Factors Influencing Automotive Application
of High Strength Steels
c. L. Magee, R. G. Davies and P. Beardmore
Ford Motor Company
Dearborn, Michigan
SUMMARY
The most extensive materials substitution program in
automotive history-from mild steel to high-strength steel
-is currently well underway. The major technical issues af-
fect almost all aspects of vehicle design and production,
and this transition involves changing essential character-
istics of the major car input material, sheet steel. This paper
discusses the recent past, and future potential for high-
strength, low-alloy steel applications in vehicles, including
metallurgical changes responsible for changes in charac-
teristics, material availability, and approximate relative
cost. Implications of changed material properties and trade
offs in the key sheet steel fabrication processes (forming
and spot welding), as well as effects of HSLA steel use on
vehicle design, particularly crush, mechanical durability,
and rigidity, are also discussed. The major issues with
respect to vehicle design are to delineate the materials
which can be used in all components, and the associated
weight reduction achieved in applications. At present, the
primary factors deterring rapid implementation of HSLA
steels are material availability and sheet metal forming.
INTRODUCTION
The most rapid materials substitution ever-the replace-
ment of mild steels with high-strength low-alloy (HSLA)
steels-is now occurring in automotive products. The im-
pact of HSLA steels technology upon car designs has only
begun to be felt, and the extent of the applications will have
considerable impact on car design and production.
HSLA steels were first used in U.S. vehicles around 1972,
in limited engine mount applications. In 1974, bumper re-
inforcements were produced from HSLA steels, and their
use for various other parts is expected to steadily increase.
The history of HSLA steels in automotive applications is
shown in Table I. The relative rapidity of this technological
Table I: HSLA Steel Automotive Applications
1972 Engine mounts
1974 Bumper reinforcements (50 ksi)
Side-door beams
1976 Bumper facebars (50 ksi)
Side-door beams (140 ksi)
Exterior panels (40 ksi)
1978 Body structural parts (40 ksi)
Wheels, suspension arms (80 ksi)
Frame members (50ksi)
1980 Redesigned structural (80 ksi)
1984 Vehicle-wide application (60-140ksi)
28
change (Figure 1) is due to favorable cost/ weight results
and relatively small impact on manufacturing methods and
facilities. As stronger steels are applied, there is even greater
potential (Figure 2) for weight reduction in automobiles.
The change, however, is not achieved simply. Proper use
of HSLA steels will require improved design methodology,
improved stamping and assembly techniques, and significant
increases in material and process/ quality control in steel
and automotive plants.
MICROSTRUCTURAL FEATURES OF HSLA STEELS
Strengthening mechanisms used to obtain a particular
combination of strength and ductility result from specific
processes which can limit the gage availability and, there-
fore, the potential for HSLA steels application. The basic
metallurgical strengthening mechanisms operative in
HSLA steels are solid-solution strengthening, grain size
refinement, precipitation hardening, cold work, and marten-
sitic hardening.' A particular type of HSLA steel may use
one or more of these.
Solid-Solution Strengthening
Although most alloying elements are added to HSLA
steels for structure control (grain size, transformation, and
precipitation), they can also contribute to strength by being
in solid solution.' Although the most potent strengtheners
are the interstitial elements C and N, their limited solubility
in ferrite and their propensity for forming carbide and nitride
compounds generally minimizes their solid-solution strength-
ening effects. An exception is nitrogenized steels which are
processed to maximize the amount of nitrogen in solid solu-
tion. These age at room temperature quite readily after
temper rolling to remove the yield point, and thus have only
a finite "shelf life"; as they age there is an increase in yield
strength and a decrease in ductility (formability). However,
all rimmed steels age, and so the primary strengthening dif-
ference for nitrogenized steels arises from solution hardening.
Of the substitutional alloying elements found in HSLA
steels, only Si and P are added primarily for solid solution
strengthening. Si contents up to about 0.5%, and P up to
0.1% can be found in some steels. Manganese, which is used
in amounts up to 1.5% to control the austenite-to-ferrite
transformation, contributes somewhat to solid-solution
strengthening. Elements such as V, Ti, and Nb contribute
very little to solid solution strengthening; as they are es-
sentially tied up in the form of carbides or carbonitrides.!
Grain Size Refinement
Most HSLA steels have as fine a grain size as possible; the
finer the grain size the stronger the steel. 3 In hot- rolled
gages (> 1.8 mm [0.07 in.] ) fine grain size is achieved by
finish-rolling at a relatively low temperature, thus limiting
grain growth in the austenite, and by adding alloying ele-
ments that inhibit austenite grain growth. Ti and Nb can
JOURNAL OF METALS • November, 1980
form carbides in the austenite which retard grain boundary
motion, while V inhibits grain growth even in the absence of
a precipitate. In addition, low coiling temperatures can
minimize final grain size of the ferrite although most grain-
refinement is austenite-imposed. In cold-rolled gages « 1.8
mm), grain refinement is achieved primarily by recrystal-
lizing at as low a temperature as possible. Because grain
refinement techniques tend to increase recrystallization
temperatures, and, consequently, are not fully effective in
cold-rolled-and -annealed products, these HSLA steels are
not generally as fine-grained as hot-rolled HSLA steels.

Precipitation Hardening
The microalloying elements V, Nb, and Ti are added to
500..---------------------. HSLA steels primarily to form a very fine distribution of
carbides or carbonitrides.! Although carbides formed in the
austenite can contribute to strengthening, it results primarily
from the very fine carbide network produced by the austenite-
400 to-ferrite transformation- which takes place in the coiler at
the end of the hot-rolling line. Since desired carbide distribu-
tion is produced only over a limited temperature range, it is
en
m
","'- necessary to control the temperature of the steel as it enters
..J 300 / the coiler, Carbides and carbonitrides are not stable at the
/ temperatures at which cold-rolled steels are normally re-
/ .",,---
crystallized; at these temperatures the carbides grow very
",
/' large and do not contribute significantly to strength.
200
Cold Work
A very economical means of increasing the strength of
steel is cold working; however, this strengthening is obtained
100
at a great sacrifice in ductility. A compromise between
strength and ductility is achieved by annealing at a low
temperature so that the steel does not fully recrystallize.
Plain-carbon steels which contain about 0.4% Mn and 0.1%
1960 1970 1980 C are obtainable at tensile strength levels up to about 70
YEAR ksi. Steels that contain about 0.2% Ti, which retards re-
crystallization, can be obtained at strength levels of from 100-
140 ksi, depending on annealing temperature."
Figure 1. Overall rate of application of plastics and HSLA
steels In autcmobltes. Transformation Hardening
Martensite has a structure resembling cold-worked steel,
and contains a supersaturated amount of C in solid solu-
tion. Thus, even low-carbon martensite (1"'oJ 0.1%C) is very
strong (1"'oJ 180ksi V.T.S.), but has quite limited ductility. Low
formability therefore limits applications for fully martensitic
steels.
Recently,"? it has been shown that steels consisting of a
mixture of ferrite and martensite (the dual-phase steels) have
I the best combination of strength and ductility. These steels
_ 150 I are produced by heating into the intercritical region, and
tI)
~ I then cooling at a rate that will give the desired structure.
Strength is essentially controlled by the percentage of mar-
~
/ tensite in the structure. Optimum ductility is obtained when
....J: I
C)
z WEIGHT the ferrite is very fine grained and essentially interstitial
LIJ SAVE I free.
....ct:
tI) I
LIJ
...J
100 I CLASSIFICATION, COST, AND AVAILABILITY
tI)
z
I Two important mechanical properties of HSLA steels for
/
/~
....
LIJ
0/
automobile components are total elongation, found in prac-
ct:
0
tice to be a best first estimate measure of relative forma-
0 / bility; and tensile strength, which because it is a reasonable
LIJ
measure for relative estimate of fatigue" and crush resis-
~
tI) tance!' can determine the gage required to satisfy automo-
en 50
CD tive requirements. Although yield strength is often quoted
...J
and/ or specified, it appears to be less important than ten-
sile strength from an engineering or applications viewpoint.
When the tensile strength is plotted against total elonga-
tion (Figure 3), three basic types of HSLA steels emerge:
recovery-annealed, conventional, and dual-phase.
The advent of dual-phase steels has caused much confu-
1975 1980 1985 sion in HSLA steel designation because of the many dif-
YEAR
ferent combinations of mechanical properties obtainable. It
is becoming increasingly apparent that designations based
Figure 2. Trends in strength level of HSLA steels used In auto- on tensile strength/ total ductility are the most representa-
mobiles and the Increased weight reduction possible through tive. Thus, a conventional SAE 980X (e.g. VAN 80), in which
their application. the "80" refers to yield stress, would be designated 90/18;
JOURNAL OF METALS • November, 1980 29
 INCREASED FORMABILITY-'

40
140

z
0
120
(en I--
U
l~ ~
0
: :1: 30 llJ
I I--
( t.:)
10 0 It: Figure 3. Relationship between tensile
;z ~
strength and total elongation for three
LllJ basic types of high-strength steels.
( It: ~
I I--
«/) 80 :::l!
0
LllJ 15 X
• ...J
(en 0
It:
;z 60 Q.
LllJ HRLe Q.
I I--
0 «
40

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
% TOTAL ELONGATION

that is, tensile strength of 90 ksi and total elongation of Presently, recovery-annealed steels at any given strength
18%. Likewise, a so-called dual-phase 80 (e.g. VAN QN 80) level are the least expensive, dual-phase steels are the most
would be 90/27. reflecting the greater elongation of the dual expensive, and conventional HSLA steels are intermediate
phase. Throughout the remainder of this paper, this proposed in cost . However, if the steel industry introduced high-
material designation will be used . quench-rate facilities to produce dual-phase steels from es-
Due to the method of production and the metallurgy of sentially low-carbon steels instead of the highly alloyed
the strengthening process, all HSLA steels are not available steels now used (about 1.4% Mn, 0.5% Si, 0.1% V or Mo),
in all gages. Limitations on the rolling mill loads necessary dual-phase steels in cold-rolled gages could be as inexpensive
to give 50-60% roll reductions restrict the gage range of re- as conventional HSLA steels. For hot-rolled materials, it is
covery-annealed steel to about 1.0-1.7 mm (0.040-0.065 in.). reasonably expected that dual-phase steels will remain more
Lower-strength conventional HSLA steels (tensile strengths expensive . Table II gives approximate ratios for current costs
up to about 70 ksi) which are basically strengthened by fine of the various materials.
grain size (- 5Jl) andlor solid-solution strengthening, are
available in all thicknesses, while higher-strength steels which FORMING HSLA STEELS
require precipitation and ultra-fine grains are available only
in hot-rolled gages (>1.8 mm [0.070 in.] ). Dual-phase steels, The overall formability of a steel is impossible to asess in a
which are heat treated after being rolled to their final gage, simple, quantitative way because of different complex var-
should be available in all thicknesses and strength levels. iables which constitute any given component fabrication
However, due mainly to facilities' limitations, dual-phase process. In general, however, probably the best rating for
steels are readily available in the U.S . only with tensile formability is the total elongation to failure measured by
strengths up to about 95 ksi . the tensile test. Such ductility for a whole range of HSLA
steels is shown in Figure 4. But such a simple ranking does
not take into account the specifics of any given component
forming operation, which can promote formability of a given
type and thus affect the ranking. In this context, the various
aspects of formability are discussed by way of describing
various formability parameters and the differing responses of
Table II: Approximate Cost Ratios for HSLA Steels· various HSLA steels. Ultimately, economic. impact limits
use . The final decision involves a trade off between ma-
terials, costs, and associated weight reduction. Each applica-
Material Cold-Rolled (AK) Hot-Rolled (AK) tion requires separate evaluation since the cost I weight
trade off can vary significantly from vehicle to vehicle, and
150/6 1.33 component to component.
150/12 1.43 1.52
110/12 1.28 Stretch Forming
110/22 1.43 1.52
90/18 1.26 1.26 The capacity for stretch forming decreases with increased
90/27 1.43 1.52 strength (Figure 5); the materials tested had comparable
75/33 1.28 1.46 thicknesses. A dual-phase steel is inherently more stretch
65/27 1.21 1.18 formable than the comparable microalloyed steel, e.g. SAE
60/29 1.11 980XK (90/18) ,VS. D.P. (90/27). Overall, forming limit dia-
53/33 1.0" grams (FLD) correspond qualitatively with the total ductility
42/34 1.0" measured in a tensile test, as shown in Figure 5. Thus, in
assessing stretch forming, total ductility ' is the paramount
• Data as of 8/15/78
•• The cost ratios are based on the appropriate low carbon steel cost for either cold-rolled controlling factor. It should be emphasized that the FLD
or hot rolled-gages. is also sensitive to gage, and the capacity for stretch form-
ing in a given material decreases with decreasing thickness."
30 JOURNAL OF METALS • November, 1980
 50
0~ 100
z
<i 90
....
Q::

(J)
80
Q::
..,
0
70
« 0
0
HRLC
~
~ 40

SAE 980X (90/18)

SAE 950X (65/27)
20 30

10

10 20 30 40
-40 -20 o 20 40 60 TOTAL ELONGATION, 0/0
MINOR STRAIN, 0/0

Figure 4. Forming limit diagrams for various HSLA steels. Figure 5. Relationship between forming limit and total elon-
gation as measured by tensile testing, for various HSLA
steels.

Consequently, downgaging of components by material substi-

tution based on the FLD must take into account the effect of
gage reduction as well as change in material. Table III: Typical Values of nand r for HSLA Steels

Strain Distribution
Substitution of a higher-strength steel to reduce com-
ponent weight by gage reduction has two effects: 1) reduction Steel n r
in material thickness affects the ability to accommodate
stretch forming strains; 2) substitution of the higher- 45/35 0.22 0.85
65/27 0.16 1.10
strength steel can produce changes in strain distribution. 65/35 0.26 1.12
The amount of strain in critical areas of the component may 90/18 0.13 0.95
vary with the material, and it is the relation between ac- 90/27 0.22 0.98
tual strain and the operative FLD which ultimately deter-
mines failure.
It is well established that a controlling parameter in dis-
tributing strain in stretch forming is the strain hardening
exponent, n, which is related to uniform elongation and is
normally proportional to the difference between ultimate ten-
sile strength and yield strength. A high value of n is usually ability (Table III), and selection of one grade over another
desirable since the uniformity of strain distribution in the would probably be influenced more by other aspects of for-
presence of a stress gradient increases with n. The values mability than by the drawing component. Generally, how-
of n for dual-phase steels (Table In) are correspondingly ever, it is anticipated that more draw will be used to obtain
higher than for the equivalent microalloyed steels, indicating shape in materials with more limited stretch forming.
the likelihood of better strain distribution in stretch-formed
parts. Local Fracture
Although formability of a material may appear to be ade-
Drawing quate for the overall geometry of a given component, sen-
The deep drawability of sheet material is essentially sitivity to localized fracture (edge failure in particular) of-
independent of n, and is normally defined in terms of limiting ten controls the ability to form a part successfully. A com-
draw ratio (LDR), the ratio of maximum blank diameter to mon forming operation sensitive to edge failure is extension
punch diameter. The LDR is, however, controlled by the of a flange from a pre-cut hole.'! In general, the higher the
plastic anisotropy of the material, where r is the ratio of strength, the greater the sensitivity to local failure, and subtle
true width strain to true thickness strain in a standard ten- changes in the processing operation may be necessary to
sile test. A high r value indicates good drawability since it is a overcome edge cracking problems. In addition, control of
measure of the resistance to thinning in the drawn cup wall. sulfur content and sulfide shape play key roles in local frac-
There is little difference among the HSLA steels in draw- ture problems, but do not significantly affect stretch forming.

JOURNAL OF METALS • November, 1980 31

Die and Processing Effects
Changing the materials used in forming components can
produce a number of effects which must be considered in
the overall decision to use alternate materials. One major
implication is the effect on part geometry; spring back ef-
fects will vary with different steels. Degree of spring back
will generally increase with strength;'! but the greater
variability resulting from this increased sensitivity will more
likely cause major problems. The degree of accuracy with
which spring back can be built into die design is critical to
component performance and manufacturing economics. Press
loads and die wear will therefore be directly affected by
material changes and, again, detailed knowledge of such
changes are required for overall feasibility and cost studies.
Furthermore, other processing variables must be studied. For
example, the sequence of fabrication steps in a multi-stage
forming operation may be a function of the material. There
are some indications that draw/stretch sequences are better
than stretch/ draw sequences for HSLA steels. Such informa-
tion is critical in developing die sequences to maximize
formability.
Ultimately, since acceptable metal stamping involves
reliable high production-rate processing, the ability to de-
velop and use new knowledge about metal stamping may
well pace the degree of weight reduction achieved by HSLA
steel application. Maximum weight reduction will almost al-
ways involve application of stronger and stronger steels,
calling for increased sophistication in metal stamping engi-
neering.
SPOT WELDING
All steels of interest for automotive materials substi-
tution can be joined under the appropriate spot welding
conditions.v-!" However, acceptability of the weldment
properties as well as practical manufacturing constraints
restrict the weldability of steels to specific, limiting condi-
tions.
Since HSLA steels have to be welded in production
equipment facilities originally designed for mild steel welds,
equipment and plant constraints are predetermined, and
fixed for the short range. Consequently, acceptable welds
in HSLA steels must be produced over a specific current
range, as well as in a specified range of hold times deter-
mined by acceptable production rate. Other equipment con-
straints affecting weldability are tip force, which determines
the intimacy of contact of the two surfaces, and acceptable
tip life, which affects productivity.
Various material properties affect the overall weldability,
but the overriding parameter is probably composition, which,
given present knowledge, translates to a carbon equivalent.
The procedure for rating the overall effect of primary alloy-
ing elements in steel in terms of carbon equivalent is still
the most widely used technique for rating the weldability
of steels (Figure 6). The carbon equivalent rating technique
for this figure was combined from various sources and is
given by:
C.E. = 1.5P +~;+ Cb: V + ;i
component or structural tests. Components subjected to
durability (fatigue) and/ or crush specifications are tested
under the appropriate conditions, and spot welds, as an in-
tegral part of the overall structure, often constitute the key
part of a structure because they represent a discontinuity.
Other functional requirements such as appearance and corro-
sion are also critical in acceptability of welds.
There is an important feedback loop between weld evalua-
tion testing and control of welding parameters: results of the
tests may influence welding parameters. Weld structures,
and related mechanical properties, are a complex function
of these parameters, and the evaluation data are important
in optimizing these factors for the wide spectrum of ma-
terials welded together.
Another factor likely to promote weldability of a wide
variety of HSLA steels is the gradual implementation of
automatic weld feedback equipment that automatically ad-
justs parameters for particular materials and gages. The
other development which may be necessary is introduction
of more sophisticated testing of the welds to allow a quanti-
tative measure of weld integrity.
DESIGN FACTORS AFFECTING HSLA STEELS
APPLICATIONS
A number of important design considerations must be
addressed. The overall question is the amount of weight re-
duction which can be achieved in given parts. Problems of
fabrication notwithstanding, it must still be recognized that
only certain properties are improved through HSLA steel
application, and the weight reduction which can be achieved
will be deduced on the basis of those properties. Major
(CRA)= COLD ROLLED a ANNEALED
(HR) = HOT RO,LLED
200
x
G
~ 160
a::
t;
LaJ
...J
en 120
Z
LaJ
I- (HR) MICRO_-~...~ ~__
LaJ ALLOYED
~
~
80
!J
::)

(CRA)
The vertical line separating acceptable and unacceptable a
compositions will be a function of the particular welding I REPHOS.
RENIT.
lobes and the exact way in which carbon equivalent is de- .-.ACCEPTABlE I
termined. However, the same general features will prevail. I UNACCEPTABlE~
On the basis of weldability, it is much more beneficial to ob-
tain increased strength by microalloying and heat treating o ""--_..a--_-"--_--.a..._-""_---IL.--_...L..-_-'--_.......
than by increasing carbon, phosphorus, or nitrogen content. o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Using the latter for strengthening induces welding problems II,
CARBON IIEQUIVALENT wt %
disproportionate to the fairly small strength increase. Again,
however, economics determines the final selection of ma-
terials. Figure 6. The relation between strengthening mechanisms In
Spot welds must also meet certain functional requirements, steels and carbon equivalent (weldability), indicating th.
and the related evaluation takes place as part of the overall range for acceptable materials from a welding viewpoint.

32 JOURNAL OF METALS • November, 1910

properties favorably changed include long-life fatigue and
general strength, which influence durability and crash
damageability requirements, respectively.
It is just as important, however, to recognize some impor-
tant properties that are not changed by substituting HSLA
for mild steel. Two key properties often cited as eliminating
HSLA from consideration in a part are the elastic modulus
and corrosion resistance, both of which are similar for all
sheet steels being considered.
Corrosion Resistance
Under the assumption that corrosion rates are uniform
throughout part life, a 10% gage reduction would be expected
to lead to 10% reduction in "useful" durability, which hinders
HSLA application. In many conditions, however, particular-
ly in coated or protected parts, initiation of corrosion is much
slower than its propagation through the thickness of a sheet,
so that 10% gage reductions may lead to 1% change in life.
Moreover, the greatest changes in corrosion resistance occur
with appropriate protection. Thus, general application of
HSLA steels and accompanying downgaging should entail
more effective coatings and protection. This presents another
slight cost penalty. Nevertheless, downgaging and more
protection should result in better corrosion-resistant vehicles.
Energy Absorption
Gross plastic failure and post-buckling behavior are both
affected by material properties. A number of past calcula-
tions show the benefit of higher strength materials in achiev-
ing resistance to bending and denting with reduced weight."
A key problem in vehicle design is the load necessary to
cause significant plastic collapse. The key considerations are
generally meeting desired force/ deflection characteristics at
deflections large relative to gage. Material properties and
structural effects directly influence the force/ deflection re-
lationships, but also cause changes in collapse modes, and
such indirect effects can be as important as the better-
documented direct effects.
Previous work has covered a variety of material, struc-
tural and loading mode variations. H , 18 Eventually, new
non-linear finite-element analysis will be capable of handling
the full complexity. The major effects noted are that collapse
loads in axial collapse are directly proportional to the ulti-
mate tensile strength, not the yield strength of the mater-
ia118, 19 (Figure 7). .
Use of higher-strength steels allows for reduced weight in
components primarily used in energy-absorbing applications
(Figure 8). An example of this in practice is the now wide-
spread use of HSLA steels in side door beams with large
weight reductions over early mild steel versions. In general,
achieved weight reductions have been close to those predict-
ed. But in parts where design requirements otherthan energy
absorption are met, this will not necessarily be the case.
Fatigue/ Durability
Another material property crucial to design is fatigue,
or durability. The overriding objective is to design parts to
have adequate effective life; that is, to have no fatigue
failure in useful service life. The goal is to understand the
influence of changing material properties, and the manner
and extent to which these will permit weight reduction.
Design methodologies focus on the local (critical region)
stress and strain history, and associate with each carefully
defined event a given amount of damage. The imposed
loads and moments interact with the component structure
to produce a distribution of stress. Fatigue can occur at
locations where stresses and. strains are high enough to
cause local plastic deformation. The amount of plastic
strain is largely related to local stress and the cyclic stress-
strain response. Consequently, the first important material
property is the cyclic stress strain curve, and higher-
strength steels are generally superior here. Although not
completely reliable, a general rule is that cyclic strength
increases with ultimate tensile strength'" (Figure 9). Similar
correlations with yield strength" are not as clear because
cyclic softening eliminates yield points. Higher cyclic stress-
strain curves'" minimize local plastic strain under given im-
posed loads or deflections. Higher cyclic work hardening

50 100 150

25 75

If)

2 D/~
Ie
CD
-oJ
20 0/ 0
~
CD
-oJ 50
t-= Figure 7. Energy absorption as a func-
LI. 15 tion of tensile strength for the axial
collapse of tubes (ratio of tube wall
>-
C) thickness to diameter = 0.028).
0:
IAJ
~ 10
u· 25
i&: C 4130 QaT
u
IAJ o 1015 QaT
Bi 5
• DUAL PHASE

o 2 3 4 5 6 7
SPECIFIC TENSILE STRENGTH, Ibi/ib. 10- 5

JOURNAL OF METALS • November, 1980 33

 60
Table IV: Percentage Weight Reduction for Durability

50
z
o Material Replacing Replacing
.... Cold-Rolled, Low-Carbon Hot-Rolled, Low-Carbon
gc 40 Steels Steels
L&J
a: 150/6 45 42
AXIAL COLLAPSE 150/12 45 42
~ 30 VS. 110/12 40 35
<.!) HRLC 90/18 36 32
L&J 90/27 36 32
~ 75/33 22 16
.... 20 65/27 18 12
z 60/29 7 o
L&J
(,)
a::
L&J
a.. 10

curve where mean stress correction is assumed material-

o independent, for each material. The relative merits of various
50 100 150 materials then depend on the details of various events in
the component load-history.
ULTIMATE TENSI~E STRENGTH A final parameter affecting component durability that
( KSI) can be material-dependent is notch sensitivity. Weight re-
duction for specific materials with respect to durability-
related components depends on state of loading, details of
load-deflection history, and relative notch severity. Thus, as
Figure 8. The effect of tensile strength on weight-reduction for with crush, percent weight reduction will be component-
axial collapse and 3 point bending of square beam. Weight sensitive. One simple approach we have followed is to com-
reduction Is calculated relative to hot-rolled low-carbon steel. pare "Neuber parameters" at 105 cycles assuming K N eu t 2• to
be constant for material substitution. Results of this assump-
tion .are given in Table IV for a variety of HSLA steels.

rates would help distribute strain more uniformly in an ·in-
homogeneously loaded component. Thus, higher cyclic
strength is a very important parameter. The extent of dam-
age caused by imposed stress and strain is also strongly
material-dependent, and is best represented by a strain-life
Rigidity and Mixed Control
An important consideration is determining when elastic
stiffness or rigidity is important. Since Young's modulus of
the high-strength steels is unchanged from mild steel, po-
tential degradation of rigidity during weight reduction by

100
Figure 9. The Interrelation of
cyclic yield strength and ten-
sile strength for a variety of =
( /) /
/ -980X
steels. :: 80
(/)
(/)

-
UJ hp.(9S/27
0::
....
en 60 9S0X
/
SRA70

950~.~. • -
o
...J
UJ AGED RENIT.
>= //" SRA60
U
::; 40 REPHOi _RENIT.
u
~
U
CRLC~ -lOIS
/ . HRLC

20

o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 200

TENSILE STRENGTH (KSI)

34 JOURNAL OF METALS • November, 1980

HSLA steel application is often raised as a serious deterrent
to their application. In our opinion, based on the following
considerations, the objection is probably overemphasized.
No practical application efforts involving hardware and
vehicle testing have , to our knowledge, failed because of rigid-
ity problems. This is important considering the great number
of applications already achieved. In addition, we note the
well-known benefits of HSLA steel in key deflection-critical
components such as springs. Redesign of components ' to
achieve equal stiffness while reducing weight is also almost
always possible. Adding reinforcements at critical locations,
and redesigning key joints are the most likely practical
alternatives, but redesigning section shape can be considered
quantitatively (and practically if vehicles are redesigned) .
Load and rigid ity requirements can be met simultaneously
by redesigning during application of HSLA steels. Weight
reductions possible using this strategy are shown in Figure
10 as a function of tensile strength. Meeting two require-
ments simultaneously is realistic, but rigidity is not always
a requirement. Furthermore, trends in vehicle design are
towards more efficient use of materials, including mild steel.
One factor is increasing rigidity at decreasing weight, re-
sulting in higher average stresses in components. Modem
cars will need increasing amounts of HSLA steels just to
achieve better ridigity/ weight trade offs.
Finally, rigidity in real structures is not a wholly elastic
phenomenon. This is known from the fact that fatigue is
usually associated with local plastic deformation; therefore,
at least locally, plastic flow occurs during vehicle vibration
phenomena. Since a key feature of HSLA steels is increased
cyclic yields, they will be stiffer than mild steel in critical
regions . The interesting point is whether such regions account
for a significant amount of the vibration energy . Kasper
et al. 22 give important evidence that high strain regions are
particularly critical. If their results are generally applicable,
HSLA steels will achieve rigidity increases despite equivalent
Young's modulus, and redesign may not be necessary to
maximize related weight reductions.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
There is little doubt that use of HSLA steels in automo-
biles will grow faster, by far, than any class of materials in
50
z and dual-phase steels. He is author or co-
-0
I- 40 AXIAL COLLAPSE a
o BENDING RIGIDITY
::::>
0 VS. HRLC
ILl
0:: 30
l-
I
C)
ILl
~ 20
I-
Z weight structural materials to vehicles. He is author or co-author
ILl
U
0::
ILl
10
a..
o University of Sheffield , England, and his PhD
50 100 150
ULTIMATE TENSI LE STRENGTH (KSI)
Figure 10. Possible weight reduction In meeting both load
and rigidity' requirements.
JOURNAL OF METALS • November, 1980
substitution for current mild steel components. The advanta-
ges and economic benefits of HSLA steels lead to projections
of up to several hundred pounds in future vehicles . To some
extent, development will depend on availability; for example,
dual-phase steels are currently expensive and in limited
supply, yet this particular class of steel offers outstanding
potential. In conclusion, the future of steel in the automotive
industry is as bright as ever; the types of steel and the
mix will change, but steel will continue to be a predominant
material in automobile components until at least 1985.
References
1. W.C. Leslie, R J . Sober, S.G. Bab cock, and S.J. Green, Trans. ASM 62 (1969) p. 690·710.
2. M. Korchynsky and H. Stuart, Symposium on Low Alloy High St rength Steels, Ges.
Elecktromet mbH , Duesseldorf, Germany, 1970, p. 17·27.
3. N.J. Petch, J. Iron Steel In st . 174 (1953) p, 25·28.
4. J .M. Gray and R.B.G. Yeo, Tran s. ASM. 61 (1968) p. 255·269.
5. P .B. Lake an d J .J . Grenawalt, SAE Reprint 770163, Februa ry 1977.
6. C.L. Magee and R.G. Davies, Act a Met : 19 (1971) p. 345-354.
7. S. Hagami and T . Karakawa, Proceedings of M icroalloyi ng Conference, Wash ington,
D.C., 1975, p. 78-87.
8. M.S. Rashid , SAE Pre print 760206, February 1976.
9. R.G. Davies, Met . Trans., 9A (1978) p, 41-52.
10. RW. Landgraf, ASTM STP 467, American Soc. for Testing and Mate rials, Philadelphia,
1970.
11. C.L. Magee and P.H . Thornton, SAE Preprint 780434, February 1978, SAE Transac-
tion 1979.
12. M.S. Rashid, SAE Prep rint 770211, February 1977.
13. J .F. Butler and J .H. Bucher , Sem inar on Vanad ium Cold Pressing and Dual Pha se
Steels, West Berlin, Germany, October 1978.
14. J.C . Benedyk and J. A. Newnham, J . Inst. of Metals 98 (1970) p, 97-101.
15. B. Pollard and R.H. Goodenow, SAE Pre print 790006, February 1979.
16. T .E. Fine and RJ. Fostini, SAE Preprint 790005, February 1979.
17. S. Dinde , J .A. DiCello, and A.S. Kaspe r, Proceedings of M icroalwying Conference,
Washin gton, D.C. 1975, p. 531-539.
18. P.H . T hornt on and C.L. Magee, T r a ns. ASME 99 (1977) p. 114-120.
19. P.H. T hornto n, J . of Metals, to be publ ished.
20. A.M. Sherman and R.G. Davies, Met . Trans. lOA (1979).
21. A.R Krau se, RW. Landgraf, and B.T . Crandall, SAE Preprint 790461, February 1979.
22. A.S. Kasper, W.E. Swenson, S. Dinda , and F.L. Shea g, SAE Prep rint 790003, Feb-
rua ry 1979.
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St . Louis, Missouri , October 1978, p. 439-466.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
R. G. Davies is a staff scientist on -the research
staff of Ford Motor Company. He received his
BS and PhD degrees in physical metallurgy
from the University of Birmingham , England.
Since jo ining Ford in 1962, he has been con-
cerned with the influence of microstructure
on the mechanical properties of ordered al-
loys, nickel-base superalloys, martensite,
author 6f more than 50 technical papers in these areas.
C. L. Magee is currently manager of the
Metallurgy Department, research , at Ford Mo-
tor Company. He received his BS, MS, and
PhD in materials science from Carnegie-
Mellon University. Since joining Ford in 1966,
he has been concerned with the physical
metallurgy of iron alloys, structural energy
absorption, and the application of high-
strength steels, composites, and other light-
of more than 30 technical papers .
P. Beardmore is a principal staff scientist on
the research staff of Ford Motor Company. He
received his BS in metallurgy from the
in metallurgy from the University of liver-
pool, England. Since jo ining Ford in 1966,
he has been concerned with deformation and
fracture of metals, polymers and composites,
and with the applicatipn of lightweight struc-
tural materials to vehicles. He is author or co-author of more
than 50 technical papers .
35