrada en estilo indirecto, utilizamos if o whether. El
tiempo verbal cambia en función de las reglas que acabamos de estudiar en el apartado
anterior.
El orden de la frase es normalmente: if/whether + sujeto + verbo.
Estilo directo: "Is there a train to London in the afternoon?" ("¿Hay algún tren para Londres por
la tarde?")
Estilo indirecto: She asked if there was a train to London in the afternoon. (Preguntó si había
algún tren para Londres por la tarde.)
;
Estilo directo: "Has the package arrived?" ("¿Ha llegado el paquete?")
Estilo indirecto: He wants to know whether the package has arrived. (Quiere saber si ha
llegado el paquete.)
Who/What/When/Where/How
En preguntas con adverbios y pronombres interrogativos en estilo indirecto, el tiempo verbal
cambia en función de las reglas que acabamos de estudiar en el apartado anterior. En este
caso, el orden de la frase es: sujeto + verbo.
Estilo directo: "Where is the supermarket?" ("¿Dónde está el supermercado?")
Estilo indirecto: I asked him where the supermarket was. (Le pregunté dónde estaba el
supermercado.)
Estilo directo: "What do you need?" ("¿Qué necesitas?")
Estilo indirecto: The store employee asked me what I needed. (El dependiente me preguntó
qué necesitaba.)
El imperativo
La forma del imperativo en estilo directo se convierte en infinitivo en estilo indirecto: tell/ask

+ objeto + to + infinitivo del verbo
Estilo directo: "Please wait outside!" ("Espera fuera, por favor.")
Estilo indirecto: The secretary told him to wait outside. (La secretaria me dijo que esperara
fuera.)
Indirect speech: The police asked the eyewitness what time the fire had started at the
warehouse.
did the fire start
Direct speech: “What time at the warehouse?” the police asked the
eyewitness.
Indirect speech: The magistrate said Mr. Gove had committed fraud and embezzlement.
has commit
Direct speech: “Mr. Gove fraud and embezzlement,” the magistrate said.
Lesson 5
conference:
(noun) a meeting that can be several days long where people talk about different subjects
It will be a two-day conference.
sponsor:
(noun) a business or individual who finances an event in exchange for being promoted
We promised to put the sponsor’s logo above the stage.
rehearsal:
(noun) a practice of an event, such as a concert, speech, play, or wedding, before the real
event takes place
Please come to a rehearsal at the church the day before the wedding.
invitation:
(noun) a document that asks guests to come to an event and gives important details like the
time and place
We need to mail the invitations so our guests can save the date.
schedule:
(noun) a list of times and dates when things will happen
Our schedule says breakfast is at 8:30 a.m.
venue:
(noun) the place where an event happens
Please can you send me the address of the venue for the concert tomorrow?
networking:
(noun) the act of meeting new people and creating contacts
Networking is very important in finding a good job.
attendee:
(noun) the people who are invited to and go to an event
Do we have enough chairs for all the attendees?
speaker:
(noun) a person who makes a speech or gives a presentation at an event
The first speaker will present the new budget at 11:30 a.m., so please be in your seats
at that time.
refreshments:
(noun) what guests eat and drink at an event
We need more refreshments. All the drinks and most of the food have gone already.
introducción
La condición se expresa mediante la partícula if (si en español).

Las oraciones con if se dividen en dos partes:
 Una oración principal
 Una oración subordinada introducida por If.
En inglés, existen cuatro tipos de oraciones condicionales.
Condicional 0
Regla general
Este tipo de condicional parte de la base de una regla general que se confirma en todos los
casos.
El verbo de la oración subordinada se conjuga en simple present, al igual que el de la
oración principal.
 If you press this button the machine stops. (Si pulsas este botón, la máquina se
para.)
En este caso, el significado de if (si) es similar al de when (cuando).
Condicional 1
Posibilidad
El verbo de la oración subordinada aparece en simple present y el de la oración principal
en futuro, o introducido por might o should según el grado de probabilidad.
No importa el orden en el que coloquemos las dos oraciones.
 I'll take the bus home if my car breaks down. (Cogeré el autobús si mi coche se
avería.)
 If he wins the lottery, he'll buy a big house. (Si le toca la lotería, se comprará una
casa grande.)
 If things go well, we should arrive around 8:00. (Si todo va bien, deberíamos
llegar sobre las 8.)
 If the conference turns out to be interesting, we might stay to the end. (Si la
conferencia resulta ser interesante, puede que nos quedemos hasta el final.)
Para los diferentes grados de probabilidad, ver ficha "Expresar los diferentes grados de
probabilidad"
Condicional 2
Hipótesis improbable o de realización poco posible

El verbo de la oración subordinada introducida por if va en 'simple past'.
El verbo de la oración principal se conjuga con "would + infinitivo sin to".
Las oraciones del tipo 2 se forman con "would +infinitivo sin to".
 I would write if I had more time. (Escribiría si tuviese más tiempo.)
 You would get a pay rise if you worked harder. (Tendrías un aumento de sueldo si
trabajases más duro.)
 He would come if he had a car. (Vendría si tuviese coche.)
 They wouldn't accept our offer now even if we made it more attractive. (No
aceptarían nuestra oferta ahora aunque fuera más atractiva.)
 Would she be happier if she worked in another department? (¿Estaría más contenta
si trabajara en otro departamento?)
También se puede emplear might /could en lugar de would.
 If he tried again, he would win. (Si lo intentase de nuevo, ganaría.)
 If he tried again, he might win. (Si lo intentase de nuevo, quizás ganara.)
 If he tried again, he could win. (Si lo intentase de nuevo, podría ganar.)
Usos excepcionales con if.
"If + sujeto + were" se utiliza a menudo en lugar de "if + sujeto + was".
 If she was / were offered a job, she'd take it [Se usan los dos]. (Si le ofreciesen un
empleo, lo aceptaría.)
 If I was / were you, I'd leave [Es más frecuente utilizar were]. (Si estuviese en tu
lugar, me iría.)
If I were you, I should / would... se utiliza para dar consejos.
 If I were you, I'd tell the police. (Si estuviese en tu lugar, se lo contaría a la policía.)
Condicional 3
Realización imposible
El verbo de la oración subordinada introducido por if va en 'past perfect' ("had + participio").
El verbo de la oración principal se forma con "would have + participio".
 If I had known your address, I would have sent you a postcard. (Si hubiese sabido tu
dirección, te habría enviado una postal.)
 I'd have said hello if I'd seen you. (Te habría saludado si te hubiese visto.)
I'd puede ser la contracción de I would o de I had.
También se puede emplear could o might en lugar de would.

 If I had known your address, I might have sent you a postcard. (Si hubiese sabido tu
dirección, podría haberte enviado una postal.)
Had al principio de la frase equivale a if sin cambiar el sentido de la frase (registro formal o
literario).
 Had I known your address, I would have sent you a postcard. (Si hubiese sabido tu
Compara:
 If he wins the lottery, he will buy a big house.

Condicional 1 (Si le toca la lotería, se comprará una casa grande.) [Ganar es posible.]
 If he wins the lottery, he'll be rich. (Si le toca la lotería, se hace rico.) [Es seguro.]
Condicional 2  If he won the lottery, he would buy a big house.

(Si le tocase la lotería, se compraría una casa grande.) [Ganar es poco probable.]
 If he had won the lottery, he would have bought a big house.

Condicional 3 (Si le hubiese tocado la lotería, se habría comprado una casa grande.)
[ Comprar una casa es imposible: o no le
Lesson 6
increase:
(verb) to go up; to rise
The investment increased from 200 to 300 thousand dollars in just five
weeks.
dramatically:
(adverb) in a sudden or remarkable way
The price of laptops has decreased dramatically in the last five years.
global warming:
(noun) a slow world temperature increase due to increased C02 emissions
The ice in the Arctic is melting because of global warming.
overcrowding:
(noun) too many people in one space
There is a lot of overcrowding in the city center.
environment:
(noun) a general situation, atmosphere, place or ecological condition
We need to clean up the world’s environment as there is too much pollution.
sustainable:
(adjective) able to continue or be kept the same over time
Solar energy is a form of sustainable energy.
green:
(adjective) unpolluted or produced in a natural way
The city has a green space where you can walk on the grass and have a
picnic.
telecommute:
(verb) to work at home while connected to the office
In my new job I can telecommute and don’t have to be at the office.
cloud computing:
(noun) using a database stored outside a local server or computer yet accessible from any
computer
The cloud computing network is very extensive and a lot of data can be
stored there.
Introducción
En inglés hay diversas formas de expresar el futuro.
"to be + going to + infinitivo"

Para expresar acciones futuras y planeadas.
 He's going to start a new job next month. (Va a empezar un nuevo trabajo el mes
que viene.)
 We are going to open a new branch in Australia next year.(Vamos a abrir una
nueva sucursal en Australia el año que viene.)
Para expresar certeza o intención respecto a un futuro próximo.
 It's going to be a difficult meeting. (Va a ser una reunión difícil.)

 I'm going to miss the train. (Voy a perder el tren.)
el 'present continuous'
El 'present continuous' se utiliza para expresar acciones futuras que ya se han planeado y
preparado.
 I'm moving to New York next year. (Me voy a vivir a Nueva York el año que viene.)
 I'm flying to Rome tomorrow. (Me voy a Roma en avión mañana.)
Con los verbos que no se pueden usar en tiempos continuos como know / like /
understand, etc. se emplea will / shall para expresar acciones futuras.
 I will know the results tomorrow. I'm knowing the results tomorrow. (Sabré los
resultados mañana.)
el 'simple present'
El 'simple present' en inglés se puede utilizar también para hablar de planes o hechos
previstos en un futuro próximo.
 What time does the meeting finish? (¿A qué hora acaba la reunión?)
 Th Chicago-Madrid flight arrives at 10 o'clock in the morning. (El vuelo Chicago-
Madrid llega a las 10 de la mañana.)
Will
Las construcciones con will no se emplean con mucha frecuencia.
Se emplean sobre todo para expresar acciones espontáneas que hemos decidido en el
momento en el que hablamos (acciones no premeditadas), para hacer predicciones o hablar
de acciones futuras en el lenguaje formal.
a. Para expresar decisiones espontáneas

Se utiliza muy a menudo en lenguaje oral (para hacer propuestas y promesas).
 Can you send me the document as soon as possible? (¿Me puedes mandar el
documento lo antes posible?)
 Yes, I will send it now by fax. (Sí, te lo [mandaré] mando ahora mismo por fax.)
 I will get you some coffee.(Te voy a traer un café.)
 I'll connect you. (Le paso con él / ella.)
 I'll have a steak please but I won't have a dessert. (Pediré un bistec, pero no tomaré
postre.)
b. Para hacer predicciones

 House prices will go up in the future. (El precio de la vivienda aumentará en el
futuro.)
 It will be worth a fortune in a year or two. (Valdrá una fortuna en uno o dos años.)
 I'll probably arrive late. (Puede que llegue tarde.)
c. Para hablar de acciones futuras en el lenguaje formal

Will se utiliza más a menudo en el registro formal (o escrito) y muy poco en el inglés
hablado.
 The President will be in Italy this weekend. (El presidente estará en Italia este fin
de semana.)
 We will release the information next week. (Daremos a conocer la información la
semana que viene.)
Shall I / we?
Shall I? / Shall we? son expresiones que ya no se utilizan con valor de futuro pero sí con
expresiones interrogativas para proponer o sugerir algo.
En español equivalen a una pregunta con el verbo principal en presente.
 Shall I open the window? (¿Abro la ventana?).

 Shall I get you a coffee? (¿Te voy a buscar un café?).
 Shall we start the meeting? (¿Empezamos la reunión?).
Lesson 7
start up:
(phrasal verb) to begin operating or doing something
He started up a food company.
campaign:
(noun) a series of actions designed to achieve a result or change
The campaign to reduce CO2 emissions was unsuccessful.
import:
(verb) to buy goods and services from different countries
American imports XXX liters of grape juice from France per year.
export:
(verb) to sell goods and services from different countries
Canadians export maple syrup to several countries in the world.
specialize:
(verb) to spend a majority of one’s time doing a certain kind of work
George specializes in environmental law.
convince:
(verb) to make someone believe that something is true
He convinced me that it was unhealthy to eat meat.
worldwide:
(adjective) in all places in the world
The company has a worldwide reputation for its financial services.
administration:
(noun) the management or control over a project or job
There’s a lot of administration and paperwork to do at my new job.
paperwork:
(noun) written work that must be done, but is often considered to be not particularly
interesting
I have so much paperwork to do this afternoon.
Introducción
El present perfect continuous se forma con el "present perfect del verbo to be + verbo en
-ing".
Forma afirmativa
 I have been reading French newspapers for ten years. ( Leo los periódicos franceses
desde hace diez años / Hace diez años que leo los periódicos franceses.)
Forma negativa
 He hasn't been driving very long. (No lleva mucho tiempo conduciendo).
Forma interrogativa
 Have you been drinking? (¿Has estado bebiendo?).
¡Cuidado!
Algunos verbos como know / want / like / love / understand / prefer, etc. no tienen
tiempos continuos.
Usos
El present perfect continuous se emplea para indicar una acción que ha empezado en el
pasado y que todavía continúa o que acaba de terminarse en el presente.
Dicha acción se puede expresar con el present perfect o con el present perfect
continuous.
Sin embargo, existe una diferencia entre los dos tiempos.
Observa los siguientes ejemplos:
 I've read the report. (He leído el informe.) (La acción está terminada.)
 I've been reading the report for an hour. (Llevo leyendo este informe una hora.)
 What have you done ? (¿Qué has hecho? - acción terminada)
 What have you been doing ? (¿Qué has estado haciendo?)
 I've written 3 novels since I left university. (He escrito 3 novelas desde que dejé la
universidad.)
En esta frase, lo importante es el resultado ( = 3 novelas acabadas) y no la acción.
Por lo tanto, se emplea la forma simple.
 I've been writing novels since I left university. (He estado escribiendo novelas
desde que dejé la Universidad.)
En esta frase, lo importante es la acción (escribir) y no el hecho de que la acción
haya acabado o no. Por lo tanto, se emplea la forma continua.
También se utiliza el present perfect continuous para indicar que una acción acaba de
realizarse y cuyo resultado es visible.
 I'm out of breath because I've been running. (Me falta la respiración porque he
estado corriendo.)
 The kitchen smells of garlic because she has been cooking. (La cocina huele a ajo
porque ha estado cocinando.)
Lesson 8
manual labor:
(noun) work done by hand
Picking fruit is often done through manual labor.
mass-produced:
(adjective) made in large quantities
Many computers are mass produced in factories in China.
dominate:
(verb) to have control of somebody or something
The market is dominated by one company.
multitask:
(verb) to do more than one thing at a time
My son often multitasks in his free time: He listens to music, surfs the
Internet and does his homework at the same time.
smartphone:
(noun) a mobile phone that contains many functions including Internet services
Smartphones allow you to do many things like talk on the phone and look at
your email.
networking:
(noun) the act of meeting new people and creating contacts
Networking is very important in finding a good job.
nowadays:
(adverb) at this time as compared to the past
Nowadays young people are always on the Internet.
instantly:
(adverb) suddenly or all at once
The Internet instantly changed our lives.
dramatically:
(adverb) in a sudden or remarkable way
The price of laptops has decreased dramatically in the last five years.
Introducción
La voz pasiva hace hincapié en la acción. Indica que el sujeto no realiza la acción del
verbo, sino que la recibe (el sujeto paciente es el único sujeto que no realiza la acción del
verbo).
Forma
Se forma con el verbo "to be + el participio del verbo principal".
Se utiliza:
 My watch was stolen. (Me robaron el reloj.)

 America was discovered in 1492. (América se descubrió en 1492.)
en lugar de:
 Thieves stole my watch. (Unos ladrones me robaron el reloj.)

 Columbus discovered America in 1492. (Colón descubrió América en 1492.)
En la tabla siguiente se presentan las formas correspondientes en voz activa - voz pasiva del
verbo to keep en los tiempos principales.
Voz Activa / Voz Pasiva

Tiempos Voz Activa Voz Pasiva
Simple Present keeps is kept
Present Continuous is keeping is being kept
Simple Past kept was kept
Past Continuous was keeping was being kept
Present Perfect has kept has been kept
Past Perfect had kept had been kept
Future will keep will be kept
Future Perfect will have kept will have been kept
Conditional would keep would be kept
Past Conditional would have kept would have been kept
Present Infinitive to keep to be kept
Past infinitive to have kept to have been kept
Gerund (Present Participle) keeping being kept
Past Gerund having kept having been kept
Usos
a. Se utiliza cuando se desconoce o no interesa mencionar
quién realiza la acción
En español se prefiere utilizar formas con se o verbos en tercera persona del plural (Están
haciendo...,Me robaron..., etc).
En cambio, en inglés la voz pasiva se utiliza tanto en el lenguaje oral como en el escrito.
 Mona Lisa was stolen! (¡Robaron la Mona Lisa!)
b. Cuando es necesario mencionar quién realiza la

acción, se añade "by + complemento agente"
 A mechanical failure caused the crash. (Un fallo mecánico causó el accidente.)
 The crash was caused by a mechanical failure. (El accidente fue causado por un
fallo mecánico.)
c. En inglés existen expresiones pasivas como:

it is/was said/believed that... , he is/was said/believed to... , she is/was said/believed to...
 It is said that the company is losing a lot of money. (Se dice que la empresa está
perdiendo mucho dinero.)
 He is believed to be the richest man in Europe. (Se dice que es el hombre más rico
de Europa.)
 Einstein was said to be the greatest genius of his age. (Se decía que Einstein era el
genio más grande de su época.)
Lesson 9
crossroads:
(noun) a decisive point; a turning point, often when a decision needs to be made
I’ve reached a crossroads in my life and I don’t know what to do.
pass on:
(verb) to communicate information to another person
She passed on the message to her colleague.
urge:
(verb) to strongly try to get someone to do something
He urged her to change her mind.
warn:
(verb) to tell (someone) about possible danger
The company warned us there would be job cuts.
encourage:
(verb) to make someone want to do something; to tell them to do something
You should try to encourage every person in the meeting to give their
opinion.
advise:
(verb) to offer an opinion, to give helpful information
He advised her to bring waterproof clothing on her ski vacation.
Introducción
La obligación se expresa con must y have to.
Forma
a. Must
Must es una forma invariable que tiene valor de presente y de futuro.
 Forma afirmativa: I must, he must, etc.

 Forma negativa: I mustn't, he mustn't, etc.
 Forma interrogativa: Must I? Must he?, etc.
b. Have to
Have to se conjuga como el verbo to have en todos los tiempos.
 Forma afirmativa: I have to, he has to, etc.

 Forma negativa: I don't have to, he doesn't have to, etc.
 Forma interrogativa: Do I have to ?, Does he have to ?, etc.
Usos
a. La obligación
En la forma afirmativa e interrogativa hay poca diferencia entre must y have to.
Must indica a menudo una obligación que procede del hablante, mientras que have to suele
ser más objetiva y general.
 What time will we have to be there? (¿A qué hora tendremos que estar allí?)
 What time must we be there?(¿A qué hora debemos / tenemos que estar allí?)
 You have to fill in your tax return form by 25th March. (Tienes que rellenar tu
declaración de impuestos antes del 25 de marzo.)
Have got to sólo puede sustituir a have to en el 'simple past'. Para enfatizar se utiliza got.
 You've got to be there half an hour before boarding.(Tienes que estar allí media
hora antes del embarque.)
b. La ausencia de obligación
La ausencia de obligación se expresa con not have to.
 You don't have to read this document. It's not very important. (No tienes que leer
este documento. No es muy importante.)
 You don't have to wear a suit and tie. (No tienes que llevar traje y corbata.)
 She doesn't have to enroll until next autumn. (No tiene que matricularse hasta el
próximo otoño.)
 We won't have to pay much tax. (No tendremos que pagar muchos impuestos.)
En registro muy formal y británico, se puede usar "needn't + infinitivo sin to" para
expresar la falta de obligación.
 She needn't enroll until next autumn. (No es necesario que se matricule hasta el
próximo otoño.)
Needn't es una forma invariable que puede indicar presente o futuro.
c. La prohibición
Se indica prohibición con must not y cannot.
 You mustn't read this document. It's top secret. (No debes leer este documento. Es
altamente confidencial.)
 You mustn't smoke in the warehouse. (No debes fumar en el almacén.)
 We can't take that street: it's one way. (No podemos coger esta calle: es de sentido
único.)
 You can't exceed 50 kilometres per hour in a built-up area. (No puedes sobrepasar
los 50 kilómetros por hora en zona urbana.)
Forma
El verbo modal should es invariable.
Forma afirmativa Forma negativa Forma interrogativa

I should, I should not / I shouldn't, Should I?
he should He should not / He shouldn't Should he?
etc. etc. etc.
Should se utiliza con el infinitivo sin to.
Ought to + infinitivo se puede intercambiar con should y se utiliza sobre todo en

oraciones afirmativas.
Usos
Should se utiliza para dar consejos.
 You should see a doctor if the pain persists. (Deberías ir al médico si el dolor
persiste.) = You ought to see a doctor.
 You shouldn't eat a big meal before going swimming. (No deberías comer mucho
antes de ir a nadar.)
Should se utiliza muy a menudo con I think.
 I think we should stay at home. (Creo que deberíamos quedarnos en casa.)
En pasado se utiliza "should have + participio" para hablar de lo que deberíamos haber
hecho.
 We should have checked with the post office before complaining to them that the
package hadn't arrived. (Deberíamos haberlo consultado en la oficina de correos
antes de quejarnos porque el paquete no había llegado.)
 You shouldn't have spent so much money on my present. (No deberíais haberte
gastado tanto dinero en mi regalo.)
También se utiliza had better / 'd better para dar consejos.
 You'd better tell your father. (Será mejor / más vale que se lo digas a tu padre.)
 You'd better not forget your notes for the lecture. (Será mejor / más vale que no
olvides tus notas para la conferencia.)
Otras expresiones para dar consejos o

recomendar algo
 If I were you, I would...(Yo en tu lugar...)
 Why don't you...? (¿Por qué no...?)
 You must see his latest show. (Tienes que ver su último espectáculo.) [Aquí, no se
trata de obligación sino de una fuerte recomendación.]
 You've got to visit Venice. (Tienes que ir a Venecia.)
Lesson 10
energetic:
(adjective) having energy and determination
He is a very energetic worker and gets a lot done.
organized:
(adjective) able to arrange things in a systematic way or keep things clear
To complete this big project, we will have to be organized.
autonomous:
(adjective) independent or not controlled by others
He is very autonomous; he doesn’t need our help.
driven:
(adjective) goal-oriented and able to do things with energy
The businessman was driven to succeed.
social:
(adjective) getting along well with others and in a society
She is such a social butterfly.
dedicated:
(adjective) working and caring about something intensely because of its importance in
one’s life
He is dedicated to human rights issues.
reliable:
(adjective) known for performing tasks in the correct way and, as such, trusted to do so;
the opposite is unreliable
I would be surprised if her work was late. She is normally very reliable.
practical:
(adjective) engaged with or related to real situations rather than ideas, emotions, or
knowledge only
You have to be practical to be an accountant.
monosílabos
Estos adjetivos forman el comparativo y el superlativo añadiendo er y est.
cheap (barato) cheaper comparativo the cheapest superlativo
long (largo) longer comparativo the longest superlativo
 His car is faster than mine. (Su coche es más rápido que el mío.)
bisílabos o con más sílabas

De manera general, van precedidos de los adverbios more (comparativo) y de the most
(superlativo).
careful (prudente) more careful comparativo the most careful superlativo
modern (moderno) more modern comparativo the most modern superlativo

comfortable (confortable) more comfortable the most comfortable
superlativo
comparativo
the most interesting
interesting (interesante) more interesting comparativo
superlativo
 Their office building is more modern than ours. (Sus oficinas son más modernas
que las nuestras.)
Excepciones
Los adjetivos que terminan en y cambian la y por la i, formando así ier y iest .
early (pronto) earlier comparativo the earliest superlativo
easy (fácil) easier comparativo the easiest superlativo
 This exercise is easier than that one. (Este ejercicio es más fácil que ése.)
Formas irregulares del comparativo
Adjetivo Comparativo Superlativo Adjetivo Comparativo Superlativo

bad
worse the worst
good (malo)
better the best
(bueno) far
further / farther the furthest / farthest
(lejos)
 That's the worst presentation I've ever seen. (Es la peor presentación que he visto
nunca.)
Lesson 11
I believe:
(expression) a way to say a belief or
I believe the government is doing a good job.
it seems to me:
(expression) a way to express a feeling about something
It seems to me that there are too many rules and regulations.
as far as I am concerned:
(expression) a way to give your personal view about something
As far as I am concerned, it’s a good idea.
from my point of view:
(expression) a way to give your personal perspective
From my point of view, the decision was a good one.
after all:
(expression) a way to emphasize an argument
After all, the plan has been working.
I would argue that:
(expression) a way to argue your personal opinion
I would argue that we need to raise taxes.
on one hand; on the other hand:
(expression) a way to give two sides of an argument
On the one it’s good for the environment, on the other hand it’s very expensive.
if you ask me:
(expression) to give your personal opinion
If you ask me, it's a good idea.
En presente
La probabilidad se expresa con will, must, should, may, could, might, can't y won't.

Se utiliza uno u otro modal en función del grado de certeza del hecho en concreto.
A continuación se ilustra el nivel de probabilidad de cada verbo modal.
The train will arrive on time. (El tren llegará puntual.)
The train must arrive on time. (El tren debe llegar puntual.)
The train should arrive on time. (El tren debería llegar puntual.)
The train may arrive on time. (Puede que el tren llegue puntual.)
The train could arrive on time. (El tren podría llegar puntual.)
The train might arrive on time. (Es posible que el tren llegue puntual.)
The train can't arrive on time. (El tren no puede llegar puntual.)
The train won't arrive on time. (El tren no llegará puntual.)
Cada verbo modal expresa una cierta probabilidad.

Con will es seguro en un 100% y con won't hay un 0% de probabilidad de que el hecho se
produzca.
 My aunt may retire to Spain. (Puede que mi tía se vaya a vivir a España cuando se
jubile.)
 The renovation work should be finished by July. (Las obras de
remodelación deberían estar acabadas antes de julio.)
 They won't agree to our request. (No aceptarán nuestra petición.)
 Sammy might be late today due to the strike. (Puede que Sammy llegue tarde hoy
debido a la huelga.)
 The new premises will open in January 2010. (Los nuevos locales se abrirán en
enero de 2010.)
 William could be made redundant in the downsizing of the
company. (William podría ser despedido por los recortes de la plantilla en la empresa.)
Can't y must son mucho más subjetivos que todos los otros modales en el contexto de
probabilidad.
En pasado
De la misma manera, estos verbos se utilizan cuando se analiza el pasado y cuando se dan
razones o explicaciones sobre una acción o situación del pasado.
Los verbos expresan el mismo nivel de probabilidad, pero en un tiempo pasado.
Se utiliza el "verbo modal + have + participio".
 Ruppert wasn't at the meeting. He may have overslept. (... Puede que se haya
quedado dormido.)
 Maisie could have phoned while I was out. (Puede que Maisie haya llamado
mientras yo no estaba.)
 Christine might have lost my phone number. I'd better try phoning her. (Puede
que Christine haya perdido mi número de teléfono. Debería llamarla...)
 Christine must have switched off her cell phone and can't have got my
message. (Christine debe de haber apagado su móvil y no puede recibir mi mensaje.)
 He'll have received the package by now. (Ya debe de haber recibido el paquete.)
 He won't have seen the contract yet. (Todavía no debe de haber visto el contrato.)
Lesson 12
qualified:
(adjective) having the necessary skill, requirements or training to do something effectively
He is highly qualified for the job.
capable:
(adjective) able to do something; having the skill or power to do something
This machine is capable of going twice as fast as the previous model.
aspire:
(verb) to hope or dream to achieve something
She aspired to be a successful actress.
career:
(noun) a person's long-term profession or job
He began a career in law.
internship:
(noun) a job taken to learn a profession or trade, often unpaid
He began an internship at the bank.
Introducción

Condicional 0
Regla general
casos.
oración principal.
para.)
Condicional 1
Posibilidad
avería.)
casa grande.)
probabilidad"
Condicional 2

lugar, me iría.)
Condicional 3

Had al principio de la frase equivale a if sin cambiar el sentido de la frase (registro
formal o literario).
Compara:

 If he wins the lottery, he'll be rich. (Si le toca la lotería, se hace rico.) [Es s
(Si le tocase la lotería, se compraría una casa grande.) [Ganar es poco probable

[ Comprar una casa es imposible: o no le ha tocado o ni siquiera ha jugado.]
Lesson 13
run late:
(expression) progressing slower than expected
I slept through my alarm this morning, and now I’m running late.
commute:
(verb) to travel to and from work
Jane commutes three hours every day.
telecommute:
(verb) to work at home while connected to the office
In my new job I can telecommute and don’t have to be at the office.
carpool:
(verb) to travel to work by car with at least one more person to share the costs
I carpool to work with my two neighbors.
suburb:
(noun) the area where people live in houses
She moved to the suburbs last year.
delay:
traffic jam:
(noun) when vehicles on the road are not moving or are moving very slowly
Liam was late to the party because of a terrible traffic jam.
subway:
(noun) an underground train network in a major city
I take the subway because it’s fast, and there is a stop close to my house.
bicycle lane:
(noun) a part of the road that is reserved specifically for cyclists
I feel much safer riding my bike in the bicycle lane.
high occupancy vehicle (HOV) lane:
(noun) a part of the road reserved at certain times for cars carrying two or more people
There’s always less traffic in the HOV lane.
highway:
(noun) a type of road on which you can regularly travel at the maximum legal speed limit over
long distances
When I work in the main office, I have to take the highway to work.
Forma
El verbo modal should es invariable.
Forma afirmativa Forma negativa Forma interrogativa
I should, I should not / I shouldn't, Should I?

he should He should not / He shouldn't Should he?
etc. etc. etc.
Should se utiliza con el infinitivo sin to.
Ought to + infinitivo se puede intercambiar con should y se utiliza sobre todo en oraciones
afirmativas.
Usos
Should se utiliza para dar consejos.

 You should see a doctor if the pain persists. (Deberías ir al médico si el dolor
persiste.) = You ought to see a doctor.
 You shouldn't eat a big meal before going swimming. (No deberías comer mucho
antes de ir a nadar.)
Should se utiliza muy a menudo con I think.
 I think we should stay at home. (Creo que deberíamos quedarnos en casa.)
En pasado se utiliza "should have + participio" para hablar de lo que deberíamos haber
hecho.
 We should have checked with the post office before complaining to them that the
package hadn't arrived. (Deberíamos haberlo consultado en la oficina de correos antes
de quejarnos porque el paquete no había llegado.)
 You shouldn't have spent so much money on my present. (No deberíais haberte
gastado tanto dinero en mi regalo.)
También se utiliza had better / 'd better para dar consejos.
 You'd better tell your father. (Será mejor / más vale que se lo digas a tu padre.)
 You'd better not forget your notes for the lecture. (Será mejor / más vale que no
olvides tus notas para la conferencia.)
Otras expresiones para dar consejos o recomendar algo
 If I were you, I would...(Yo en tu lugar...)

 Why don't you...? (¿Por qué no...?)
 You must see his latest show. (Tienes que ver su último espectáculo.) [Aquí, no se
trata de obligación sino de una fuerte recomendación.]
 You've got to visit Venice. (Tienes que ir a Venecia.)
Lesson 14
reservation:
(noun; AmE) an arrangement (hotel room, table, ticket, etc) saved for a person’s future use
Hello Sir. Welcome to The Holten Hotel. Do you have a reservation?
confirmation number:
(noun) the number used to identify a booking
Tell the receptionist your confirmation number when you arrive at the hotel.
check in:
(verb) to go to the reception desk of a hotel, to give them your personal information and get
your room key
Hello, my name is Mr. Smith. I would like to check in, please.
fill in:
(phrasal verb) to complete a document with information
Can you please fill in this form, Sir?
overbook:
(verb) to allow more people to buy tickets, reserve rooms, etc. than are available
Airlines often overbook flights to make sure they are full.
additional charge:
(noun; AmE) an extra payment
Luke and Lola had to pay an additional charge for a bed for their daughter.
supplemental charge:
(noun; BrE) an extra payment
Luke and Lola had to pay a supplemental charge for a bed for their daughter.
key card:
(noun) a small plastic card used instead of a key to enter a hotel room
I think I have lost my key card. Now I can’t get into my room.
room rate:
(noun) the price of a hotel room
This hotel looks expensive. What’s the room rate?
continental breakfast:
(noun) breakfast, usually including bread with butter and jam, and tea or coffee
Mike only stays in hotels where he can get a continental breakfast.
wake-up call:
(noun) a pre-arranged telephone call from reception to wake up a guest
I need a wake-up call for 5:30 a.m., please.
Can y could son los verbos modales más frecuentes para pedir algo de manera educada.
 Can you fax that for me please? (¿Por favor, me puedes mandar esto por fax?)
 Could you lend me some money? (¿Podrías prestarme dinero?)
Could es la forma educada. Can es una forma más directa.
Otras expresiones para pedir algo
 Would you mind closing the door? (¿Le importaría cerrar la puerta?)

 Do you think you could possibly...? (¿Piensas que podrías...?)
LESSON 15
sight:
(noun) a famous or interesting thing to see
I saw all the sights when I was in New York.
commercial area:
(noun) the area where there are businesses and shops
He works in the commercial center of Glasgow.
suburb:
(noun) the area where people live in houses
She moved to the suburbs last year.
coast:
(noun) the land next to the sea or ocean
I love going to the coast when it’s hot.
countryside:
(noun) land that is away from big cities or towns
They went to the countryside on the weekend.
Notes:
In = en
Imaginary country
 I live in Paris. (Vivo en París.)
 I live in France. (Vivo en Francia.)
 I stayed in a luxury hotel. (Me hospedé en un hotel de lujo.)
 He put his mobile phone in the drawer. (Puso su teléfono móvil en el cajón.)
 The details are in the report. (Los detalles están en el informe.)
 in the middle (en el medio.)
 in the e-mail (en el email.)
 in my mind (en mi mente.)
 in my opinion (en mi opinión, a mi juicio.)
At = en
Concret, material, place
 at the company (en la empresa)

 at the hospital (en el hospital)
 at the restaurant (en el restaurante)
 at home / work / school (en casa / en el trabajo / en el colegio)
 at the airport (en el aeropuerto)
 at the station (en la estación)
 at (the) reception (en la recepción)
On = en / encima de
 on the corner of
 on the table (en /encima de la mesa)
 on the shelf (en la estantería)
 on the boat (en el barco)
 on the plane (en el avión)
 on the train (en el tren) (la preposición 'on' se utiliza con todos los vehículos excepto
con car: "in the car")
 on the beach (en la playa)
 on TV (en la televisión)
 on the first floor (en el primer piso)
 on the ground floor (en la planta baja)
 on the label (en la etiqueta)
 on the web (en la página web)
 on the left (a la izquierda)
 on the right (a la derecha)
 on the menu (en el menú)
 on the one hand... on the other hand... (por un lado... por otro lado...)
 on the contrary (por el contrario)
 on the phone (al teléfono)
Situation
I: "Excuse me, I'm looking for Liberation Street. Do you know where it is?"
W: take the first street on your left, called Trophy Street; keep going straight until you reach the second stree
There you will find Liberation Street."
I: "Thank you very much!"
Rules
Locating something
 It is to the left ¹ to the right of the newspaper stand.
 The newspaper is on ¹ under the bench.
 The book is in front of ¹ behind you.
 It is in front of ¹ behind you!
 I found myself in the middle of / in the centre of / at the heart of the frenzied
crowd.
 He lives between Bristol and Bath.
 I work in front of the post office.
 The market is beside / next to the cathedral.
 He is seated near / far from me.
 We are finally here!
 The chemist is over there!
 At the bottom of ¹ at the top of the street, you will find a bank.
 I am inside ¹ outside of the house.
Giving directions
 You take the street / the first on the right / the motorway / the direction toward...
 Go straight.
 Continue until the train station.
 Turn right.
 Walk about 200 metres in the direction of the theatre.
 Walk along the quayside of the Thames.
 Go in the direction of Birmingham.
 Cross the river / the bridge...
 Stay on the same road.
 You pass a big grey building...
 Go in the direction of Leicester.
 You will arrive at a traffic light / at an intersection / a village square / at a dead end.
 Take the Circle Line until you reach Euston Square.
 Transfer to the Piccadilly Line at Green Park.
 Get off at Notting Hill Gate.
Asking for directions
 Where is the post office?

 Where are the public toilets?
 Where is the police station?
 I'm looking for the public pool.
 I can't find the bakery; can you help me?
 Where can I find a florist?
 I don't remember where I parked my car.
 What did I do with my umbrella?
Lesson 16
meticulous:
(adjective) very careful with lots of detail
Joseph is a meticulous worker and checks everything he does.
articulate:
(adjective) able to express ideas effectively and clearly
Sophie hates giving presentations. She wishes she were more articulate.
conscientious:
(adjective) careful about doing work correctly
You need be more conscientious and make your deadlines.
diplomatic:
(adjective) not causing bad feelings and dealing with others politely and fairly
Daisy tries to be a diplomatic manager, even in stressful situations.
reliable:
(adjective) known for performing tasks in the correct way and, as such, trusted to do so; the
opposite is unreliable
I would be surprised if her work was late. She is normally very reliable.
motivated:
(adjective) wanting to succeed
The team is motivated to reach its sales goals. They get $1000 for it!
industrious:
(adjective) hard-working
Rachel is an industrious employee and gets a lot done every day.
outspoken:
(adjective) talking in an honest, open and direct way about ideas or opinions to the point of
being offensive at times
I like Sophia, but she can be quite outspoken in meetings sometimes.
dishonest:
(adjective) doing or saying things that are not true
Don’t leave your cell phone in here. We have some dishonest employees in the
building.
insecure:
(adjective) not confident; uncomfortable and nervous
Arthur felt very insecure when he received the negative feedback about his project.
smug:
(adjective) acting self-satisfied or pleased with your own achievements
Rebecca has been a little smug since she got her promotion.
narrow-minded:
(adjective) not open to accepting other people’s beliefs, ideas or opinions if they are different to
your own
Noah doesn’t listen to what others have to say. He is really quite narrow-minded.
conceited:
(adjective) showing or having too much respect for yourself to the point of thinking you are
better than others
I have never met anyone as conceited as Richard before in my life. He’s really in love
with himself!
inexperienced:
(adjective) lacking knowledge or skill for doing something
Eva was too inexperienced for the job and couldn’t do the tasks involved.
Usos
Cuando queremos hacer hincapié sobre la intensidad de un adjetivo podemos

añadir very (muy, mucho).
 It's cold today. - It's very cold today. (Hoy hace frío. Hoy hace mucho frío.)
 That's a smart jacket you're wearing. - That's a very smart jacket you're
wearing. (Llevas una chaqueta elegante. Llevas una chaqueta muy elegante).
Con ciertos adjetivos, no se puede utilizar very puesto que contienen ya la idea de muy /
mucho / muchísimo.
 Freezing = very cold (muy / mucho / muchísimo frío)
 Amazing = very surprising (muy sorprendente / impresionante.)
En este caso, si queremos hacer hincapié en la intensidad hay que añadir absolutely y
no very.
 It was absolutely freezing this morning when I left the house. (Hacía muchísimo frío
esta mañana cuando salí de casa.)
 I found the story of the prisoners' escape absolutely amazing. (La historia de la fuga
del preso me pareció verdaderamente extraordinaria)
A continuación tienes algunos ejemplos de adjetivos con los cuales es necesario
utilizar absolutely (o totally, completely, etc.) y su definición.
La mayoría de estos ejemplos en español se pueden traducir también con la forma del
superlativo -ísimo.
Adjetivo Definición
boiling Very hot (hirviendo - muy caliente)

deafening Very loud (ensordecedor - muy alto)
fabulous Very good (fabuloso - muy bueno)
filthy Very dirty (asqueroso - muy sucio)
spotless Very clean (inmaculado - muy limpio)
disgusting Very bad/unpleasant (asqueroso - muy desagradable)
idiotic Very stupid (idiota - muy estúpido)
appalled Very shocked (horrorizado - muy conmocionado)
gorgeous Very pretty/handsome/beautiful (estupendo - muy bonito/guapo)
excruciating Very painful (atroz - muy doloroso)
exorbitant Very expensive (exorbitante - muy caro)
delicious Very tasty (delicioso - muy bueno)
ridiculous Very silly/unreasonable (ridículo - muy tonto)
furious Very angry (furioso - muy enfadado)
fascinating Very interesting (fascinante - muy interesante)
delighted Very pleased (encantado - muy contento)
Lesson 17
ever:
(adverb) at any time, often used in questions and negative sentences
Have you ever been to Mexico?
before:
(adverb) earlier than a point in time
Please arrive before 10:00 a.m.
never:
(adverb) not at any time
I have never been to Thailand.
yet:
(adverb) used in questions and negative sentences to mean at a specific time in the present or
past
I haven’t sent the email yet, but I will this afternoon.
recently:
(adverb) in the past, but a very short time ago
He is on vacation so I haven’t spoken to him recently.
lately:
(adverb) in the past, but not a long time ago
I have been very busy at work, so I haven’t done any exercise lately.
already:
(adverb) done a short time ago (often used for something that does not need to be done again)
I have already made lunch. It’s in the fridge.
windsurfing:
(noun) a sport that entails traveling across the sea on a board with a sail and long narrow
board
They live near the sea and go windsurfing every weekend.
hiking:
(noun) a sport that involves walking long distances, often in nature
She likes hiking in the mountains when she goes on holiday.
wild boar:
(noun) a type of pig that is not kept by humans but lives in forests
When we were walking through the forest, we saw three wild boars.
manual:
(noun) a book or leaflet that explains how to use something, normally a piece of technology
I don’t understand how to use my new phone. I need to read the manual.
abroad:
(adjective) in a country that is not your home country always stay in Sweden. This year I want
to go abroad for my summer vacation.
repair:
(verb) to fix something that is broken or damaged
The heel on my shoe is broken. Can you repair it?
Cuando el momento en el que se produce la acción no se precisa porque lo más importante es
la acción en sí misma.
Para describir una acción que empezó en el pasado y que todavía continúa en el presente:

 already (ya)
Ejs.:
 today (hoy)
 etc.
Ejs.:
acabado.]
For y since

hace diez años.)
1994.)


fumo.)[simple past]
c. Para preguntar cuánto tiempo ha pasado desde que una acción empezó se utiliza 'how
long' (desde cuándo)
LESSON 18
grow up:
(phrasal verb) to make the physical and psychological change from being a child to being
an adult
I grew up in New York. Then when I was 21 I moved to Boston.
be born:
(verb) to come into the world as a baby out of a mother’s body
I was born in St George’s Hospital in London.
move:
(verb) to leave your home to live in a new one
We moved to the countryside because there are too many people in the city.
advance:
(verb) to move forward
To advance your language skills, you should revise new vocabulary.
get a raise:
(noun; AmE) to increase the amount of money that you earn from a job
I got a raise last week, so now we can buy a new TV.
affordable:
(adjective) a price that you can easily pay; not expensive
I would love to buy this handbag, but it’s just not affordable for me.
Usos
Cuando el momento en el que se produce la acción no se precisa porque lo más importante

es la acción en sí misma.



 already (ya)
Ejs.:

 today (hoy)
 etc.
Ejs.:
acabado.]
 We have done a lot of work this afternoon. (Hemos trabajado mucho esta tarde.)
[La tarde no ha acabado.]
For y since
 I've worked with this company for ten years. (Trabajo en esta empresa desde hace
diez años.)
1994.)

For 5 days desde hace cinco días (con el 'present perfect') o durante cinco días [o sólo
cinco días] (con el 'simple past').
b. 'Since' indica una fecha o introduce el momento de

inicio de una acción
 He played football for 2 years and then quit because he hated it. (Jugó al fútbol
durante 2 años y paró porque no le gustaba = ya no juega.)[simple past]
 She has lived in Wales all her life and probably will never move. (Ha vivido en
Gales toda su vida y no se irá probablemente nunca = todavía vive allí.)[present
perfect]
fumo.)[simple past]
c. Para preguntar cuánto tiempo ha pasado desde que

una acción empezó se utiliza 'how long' (desde cuándo)
Lesson 19
advertise:
(verb) to tell the public about something, often a product that is being sold, in order to make
them want to buy it
The company advertised the January sales in the newspaper and online.
produce:
(verb) to make
This factory produces cars.
negotiate:
(verb) to discuss something in a formal way so that you can make an agreement
I negotiated for more vacation and a bigger office during my last job review.
supply:
(verb) to provide something that is wanted or needed for someone or something
You will need to supply your own pens and paper for the meeting.
deal with (something or someone):
(phrasal verb) to make a business arrangement with something or someone
I have often dealt with Ashley, and she is very professional.
golf club:
(noun) a stick used to hit a ball in the game of golf
Susie gave Damien a set of golf clubs for his birthday.
golf course:
(noun) a large area of land specifically for playing the game of golf
Do you want to go to the golf course this weekend?
driving range:
(noun) an area where people practice hitting golf balls
If you want to speak to Carl, you can find him at the driving range.
for:
(preposition) used to indicate an amount of time
I’ve been playing golf professionally for nearly five years.
since:
(preposition) used to indicate a point in time when something began
I’ve been playing golf professionally since I was 25 years old.
Introducción
El present perfect continuous se forma con el "present perfect del verbo to be + verbo en
-ing".
Forma afirmativa
 I have been reading French newspapers for ten years. ( Leo los periódicos
franceses desde hace diez años / Hace diez años que leo los periódicos franceses.)
Forma negativa
 He hasn't been driving very long. (No lleva mucho tiempo conduciendo).
Forma interrogativa
 Have you been drinking? (¿Has estado bebiendo?).
¡Cuidado!
Algunos verbos como know / want / like / love / understand / prefer, etc. no tienen tiempos
continuos.
Usos
El present perfect continuous se emplea para indicar una acción que ha empezado en el
pasado y que todavía continúa o que acaba de terminarse en el presente.
Dicha acción se puede expresar con el present perfect o con el present perfect continuous.
Sin embargo, existe una diferencia entre los dos tiempos.
Observa los siguientes ejemplos:
 I've read the report. (He leído el informe.) (La acción está terminada.)
 I've been reading the report for an hour. (Llevo leyendo este informe una hora.)
 What have you done ? (¿Qué has hecho? - acción terminada)
 What have you been doing ? (¿Qué has estado haciendo?)
 I've written 3 novels since I left university. (He escrito 3 novelas desde que dejé la
universidad.)
En esta frase, lo importante es el resultado ( = 3 novelas acabadas) y no la acción.
Por lo tanto, se emplea la forma simple.
 I've been writing novels since I left university. (He estado escribiendo novelas desde
que dejé la Universidad.)
En esta frase, lo importante es la acción (escribir) y no el hecho de que la acción haya
acabado o no. Por lo tanto, se emplea la forma continua.
También se utiliza el present perfect continuous para indicar que una acción acaba de
realizarse y cuyo resultado es visible.
 I'm out of breath because I've been running. (Me falta la respiración porque he
estado corriendo.)
 The kitchen smells of garlic because she has been cooking. (La cocina huele a ajo
porque ha estado cocinando.)
Examples:
-Until Ben moved, he

practiced
golf at his local driving range every weekend for nearly ten years.
-The Royal Chocolate Company

made
chocolate and candy for more than 50 years, but sadly the company
closed last year.
- I
have had
this car for nearly ten years, and it’s never broken down before!
Lesson 20
donate:
(verb) to give money, food and other things to help an organization or a person
He donates €500 to charity every month.
invest:
(verb) to attempt to use money to make more money
She invested in the stock market and made a lot of money.
shame:
(noun) a situation that is unfortunate or depressing
It’s a shame that it’s raining, I wanted to go to the beach.
spa:
(noun) a place where people go to relax and improve their health
They were feeling very stressed, so they went away to a spa for the weekend.
replacement:
(noun) a person or thing that takes the place of someone or something else
Jess will be my replacement while I am out of the office.
oyster:
(noun) a type of shellfish, often eaten with lemon
I will have the oysters cooked with butter and garlic, please.
Introducción

Condicional 0
If simple present, present simple
Regla general
casos.
oración principal.
para.)
Condicional 1
If present simple, will present simple
Posibilidad
avería.)
casa grande.)
probabilidad"
Condicional 2
 Would present simple, If past simple

lugar, me iría.)
Condicional 3
Would have participio, if had participio


Had al principio de la frase equivale a if sin cambiar el sentido de la frase (registro formal o
literario).
Compara:
 If he wins the lottery, he'll be rich. (Si le toca la lotería, se hace rico.) [Es seguro.]

(Si le tocase la lotería, se compraría una casa grande.) [Ganar es poco probable.]

[ Comprar una casa es imposible: o no le ha tocado o ni siquiera ha jugado.]
Lesson 21
window seat:
(noun) the seat next to the wall and window on a bus, airplane or train
I love to sit in the window seat so I can look at the landscape outside.
aisle seat:
(noun) the seat next to the passageway in an airplane
Would you prefer a window or an aisle seat?
middle seat:
(noun) the seat in between two other seats on a bus, airplane or train
If you sit in the middle seat, the kids can go on either side of you.
bulkhead:
(noun) a seated part of an airplane that has a wall rather than another seat in front
I’d like a bulkhead seat because I like to stretch my legs out.
wing:
(noun) one of two parts of an airplane that sticks out horizontally from the main body and
provides lift, allowing the airplane to fly
There are so many clouds that I can’t see the end of the wing.
agency:
(noun) a company that provides a service or product
She booked her tickets through a travel agency.
discount:
(noun) a reduction on the price
I had to buy it; he offered me a discount of 30 percent!
e-ticket:
(noun) an electronic document that allows you to move through the airport and travel on a
plane
I have an e-ticket for my flight so I can show it on my phone.
scheduled:
(adjective) organized with a specific date and time in mind
The flight is scheduled to depart at 5:00 a.m. on Monday.
go through:
(phrasal verb) to pass under or from one side to the other
We always try to go through the airport as quickly as possible.
Expresar deseo
La expresión más utilizada en inglés para expresar un deseo es: I would like = I'd like,
seguida de:
un objeto directo:
 I'd like a cup of tea. (Quisiera una taza de té.)
una forma infinitiva:
 I'd like to meet them at the conference. (Me gustaría conocerles en la conferencia.)
un objeto indirecto seguido de una forma infinitiva:
 I'd like you to call them now. (Quisiera que los llamaras ahora.)
Expresar preferencia
Dos expresiones importantes que se utilizan para hablar de preferencias son:

 I would rather = I'd rather
 I would prefer = I'd prefer
"Would you like some tea or coffee with those cookies?"
 I would rather have tea than coffee. (Preferiría tomar un té en vez de un café.)
 I would prefer tea to coffee (Preferiría un té en vez de un café.)
"What do you think, shall we go skiing or diving for our next vacation?"
 I'd rather go skiing than diving. (Preferiría esquiar en vez de bucear.)
 I'd prefer skiing to diving. (Preferiría el esquí en vez del buceo.)
Todos estos ejemplos se refieren a contextos específicos; se utilizan sobre todo en respuestas
a preguntas que incluyen una elección.
Cuando hablamos de preferencias en general, se utiliza prefer sin would o like better.
 I prefer tea to coffee. (Prefiero tomar té que café [me gusta más]).
 I like skiing better than diving. (Me gusta más esquiar que bucear.)
 A seat over the wing vocabulary
Lesson 22
pick (something) up:
(phrasal verb) to collect; to acquire
You can pick the car up at 9:00 a.m. and drive anywhere you want to.
drop (something) off:
(phrasal verb) to deliver
Customers can drop their cars off here after they have used them.
fleet:
(noun) a group of vehicles
All the taxis in our fleet are new and modern.
sedan:
(noun) a closed car which usually has five seats
Most small families choose sedans, not sports cars.
coupe:
(noun) a closed car with two doors
I was driving alone, so I picked a small coupe.
 She went into the agency to
pick up
the keys.
 I rented the car downtown, but I plan to
drop it off
at the airport.

collision damage waiver (CDW):
(noun) optional insurance which covers a rented vehicle
I’m a very safe driver, so I don’t need the CDW.
supplemental liability insurance (SLI):
(noun) optional vehicle insurance which covers claims by other people
I don’t want to owe anybody money if I have an accident, so I’ll take the SLI.
mileage:
(noun) the number of miles a vehicle travels
If you rent this car, you get unlimited mileage.
manual transmission:
(noun) a stick shift that allows the driver to change gears
To change gears with a manual transmission, push the pedal on the left, and move the
stick.
automatic transmission:
(noun) a system for changing gears that functions with no effort from the driver
Most American cars have automatic transmission and therefore, only two pedals.
air conditioning:
(noun) a system used to cool a building, room or car
We don’t need a car with air conditioning; it’s winter!
This is a very expensive car. Are you sure you don’t want the
 collision damage waiver, in case you damage it?
I never learned to drive a stick shift. Can I please have a car with
 automatic transmission?
It’s a long drive; make sure to rent a car with unlimited

 mileage, so you don’t have to pay extra later.
I’m very sorry about your car, the accident was my fault. But don’t worry, I have
 supplemental liability insurance that will cover your repair costs.
Lesson 23
reduce:
(verb) to make something smaller in size, quantity, value, etc.
The salesman reduced the price from $350 to $250.
increase:
(verb) to go up; to rise
The investment increased from 200 to 300 thousand dollars in just five weeks.
drop:
(noun) a small amount of liquid that has a round shape
Add a few drops of olive oil, and your meal is ready to eat.
target:
(noun) a goal or objective you want to reach
Our target is 50 new customers a day.
reputation:
(noun) the common idea that other people have of someone or something
Don’t use that airline company. They have a very bad reputation.
commission:
(noun) money paid to an employee based on the value of business done
The salesman gets a 15% commission on each computer he sells.
Introducción
La obligación se expresa con must y have to.
Forma
a. Must
Must es una forma invariable que tiene valor de presente y de futuro.
 Forma afirmativa: I must, he must, etc.
 Forma negativa: I mustn't, he mustn't, etc.
 Forma interrogativa: Must I? Must he?, etc.
b. Have to
Have to se conjuga como el verbo to have en todos los tiempos.
 Forma afirmativa: I have to, he has to, etc.
 Forma negativa: I don't have to, he doesn't have to, etc.
 Forma interrogativa: Do I have to ?, Does he have to ?, etc.
Usos
a. La obligación
En la forma afirmativa e interrogativa hay poca diferencia entre must y have to.
Must indica a menudo una obligación que procede del hablante, mientras que have to suele
ser más objetiva y general.
 What time will we have to be there? (¿A qué hora tendremos que estar allí?)
 What time must we be there?(¿A qué hora debemos / tenemos que estar allí?)
 You have to fill in your tax return form by 25th March. (Tienes que rellenar
tu declaración de impuestos antes del 25 de marzo.)
Have got to sólo puede sustituir a have to en el 'simple past'. Para enfatizar se utiliza got.
 You've got to be there half an hour before boarding.(Tienes que estar allí media
hora antes del embarque.)
b. La ausencia de obligación
La ausencia de obligación se expresa con not have to.
 You don't have to read this document. It's not very important. (No tienes que leer
este documento. No es muy importante.)
 You don't have to wear a suit and tie. (No tienes que llevar traje y corbata.)
 She doesn't have to enroll until next autumn. (No tiene que matricularse hasta el
próximo otoño.)
 We won't have to pay much tax. (No tendremos que pagar muchos impuestos.)
En registro muy formal y británico, se puede usar "needn't + infinitivo sin to" para expresar la
falta de obligación.
 She needn't enroll until next autumn. (No es necesario que se matricule hasta el
próximo otoño.)
Needn't es una forma invariable que puede indicar presente o futuro.
c. La prohibición
Se indica prohibición con must not y cannot.
 You mustn't read this document. It's top secret. (No debes leer este documento. Es
altamente confidencial.)
 You mustn't smoke in the warehouse. (No debes fumar en el almacén.)
 We can't take that street: it's one way. (No podemos coger esta calle: es de sentido
único.)
 You can't exceed 50 kilometres per hour in a built-up area. (No puedes sobrepasar
los 50 kilómetros por hora en zona urbana.)
En presente
La probabilidad se expresa con will, must, should, may, could, might, can't y won't.

Se utiliza uno u otro modal en función del grado de certeza del hecho en concreto.
A continuación se ilustra el nivel de probabilidad de cada verbo modal.
The train will arrive on time. (El tren llegará puntual.)
The train must arrive on time. (El tren debe llegar puntual.)
The train should arrive on time. (El tren debería llegar puntual.)
The train may arrive on time. (Puede que el tren llegue puntual.)
The train could arrive on time. (El tren podría llegar puntual.)
The train might arrive on time. (Es posible que el tren llegue puntual.)
The train can't arrive on time. (El tren no puede llegar puntual.)
The train won't arrive on time. (El tren no llegará puntual.)
Cada verbo modal expresa una cierta probabilidad.

Con will es seguro en un 100% y con won't hay un 0% de probabilidad de que el hecho se
produzca.
 My aunt may retire to Spain. (Puede que mi tía se vaya a vivir a España cuando se
jubile.)
 The renovation work should be finished by July. (Las obras de
remodelación deberían estar acabadas antes de julio.)
 They won't agree to our request. (No aceptarán nuestra petición.)
 Sammy might be late today due to the strike. (Puede que Sammy llegue tarde hoy
debido a la huelga.)
 The new premises will open in January 2010. (Los nuevos locales se abrirán en
enero de 2010.)
 William could be made redundant in the downsizing of the
company. (William podría ser despedido por los recortes de la plantilla en la empresa.)
Can't y must son mucho más subjetivos que todos los otros modales en el contexto de
probabilidad.
En pasado
De la misma manera, estos verbos se utilizan cuando se analiza el pasado y cuando se dan
razones o explicaciones sobre una acción o situación del pasado.
Los verbos expresan el mismo nivel de probabilidad, pero en un tiempo pasado.
Se utiliza el "verbo modal + have + participio".
 Ruppert wasn't at the meeting. He may have overslept. (... Puede que se haya
quedado dormido.)
 Maisie could have phoned while I was out. (Puede que Maisie haya llamado
mientras yo no estaba.)
 Christine might have lost my phone number. I'd better try phoning her. (Puede
que Christine haya perdido mi número de teléfono. Debería llamarla...)
 Christine must have switched off her cell phone and can't have got my
message. (Christine debe de haber apagado su móvil y no puede recibir mi mensaje.)
 He'll have received the package by now. (Ya debe de haber recibido el paquete.)
 He won't have seen the contract yet. (Todavía no debe de haber visto el contrato.)
Lesson 24
safari:
(noun) a trip to see wild animals in their natural habitat, often in Africa
Harry saw a lot of elephants when he was on safari in Kenya.
cruise:
(noun) a trip on a large ship that visits numerous destinations over a few days or weeks
The ship we stayed on during the cruise was enormous.
long weekend away:
(noun) a vacation taken over three or four days, two of which are Saturday and Sunday
Next Friday, I am going for a long weekend away.
all-inclusive vacation:
(noun) a package that is paid for before you travel and includes flights, accommodation, drinks
and food
We have already paid for our all-inclusive vacation, so we won’t need a lot of cash
when we are there.
backpacking:
(noun) traveling for an extended period carrying your possessions in a backpack
Which countries did you go to when you were backpacking?
honeymoon:
(noun) a vacation taken by a couple who have recently gotten married
The day after their wedding they went to Thailand for their honeymoon.
road trip:
(noun) a long journey taken in a car
She is going on a road trip with a friend down the Pacific Coast Highway in California.
Cuando el momento en el que se produce la acción no se precisa porque lo más importante es
la acción en sí misma.

 already (ya)
Ejs.:
 today (hoy)
 etc.
Ejs.:
acabado.]
For y since

hace diez años.)
1994.)

fumo.)[simple past]
c. Para preguntar cuánto tiempo ha pasado desde que una acción empezó se utiliza 'how
long' (desde cuándo)
Lesson 25
the great outdoors:
(noun) the world outside, often used to refer to being far away from other people and
buildings
Welcome to the great outdoors! There are no stores or houses around for miles.
trip:
(noun) the act of making a journey to a place and returning, usually for pleasure
We took a short trip to Wales and went on lots of walks.
bucket:
(noun) an open container for carrying liquids that has a handle
One bucket of paint should be enough for the whole wall.
kettle:
(noun) a container for heating water
Please put the kettle on. I need a cup of tea.
strike:
(noun) a period of time when employees stop working to make their employer accept their
demands
There are no trains running all day because of the strike.
paperwork:
(noun) routine work such as writing emails or reports
I have so much paperwork to do, I’m going to be here until midnight!
goods:
(noun) products
The goods will arrive at the factory tomorrow morning.
bake:
(verb) to make food by putting it in an oven
Sara baked a cake for Oliver’s birthday.
build:
(verb) to create or make something, which is normally large or complex
We have all of the parts, now we are going to build a computer.
promote:
(verb) to change someone’s position to a more important or a higher one
Daniel promoted Lucy, as she was the more experienced employee.
fire:
(verb) to make someone leave their job
The company fired him for poor sales.
delay:
Lesson 26
reputation:
(noun) the common idea that other people have of someone or something
Don’t use that airline company. They have a very bad reputation.
koala:
(noun) an Australian animal that is gray, bear-like, has big ears and lives in trees
Koalas climb trees and eat leaves most of the day.
kangaroo:
(noun) a large Australian animal with a long thick tail that jumps high and has a pocket to put
its baby in
Kangaroos have very strong back legs, big back feet and a long tail.
a bite to eat:
(idiom) a small meal
If you’re hungry, we can find a café and have a quick bite to eat.
urgent:
(adjective) very important; in need of attention immediately
Can you please tell the hotel manager that this situation is urgent and we need help
right now?
fetch:
(verb) to go after something and then bring it back
Can you fetch me a glass of water, please?
rent:
(verb) to pay to use something
When I’m on vacation, I sometimes rent a car.
book:
(verb) to reserve or arrange for the use of something
I’m going to book a table at the new Thai restaurant tonight.
dock:
(verb) to bring a boat or a ship to land
The ship will dock in Cannes, France.
feasible:
(adjective) possible or likely to work, often a plan or idea
It’s perfectly feasible to seek more funding after the project has been launched.
Introducción
En inglés hay diversas formas de expresar el futuro.
"to be + going to + infinitivo"
Para expresar acciones futuras y planeadas.

 He's going to start a new job next month. (Va a empezar un nuevo trabajo el mes
que viene.)
 We are going to open a new branch in Australia next year.(Vamos a abrir una nueva
sucursal en Australia el año que viene.)
Para expresar certeza o intención respecto a un futuro próximo.
 It's going to be a difficult meeting. (Va a ser una reunión difícil.)
 I'm going to miss the train. (Voy a perder el tren.)
el 'present continuous'
El 'present continuous' se utiliza para expresar acciones futuras que ya se han planeado y
preparado.
 I'm moving to New York next year. (Me voy a vivir a Nueva York el año que viene.)
 I'm flying to Rome tomorrow. (Me voy a Roma en avión mañana.)
Con los verbos que no se pueden usar en tiempos continuos como know / like /
understand, etc. se emplea will / shall para expresar acciones futuras.
 I will know the results tomorrow. I'm knowing the results tomorrow. (Sabré los
resultados mañana.)
el 'simple present'
El 'simple present' en inglés se puede utilizar también para hablar de planes o hechos
previstos en un futuro próximo.
 What time does the meeting finish? (¿A qué hora acaba la reunión?)
 Th Chicago-Madrid flight arrives at 10 o'clock in the morning. (El vuelo Chicago-
Madrid llega a las 10 de la mañana.)
Will
Las construcciones con will no se emplean con mucha frecuencia.

Se emplean sobre todo para expresar acciones espontáneas que hemos decidido en el
momento en el que hablamos (acciones no premeditadas), para hacer predicciones o hablar
de acciones futuras en el lenguaje formal.
a. Para expresar decisiones espontáneas

Se utiliza muy a menudo en lenguaje oral (para hacer propuestas y promesas).
 Can you send me the document as soon as possible? (¿Me puedes mandar el
documento lo antes posible?)
 Yes, I will send it now by fax. (Sí, te lo [mandaré] mando ahora mismo por fax.)
 I will get you some coffee.(Te voy a traer un café.)
 I'll connect you. (Le paso con él / ella.)
 I'll have a steak please but I won't have a dessert. (Pediré un bistec, pero no
tomaré postre.)
b. Para hacer predicciones

 House prices will go up in the future. (El precio de la vivienda aumentará en el
futuro.)
 It will be worth a fortune in a year or two. (Valdrá una fortuna en uno o dos años.)
 I'll probably arrive late. (Puede que llegue tarde.)
c. Para hablar de acciones futuras en el lenguaje formal

Will se utiliza más a menudo en el registro formal (o escrito) y muy poco en el inglés hablado.
 The President will be in Italy this weekend. (El presidente estará en Italia este fin de
semana.)
 We will release the information next week. (Daremos a conocer la información la
semana que viene.)
Shall I / we?
Shall I? / Shall we? son expresiones que ya no se utilizan con valor de futuro pero sí con
expresiones interrogativas para proponer o sugerir algo.
En español equivalen a una pregunta con el verbo principal en presente.
 Shall I open the window? (¿Abro la ventana?).
 Shall I get you a coffee? (¿Te voy a buscar un café?).
 Shall we start the meeting? (¿Empezamos la reunión?).
Lesson
27
loan:
(noun)
something,
often money, which is given on the condition that it will be returned at a later date
I would like a loan of $5000, please, to be paid back over five years.
security:
(noun) valuable property that is promised to someone in case you cannot give them money
owed
Do you have any security to support your request for a loan?
mortgage:
(noun) money from a bank used to buy property that will be paid back with interest over
time
I took out a mortgage for my house to help me buy it.
repay:
(verb) to pay back money that you got from someone
Can you repay the money by the end of the week?
bankrupt:
(adjective) unable to pay money owed
Richard’s gambling problem has left him bankrupt.
be worth:
(verb) to have a certain value
This piano is worth $7000.
owe:
(verb) to have to pay for a service or object you have already used or bought
I bought a sofa in January and have paid for most of it but still owe $100.
borrow:
(verb) to take something from someone, on the understanding that it will be returned
Please can I borrow your pen? I’ll give it back in a minute.
lend:
(verb) to give something to someone, on the understanding that it will be returned
Could you lend me $5, please?
manage:
(verb) to have the ability to deal with a difficult or challenging situation
He managed to find a job, even though it took six months.
genuine:
(adjective) true, honest and real
We trust her because she seems so genuine.
owner:
(noun) the person who legally possesses something
The owner of this house doesn’t want to sell it.
guarantee:
(verb) to officially promise that something will be done; to promise to take responsibility for
someone else’s debt
I guarantee your package will arrive within three days.
Introducción
Las "questions tags" son preguntas cortas que se añaden al final de una frase. En español
equivalen a las expresiones ¿no? o ¿verdad?.
Se forman con el verbo auxiliar correspondiente a la construcción, es decir, con el verbo
auxiliar que utilizaríamos para transformar la frase en una oración interrogativa.
En una frase afirmativa se utiliza una "question tag" negativa.
En una frase negativa se utiliza una "question tag" afirmativa.
En cualquier caso, el sujeto y el tiempo verbal no cambian.
Frase Question tag

Joanna likes dancing. Joanna likes dancing, doesn't she?
Likes es la tercera persona de singular del presente de indicativo. Como la frase es afirmativa, la 'question tag' deb
El auxiliar correspondiente es does. negativa.
Por lo tanto, la "question tag" es doesn't she?
 Henry doesn't like me, does he? (A Henry no le caigo bien, ¿verdad? )

 Augusta lived in Cornwall during the war, didn't she? (Augusta vivía en Cornwall
durante la guerra, ¿no?)
 You haven't lost it, have you? (No lo has perdido, ¿verdad?)
 She won't tell him, will she? (No se lo dirá, ¿verdad?)
 They would be very angry, wouldn't they? (Estarán muy enfadados, ¿no?)
 We must tell the police, mustn't we? (Debemos decírselo a la policía, ¿no?)
forma imperativa
Detrás de la forma imperativa se utiliza 'will you':

 Open the door, will you? (Abre la puerta, ¿quieres?)
 Pass me that file, will you? (Pásame el archivo, ¿quieres? )
Let's
Detrás de Let's se utiliza "shall we".

 Let's go to the cinema, shall we? (¿[Qué os parece si ] vamos al cine?)
 Let's stop now for lunch, shall we? (Hacemos un descanso para comer, ¿no?)
Entonación
El significado de la frase puede cambiar según el tono que empleamos.

Para comprobar si un dato es correcto la entonación es ascendente en la "question tag".
 You're Norwegian, aren't you?
(Eres noruego, ¿no?) [No estoy seguro.]
Si estamos seguros de lo que decimos y esperamos que nuestro interlocutor esté de acuerdo,
la entonación es descendente en la "question tag".
 The weather in Greece is nicer than in Finland, isn't it?
(El tiempo en Grecia es mejor que en Finlandia, ¿no?)
Lesson 28
delay:
divert:
(verb) to change the direction of something, often used in passive form
The plane was diverted from New York City to New Jersey because of the storm.
bump up:
(phrasal verb) to move someone or something to a higher position or level, often used in
passive form
I was bumped up to first class once, because the flight was full.
impeccable:
(adjective) without any errors
Arolla Flights guarantees impeccable service, so they are expensive.
punctually:
(adverb) doing something at the planned or expected time
Make sure you arrive at the airport punctually, or you might miss your flight.
urgently:
(adverb) needing attention immediately; very important
Could Joseph Frey come to the front of the plane urgently, please? We need him right
away.
customs:
(noun) the place at an airport where officers look for things people are trying to bring into
a country illegally
It took a long time to clear customs when we went to Australia, because they check
everyone’s bags carefully.
immigration:
(noun) the area of an airport where a government agent checks the passports and visas of
the visitors to a country
The officer at immigration asked Chloe a lot of questions about what she was going
to do in London.
chaos:
(noun) a state of disorder and confusion, in which there is a lack of control
All the flights were canceled, so the airport was complete chaos.
legroom:
(noun) the space for your legs where you are sitting
I am very tall, so I need a lot of legroom.
honeymoon:
(noun) a vacation taken by a couple who have recently gotten married
The day after their wedding they went to Thailand for their honeymoon.
in-flight meal:
(noun) the food given by an airline company on an airplane
I always bring my own food on airplanes, as I think the in-flight meals are
disgusting.
cabin crew:
(noun) the people on an airplane whose job it is to look after the passengers
The cabin crew for Arolla Flights are always very professional.
interrogativa.
Usos

hoguera.)
hablando con Tom.)
teléfono sonó.)
También lo utilizamos para describir una acción en su desarrollo en un momento concreto del
pasado.
Se utiliza para presentar dos acciones que se desarrollan simultáneamente en el pasado y
que van unidas por la conjunción while.
Lesson 29
garden:
(verb) to work in an area to grow plants and flowers
I like gardening. Now the flowers look beautiful.
knit:
(verb) to make clothes from yarn using long needles
She is knitting the new baby a green sweater.
peel:
(verb) to come off in pieces
The paint is peeling off the front door.
jog:
(verb) to run slowly
The man jogged around the park.
study:
(verb) to learn about a subject by reading, learning facts or going to school or university
She studies for the law exam all the time.
Forma

interrogativa.
Usos

hoguera.)
hablando con Tom.)
teléfono sonó.)
También lo utilizamos para describir una acción en su desarrollo en un momento concreto del
pasado.
Se utiliza para presentar dos acciones que se desarrollan simultáneamente en el pasado y
que van unidas por la conjunción while.
Lesson 30
appreciate:
(verb) to be grateful for something
I really appreciate all the help you have given me.
contemplate:
(verb) to reflect or think deeply about something
I am contemplating changing my job.
endure:
(verb) to last for some time in difficult or adverse conditions
I endured great difficulties in my youth.
avoid:
(verb) to prevent from happening; stay away from
You should avoid driving in the rain.
discuss:
(verb) to speak about a topic with other people
Let’s start by discussing our new office space plan.
reiterate:
(verb) to repeat something, often to emphasize a point
I must reiterate the point that we cannot hire any new people.
interrupt:
(verb) to interject or stop something in progress
I hope you don’t mind me interrupting your meeting.
evolve:
(verb) to change or develop over time
The situation has been evolving for some time now.
work out:
(phrasal verb) to do sport or exercise
Do you always work out at the gym?
Introducción
El gerundio se forma a partir de un verbo en infinitivo sin "to + -ing" (opening, understanding,
enjoying...).
Usos
a. Como sujeto de un verbo

 Swimming is a very popular sport. (Nadar es un deporte muy popular.)
 Attending meetings and making presentations are some of her activities. (Asistir
a reuniones y hacer presentaciones son algunas de sus actividades.)
 Not acting now would be disastrous. (No actuar ahora sería un desastre.)
El gerundio se utiliza mucho con las actividades de ocio y tiempo libre y con los deportes:
 horse-riding = la equitación
 sailing = la vela
 fencing = el esgrima
 knitting = calcetar
 reading = la lectura
 watching TV = ver la tele
b. Después de una preposición

 I had difficulty (in) finding a house. (He tenido dificultades para encontrar piso.)
 He insisted on seeing me. (Insistió en verme.)
 We look forward to hearing from you. (Esperamos tener noticias suyas pronto.)
 He left without paying. (Se fue sin pagar.)
 Speak to me before making a decision. (Habla conmigo antes de tomar una
decisión.)
c. Después de ciertos verbos y expresiones

Admit - avoid - can't help - can't stand - carry on - consider - deny - detest - enjoy - finish - give
up - have difficulty - involve - justify - keep on - mind - put off - risk
 He admitted breaking the rules. (Admitió haber incumplido las reglas.)

 I don't mind flying economy class. (No me importa viajar en clase turista.)
 That'll involve cutting costs drastically. (Esto supondrá una reducción drástica de los
costes.)
 How can you justify hiring more staff. (¿Cómo puedes justificar el (hecho de)
contratar más personal?)
d. -ing precedido de un adjetivo posesivo

Como la forma -ing también puede funcionar como sustantivo, se puede utilizar con adjetivos
posesivos (con frecuencia en el registro formal).
 This will contribute to their understanding of the situation. (Esto contribuirá a
que entiendan la situación.)
 I appreciate your coming to meet me. (Aprecio que vengas a verme.)
 If you'll excuse my leaving early... (Si no les importa, tengo que irme pronto...)
En el lenguaje coloquial, el adjetivo posesivo se sustituye por el pronombre personal de
complemento.
 Would you mind me coming a bit later? (¿Te importa si vengo más tarde?)
e. Después de ciertos verbos se puede utilizar el gerundio o el infinitivo

Ver ficha Verbos seguidos de infinitivo o gerundio

Ingles Medicina Ciclo 2

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INGLES MEDICINA CICLO 2

El past continuous se forma con el auxiliar "was - were + verbo + -ing".

El past continuous se utiliza mucho en las descripciones.

 When I

him I

"To be used to + verbo + -ing" = estar acostumbrado a + verbo.

Con las palabras siguientes:

For y since significan generalmente desde (hace) con el 'present perfect'.

a. 'For' indica un período de tiempo

b. 'Since' indica una fecha o introduce el momento de inicio de una acción

Have you eaten

at this restaurant before? (you eat)

Alice there was going to be a strike that day. (not know)

Too va siempre al final de la frase.

En el estilo indirecto, se utiliza normalmente tell con un objeto indirecto. Tell también se

Estilo indirecto: She told them what he said. (Les contó lo que él dijo.)

Say se puede utilizar para informar de algo en general. El verbo say no va seguido de

Hay algunas expresiones fijas con tell que no van seguidas de objeto indirecto:

Cambios en Estilo Indirecto

Estilo directo: Jane: "I'm really enjoying myself!" (" Me estoy divirtiendo mucho.")

Cambios más frecuentes:

 now - then/at that time (ahora - entonces/en ese momento)

Cuando informarmos de lo que alguien ha dicho o ha pensado, es normal que se

Cambios en los tiempos verbales

simple present - simple past

Estilo directo: Jim: "I am angry." ("Estoy enfadado".)

present continuous - past continuous

present perfect - past perfect

past - past perfect

Estilo directo: Jim: "I can speak Japanese." ("Yo sé hablar japonés".)

Estilo directo: Jim: "I may arrive early." ("A lo mejor vengo pronto".)

Tiempos verbales sin cambios

En algunos casos, el tiempo verbal en estilo directo no cambia en estilo indirecto:

Cuando el verbo de opinión o de pensamiento en estilo indirecto está en presente

Estilo directo: "It's going to rain." ("Va a llover".)

Cuando el verbo de opinión o de pensamiento en estilo indirecto está en futuro

Cuando el verbo de opinión o de pensamiento en estilo indirecto está en present perfect

Estilo directo: "Taxes will be raised." ("Los impuestos aumentarán.")

Estilo directo: "We could meet for dinner." ("Podríamos quedar para cenar".)

Cuando el verbo de la frase en estilo directo está en perfect tenses

Preguntas en estilo indirecto

La forma del imperativo en estilo directo se convierte en infinitivo en estilo indirecto: tell/ask

La condición se expresa mediante la partícula if (si en español).

Hipótesis improbable o de realización poco posible

I'd puede ser la contracción de I would o de I had.

También se puede emplear could o might en lugar de would.

 If he wins the lottery, he will buy a big house.

Condicional 2  If he won the lottery, he would buy a big house.

 If he had won the lottery, he would have bought a big house.

"to be + going to + infinitivo"

Para expresar certeza o intención respecto a un futuro próximo.

 It's going to be a difficult meeting. (Va a ser una reunión difícil.)

a. Para expresar decisiones espontáneas

b. Para hacer predicciones

c. Para hablar de acciones futuras en el lenguaje formal

 Shall I open the window? (¿Abro la ventana?).

Sin embargo, existe una diferencia entre los dos tiempos.

Observa los siguientes ejemplos:

 My watch was stolen. (Me robaron el reloj.)

 Thieves stole my watch. (Unos ladrones me robaron el reloj.)

Voz Activa / Voz Pasiva

Present Continuous is keeping is being kept

Simple Past kept was kept