THE N D E B E L E S T A T E

by

J U L I A N CO BBIN G

The N d e b e le state w a s r u l e d b y K h u m a lo k in g s who had e m e r g e d

f r o m the N d u a n d w e . T h e y p r o b a b l y w e r e not a b s o r b e d b y the Z ulu at
any t i m e . D u r in g the Z u l u - N d w a n d w e w a r s o f 1 8 1 8 - 2 0 the K h u m a lo
were e je c te d and on e o f t h e m , M z i l i k a z i , c a m e to d o m in a t e a m i x e d
band o f m a r a i d e r s in s e a r c h o f m o r e p e a c e f u l p a s t u r e s . T h e y - how
m a n y is not k n ow n - m o v e d w e s t o f the D r a k e n s b e r g into the u p p e r
Vaal v a l l e y d u r in g the e a r l y 1 8 2 0 ' s . In abou t 1828 th e y c r o s s e d the
V a a l, n o rth in to the m o d e r n P r e t o r i a r e g i o n . In about 1832 w e s t into
the m o d e r n R u s t e n b e r g a r e a . An d b e t w e e n 1837 and about 1841 th e y
m i g r a t e d in tw o s e p a r a t e g r o u p s to the M a t o p o s r e g i o n o f what is
now Z i m b a b w e .
D u r in g t h e s e w a n d e r i n g s the o r i g i n a l Ngu ni had a b s o r b e d m a n y
Sotho b y m a r ia g e and c a p t u r e . O n the M a t o p o s high v e l d K a la n g a ,
R o z v i , o t h e r ' S h o n a ', as w e ll as Sotho and V e n d a g r o u p s w e r e a b s o r b e d .
Th e N d e b e l e , as t h e y w e r e c o m i n g to be c a l l e d (the m e a n i n g is s till
u n e x p la in e d ) v / e r e c u l t u r a l l y s o m e w h a t e c l e c t i c , although l i n g u i s t i c a l l y
and in o t h e r c e n s e s to o a p r o c e s s o f N g u n i - i s a t i o n t o o k p l a c e . Still,
c u lt u r a l and e t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the N d e b e l e and o t h e r N guni
s ta t e s a r e p a i t l y to be a c c o u n t e d f o r b y the s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f the a s s i m i l a n t s . But s o f a r no s e r i o u s r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n done
in to th is f i e l d .
M z i l i k a z i w a s on e o f the g r e a t e s t f i g u r e s t h r o w n up b y the
m fecan e. M a y b e the g r e a t e s t . T h e N d e b e le sta te w a s M z i l i k a z i ' s
state and had nothing to do with T s h a k a . M z i l i k a z i w as an in d e p e n d e n t
and o u ts ta n d in g in n o v a t o r .' He r u l e d f ift y y e a r s to T s h a k a ' s te n . He
s o l v e d h is ow -i m i l i t a r y and o r g a n i s a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s in h is o w n w a y,
thou gh w ithin the c o n te x t o f h i s o w n N d w a n d w e - N g u n i thought p a t t e r n s .
Unlike the Z u lu k i n g d o m the N d e b e l e one w as f o r o v e r tw e n ty y e a r s
h ig h ly m o b i l e and the new m i l i t a r y o r g a n i s a t i o n a d a p te d i t s e l f to this
circu m stan ce T h oug h quite d i f f e r e n t in e v o l u t i o n and h i s t o r y , the
 Z ulu and N d e b e l e k i n g d o m s s h a r e a c o m m o n t e r m i n o l o g y in m a n y
in stances. T h is haB l e d to m u c h c o n f u s i o n .
M z i l i k a z i r u le d until h is dea th in S e p t e m b e r 1868. A fter a pow er
s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n his s o n s , L o b e n g u l a b e c a m e s e c o n d kin g o f the
N debele. He r u l e d until h is dea th in about 1894 a ft e r the i n v a s i o n o f
'M a t a b e l e l a n d ' b y the B r i t i s h South A f r i c a C o m p a n y . In 1896 L o b e n g u l a ' s
s o n , N y a m a n d a , was m a d e k in g , though that y e a r a l s o the N d e b e l e w e r e
f i n a l l y c o n q u e r e d b y B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l and B S A C s e t t l e r t r o o p s . The
w h ite s to o k all the N d e b e l e la n d and 8 0 % o f t h e ir c a t t l e . N ot until the
1 9 7 0 's h as any s e r i o u s a tt e m p t b e e n m a d e to ge t the ' a n d b a c k .
N debele, o r rather M zilik a zia n p o litica l pattern have m a n y c l e a r
s i m i l a r i t i e s with t h o s e o f o t h e r Ngu ni s t a t e s . So l e t u s k e e p an e y e
x o p e n f o r c o n t r a s t s c o n c e a l e d u n d e r id e n t i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y . At th e to p
w a s M z i l i k a z i ( o r L o b e n g u l a ) , the n k o s i , the g r e a t m a n . H is p o w e r s
w ere extensive. T h e k in g r u l e d j u d i c i a l l y , r a i s e d arn ab utho, c o o r d i n a t e d
s t r a t e g y , d i s t r i b u t e d c a p t i v e s and c a t t le , a l l o c a t e d 1 id, e l i m i n a t e d
o p p o n e n t s i f he c o u ld , t r i e d h a r d to m a k e it r a i n - but a n y w a y a s s u m e d
a q u a s i r e l i g i o u s fu n ctio n , w ith the s h a d e s o f h is a n c e s t o r s e l e v a t e d
into s u p e r i o r n atio nal s p i r i t s . A ll t h is , as w e l l as r io nal f e r t i l i t y ,
fo un d it s f o c u s in the annual n x w a l a c e r e m o n i e s in J » >yary and
February. If y o u s t a y e d a w a y f r o m the n x w a l a without g o o d e x c u s e it
was a token o f re b e llio n .
The k i n g d o m , o r the la n d ( i l i z w e ) w a s d i v i d e d ir * o what we m i g h t
as w e l l c a l l c h i e f t a i n c i e s , u n d e r c h i e f s . C h ie f t a in c y a m o n g the
N d e b e l e w a s d e n o t e d as e i t h e r u m u z i w e n k o s i (se t tle ent u n d e r the
k in g ), o r i s i g a b a ( s u b d i v i s i o n ) . T h e r e was n oth in g n o r e e x a c t . We
have to in vent the t e r m i n o l o g y as we go a lo n g as the N d e b e l e f r e q u e n t l y
did w ith o u t. P e r h a p s t h e r e w e r e s ix t y o r s e v e n t y i z i g a b a u n d e r L o b e n ­
gu la . W it hin the i s i g a b a w e r e m a n y c h i e f s (iz i n d u n a ), but u s u a l l y o n l y
one b i g c h i e f (induna e n k u lu ) who within the c o n t e x t o f the i s i g a b a h a d
extensive p o w e r s . T h e s e w e r e the g r e a t f a m i l i e s , ti e M a f u s , M a s u k u s ,
N d i w e n is , M l o t s h a s and o f c o u r s e K h u m a l o s . C h ie ft a in s h ip w as
h ereditary. E l d e s t so n s b y the g r e a t w i v e s t h e o r e t i c a l l y s u c c e e d e d and
Usually d id . T h e c h ie fs w e r e a i d e d in the g o v e r r a n e o f the i s i g a b a
 f

b y a s o r t o f c o u n c i l o f b i g m e n ( i z i k u l u ) f r o m the l o c a l i t y . The c h ie fs
sat in j u d i c i a l j u d g e m e n t with the a d v i c e o f th is c o u n c i l , the in k un dh la .
E v i l - d o e r s w e r e r o u n d e d up b y a c h i e f ' s p o l i c e ga n g, the i z i b o n d a .
S o m e t i m e s ga n g s f r o m the r o y a l c a p it a l c a m e as w e l l , and c l a s h e s
c o u l d take p l a c e . C h i e f t a i n c y p o l i t i c s w e r e as e x c i t i n g and i n t r i c a t e
as n a t io n a l p o l i t i c s , as m y o w n s t u d ie s in G o d h lw a y o s h o w e d . Sa dly,
f e w s tu d ie s o f in d iv id u a l N d e b e le c h i e f t a i n c i e s h av e b e e n m a d e . T h is
m u s t b e a m a j o r th o u g h i n c r e a s i n g l y te n u o u s g o a l . T h e c h i e f s t o o had
c e r t a i n (I m e a n u n c e r t a i n ) p o w e r s o v e r the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c a p t i v e s
( a b a t h u n ji w e y o ) and ' s t a t e ' ca ttle ( s e e b e l o w ) . A g ood p r o p o r t i o n of
d i r e c t l y - o w n e d ca tt le f o u n d t h e i r w a y in to a c h i e f ' s o w n e r s h i p . These
h e f a r m e d ou t, s i s a ' d to s u b j e c t s .
M a n y o f the b ig c h i e f s t r a v e l l e d p e r i o d i c a l l y to the r o y a l c a p it a l,
s a y M h la h la n h le la o r B u la w a y o , w h e r e c o l l e c t i v e l y t h e y f o r m e d the
k in g 's a d v iso ry co u n c il. T h o s e in the c e n t r e as t h e y w e r e i m a g i n a t i v e l y
called: the u m p a k a t h i . T h e u m p a k a t h i p l a y e d a c r u c i a l r o l e in the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f n atio na l p o l i c y . T h e y sat in j u d g e m e n t . B o th M z i l i -
k a z i and L o b e n g u l a w e r e p e r f e c t l y s t r o n g e n o u g h to d o m in a t e the
u m p a k a t h i , but f r e q u e n t l y , e s p e c i a l l y L o b e n g u l a , p r e t e n d e d to have
t h e i r h an ds f o r c e d b y the c h i e f s in o r d e r to a v o i d b e i n g the o p e n
in stig a to rs o f unpopular c o u r s e s o f action. Both k i n g s w e r e g e n u in e ly
w il l i n g to be p e r s u a d e d b y the c h i e f s . Until the Ru dd C o n c e s s i o n th e re
is an i m p r e s s i v e s m o o t h n e s s about m o s t d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g in the
N d e b e le s t a t e . The k in g w o u ld t h r o w p e r s i s t e n t E u r o p e a n s to the
iz in d u n a w ho k n e w h o w to d e a l with t h e m . They w ere a suspicious
cu nn in g, in te llig e n t f o r the m o s t p a r t , w o r l d l y - w i s e g r o u p o f m e n who
c o u l d h an dle m o s t th in g s e x c e p t a r m e d i n v a s i o n . T h e n the k in g
s u d d e n ly f o u n d h i m s e l f e f f e c t i v e l y a lo n e .
In the u m p a k a th i a l o n g s i d e the t e r r i t o r i a l c h i e f s w e r e m e m b e r s ,
m a l e m e m b e r s o f the r o y a l f a m i l y - the b r o t h e r s , u n c l e s , cousins of
the k in g . N o te to o that m o s t o f the c h i e f s w e r e r e l a t e d to the k in g
th ro u gh m a r r i a g e , e i t h e r the k i n g 's o r t h e i r s . T h e s e r o y a l r e l a t i v e s
had t h e i r o w n v i l l a g e s in s i d e the o u t ly in g c h i e f t a i n c i e s , but w e r e
c o n s i d e r e d to o s u p e r i o r to ru le in the c h i e f l y s e n s e . H ow th is c o n v e n ie n t
p i e c e o f i d e o l o g y d e v e l o p e d is not k n o w n . But the r o y a l m a l e s , w h ilst
n o t r u lin g c h i e f t a i n c i e s , did p l a y an u n u s u a lly i m p o r t a n t p a r t in the
co llectiv e decision-m akin g, and w e r e o ften important in the a rm y.
R o y a l K h u m a l o s w e r e a l s o b e h in d the r e g u l a r i t y o f the r a in s in N o v e m b e r
and o r g a n i s e d the n x w a l a . O n the o t h e r hand, r o y a l m e n w ho d e v e l o p e d
r e a l o r im agin ed p e r s o n a l a m b it io n s f o r the c r o w n w e r e got r i d of.
T h ere are m any e x a m p le s.
In v i e w o f the r o l e o f r o y a l w o m e n in the Zulu a m a k h a n d a , and
b e c a u s e o f the g e n e r a l a m b ig u it y o f the e v i d e n c e , the p r e c i s e f u n c tio n
o f r o y a l w o m e n i s an i m p o r t a n t one to g r a s p . But s o f a r I have not
s u cc e e d e d v e r y w ell. L o b e n g u l a had s c o r e s o f w i v e s , sisters, aunts
etc. The b i g w i f e , L o z i g e y i , had p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e . The r o y a l w i f e ,
one o f M z i l a ' s d a u g h t e r s n a m e d X w a l i l e , n e ith e r had any any i n flu e n c e
n o r did she p r o d u c e an h e i r . The m o t h e r o f N y a m a n d a , M b id a , p l a y e d
no p o l i t i c a l p a r t a p p a r e n t ly . Y et r o y a l w o m e n wer-> s c a t t e r e d a r o u n d
the c h i e f t a i n c i e s , h av in g s ta t u s t h e r e . T h e c h i e f s kept an e y e on them.
Th ey had t h e ir ow n v i l l a g e s , c a p t i v e s and c o w s . In some v i l l a g e s t h e r e
w ere isigod hlo for royal w om en . S o m e o f the o l d e r w r i t e r s a s s u m e d
this w as the r e a l m a c h i n e r y o f p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r ity in the k i n g d o m , but
I doubt it. A ll the s ig n s a r e that, a p a rt f r o m a f e w im portan t w o m e n
such as L o z i g e y i , the state w a s dominated by men. But f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h
w o u ld be w e l c o m e , e s p e c i a l l y o n the i s i g o d h l o .
L e t us r e t u r n to the u m u z i w e n k o s i . the c h i e f t a i n c y . N o te in th is
co n te x t the t e r m u m u z i m e a n s l a r g e a r e a o f s e t t l e m e n t . I n sid e w e r e
m a n y, p e r h a p s h u n d r e d s o f v i l l a g e s , a l s o s e t t l e m e n t s , and t h e r e f o r e
called im i z i . S o m e e a r l y w r i t e r s i g n o r e d the f l e x i b i l i t y o f the w o r d
and d r e a m t o f to w n s s e v e r a l m i l e s in d i a m e t e r , all h e a v i l y m i l i t a r i s e d .
N e e d l e s s to s a y s u c h m o n s t r o s i t i e s did not e x i s t . The v i l l a g e s , im izi
(or s o m e t i m e s i m i z a n a ) , w e r e f o r the m o s t p a rt ir~ iz i z a m a t h a n g a ,
literally 'p riv a te' villages o f o r d in a r y p e o p le . The / w e r e f a m i l y
v i l l a g e s s u r r o u n d e d b y a f e n c e , with a s s o c i a t e d p l a c e s f o r ca ttle and
g ra in s t o r a g e . The h e ad o f the f a m i l y w a s the o w n e r o f the v i l l a g e , the
u m n in iu m z a n a . e x a c t l y as with the Z u lu . F r o m the r a n k s o f the
e b a nin iu m z a n a c a m e the a d v i s e r s o f the b i g c h i e f . G eograph ically
within the c h i e f t a i n c y w e r e c e r t a i n p a r t s , t e r m e d i z i g a t s h a n a (little
s u b d i v i s i o n s ) , o v e r w h ich o n e o r m o r e a b a n in iu m z a n a

f
m i g h t have e x t r a p o l i t i c a l w e ig h t . Such m e n r e f e r r e d to t h e m s e l v e s
a s iz i n d u n a t o o . As f o r J e f f G uy th en, one m a n with tw o t i t l e s . But the
N d e b e l e m ig h t take a t h i r d . As an in du na he w a s a s u b o r d i n a t e , h e l p e r ,
n u r s e ( ? ) o f the s e n i o r c h i e f s , and in th is c a p a c i t y w a s t e r m e d u m l i s a .
A f t e r E u r o p e a n i s a t i o n to o k p l a c e u m l i s a r a t h e r than u m n in iu m z a n a
w a s c h o s e n to t r a n s l a t e the s p e c i f i c a l l y E u r o p e a n c o n c e p t o f ' h e a d m a n '.
I n v a r i a b l y N d e b e le m a l e s r e f e r r e d to t h e m s e l v e s p o s i t i v e l y , w h ich
is w h y in the l i t e r a t u r e t h e r e w e r e s o m a n y iz i n d u n a and s o f e w
abalisa.
In th is w a y a r o u g h p o l i t i c a l h i e r a r c h y ca n be s k e t c h e d f r o m
k in g and r o y a l f a m i l y , d o w n th ro u g h the in du na e n k u lu , to the u m n i n i ­
um zana. M i l i t a r y o r g a n i s a t i o n we w i l l l e a v e a s id e ju s t f o r a m o m e n t .
The e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e o f the k i n g d o m w a s as s i m p l e , though
it is e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t to ge t the e m p h a s e s and d e t a il r ig h t . T h e funda­
m e n t a l , f i r s t e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y w a s the p r o d u c t i o n o f g r a i n . T h ese were
m a i n l y the m i l l e t s , a m a b e l e . in ya o u ti and r a p o k o . The e v i d e n c e that
*
e x i s t s s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s that this cu ltiv a t io n w as c e n t r e d in in div id ua l
v i l l a g e s , e a c h f a m i l y ' s p la n tin g , r e a p i n g , f e e d in g b e i n g g o v e r n e d b y
the u m n i n i u m z a n a . A u t h o r i t y m a i n l y la y with the o l d . F ields w ere
s h i f t e d at i n t e r v a l s . P r e s u m a b l y the induna enkulu w o u ld a r b i t r a t e
o v e r la n d d i s p u t e s and a l l o c a t i o n . I s a y p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u s e t h e r e is
v i r t u a l l y no e v i d e n c e f o r p r e - 1 8 9 6 la n d a l l o c a t i o n . We m u s t a l s o find
r e f u g e in the u n s a t i s f a c t o r y c lic h < that the k in g o w n e d the la n d . When
in d i v i d u a l s o r e v e n f a m i l i e s w i s h e d to shif t t h e ir h o m e s f r o m one i s i -
g a b a to a n o t h e r , o f w h i c h t h e r e a f e w e x a m p l e s i m p l y i n g it h a p p e n e d
f r e q u e n t l y , it is m o r e l i k e l y that p e r m i s s i o n w o u ld have b e e n soug ht
f r o m the c h i e f s r a t h e r than t r o u b l i n g the king. B o t h m e n and w o m e n
w o r k e d in the f i e l d s . I s u s p e c t the c o n c e p t o f the N guni m a n d is d a in in g
w o r k in the f i e l d s i s a m y t h . So did s l a v e s - but the N d e b e l e w e r e
a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s , w h i l s t not ta lk in g m u c h about it. T h e y did not f e e d
o f f the S h ona . E v e n c h i e f s w o r k e d in the f i e l d s . So d i d the s o l d i e r s
the a m a j a h a , who t o o k h o m e - l e a v e in the planting s e a s o n . T h e Sh ona
w e r e p la n tin g at the s a m e t i m e s o d e f e n c e w as not i m p a i r e d m u c h .
S o f a r I have no e v i d e n c e o f a tr ib u t e b e i n g p a id to the induna e n k u lu ,
w h i c h i s not to s a y it d i d not h a p p e n . G ifts p r o b a b l y w e r e m a d e .
C e r t a i n l y s u c h tr ib u t e in g r a i n e t c . w a s p a i d to the k in g . Special 'k in g 's
f i e l d s ' w e r e p la n t e d in e a c h i s i g a b a , and w e r e h a r v e s t e d f i r s t . E xa ctly
h o w the c o r v l e s f o r t h e s e f i e l d s w e r e o r g a n i s e d i s not kn o w n . But t h e y
existed. It i s o n t h e s e c o r v t e s that any t h e o r y o f c l a s s e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r
the N d e b e l e is g o in g at l e a s t p a r t l y to be fo u n d e d . If I h ad m o r e f i e l d *
w o r k t i m e t h e s e a r e the a r e a s I w o u l d n ow e x p l o r e h a r d e s t .
T h e n e xt m a j o r e c o n o m i c c o n c e r n w as c a t t l e - r e a r i n g . We ca n
v i r t u a l l y in t e r c h a n g e any p a r a g r a p h a s s e s s i n g the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
ca tt le f o r the N d e b e l e with a n y o t h e r Ngu ni g r o u p , th ough the o b s e s s i o n
i s at l e a s t p a r t l y in the m i n d s o f t h e i r h i s t o r i a n s . Still, the N d e b e l e
d id l o v e t h e i r c a tt le , thou ght and d r e a m t o f lit tle e l s e , e x c e p t the gun,
w h i c h , n a t u r a ll y , in the e n d t h e y e x c h a n g e d m a i n l y t h e ir c o w s f o r . The
w h o le k i n g d o m w a s o r g a n i s e d to p r o t e c t both the c o w s and the f i e l d s ,
and b y c o w s 1 m e a n the g r a z i n g a r e a s . R a id i n g was p e r t l y d e s i g n e d to
s t e a l the c a tt le o f o t h e r s , e x p r o p r i a t i n g the l o t , i f p o s s i b l e , not the
s u r p l u s , w h a t e v e r that m e a n s . In sid e the k i n g d o m and the t r i b u t a r y
a r e a ( o f w h i c h m o r e b e l o w ) a s e a s o n a l t r a n s h u m a n c e to o k p l a c e , w hen
in the w i n t e r the s o l d i e r s and h e r d e r s t o o k c o w s dow n fo the m i d d le -
v e l d , e . g . the U m z in g w a n i v a l l e y , f o r the s w e e t g r a s s , u h a t s h i . This
n e e d to p r o t e c t ca ttle in v u l n e r a b l e f r o n t i e r r e g i o n * in w in t e r u n d e r l a y
N d e b e l e r e l a t i o n s with n e i g h b o u r i n g p e o p l e s . N a tio n a l t e n s i o n s
i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y when the n a tio n a l h e r d w as t h r e a t e n e d , as
/
d u r in g the l u n g - s i c k n e s s o f the e a r l y 1 8 6 0s , and the f ■ ste m a tic e x a c ­
t i o n s o f the B S A C d u r in g 1 8 9 3 - 5 . M u ch o f the v i o l e n c e in the h i g h -
v e l d o r i g i n a t e d with c a t t le . A f t e r 1893 the E u r o p e a n s p r o g r e s s i v e l y
d e s t r o y e d the N d e b e le s y s t e m b y d e s t r o y i n g it s c a t t l e - o w n i n g
m ech an ism .
T h is m e c h a n i s m i s i n t e r e s t i n g . T h e r e w e r e at l e a s t tw o d i s t i n c t
c o n c e p t s o f ca ttle o w n e r s h i p . F i r s t l y , in a c o l l e c t i v e s e n s e , a s a
n a t io n . U n d e r M z i l i k a z i a n a t io n a l h e r d had b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d . A large
p e r c e n t a g e o f r a i d e d ca ttle f o r e x a m p l e b e c a m e d e s i g n a t e d in th is w a y
as k i n g ' s c a t t le , o r r e g i m e n t a l c a t t le : i z i n k o m o <lf o n k o s i . i r i n k o m o
zebutho r e s p e c t iv e ly . (N B. t h e s e t e r m s a r e s yn o n ym s . ) T h e s e the
k in g d i s t r i b u t e d to the i z i g a b a . The r o l e o f the iz i n d u n a in th is p r o c e s s
i s not k n o w n , th ou gh d i r e c t d i s t r i b u t i o n b y t h e m w a s r e g a r d e d as
 i l l e g a l in t h e o r y . Su ch c a tt le a p p e a r to have gon e e q u a l l y to the n e e d y
and the l o y a l and to the s u c c e s s f u l . T h e y w e r e in a l i e n a b l y the n a t io n 's .
The m i l k , m a n u r e and o c c a s i o n a l l y m e a t f r o m t h e s e a n i m a l s in d u c e d
m a n y o u t s i d e r s to s t a y and s h a r e the k i n g ' s b o u n ty . In r e t u r n t h e y
fought f o r h i m and p r a i s e d h is n a m e . It u s e d to be a s s u m e d , l a r g e l y
a s a r e s u l t o f B S A C p r o p a g a n d a and a g e n e r a l t r u s t i f i c a t i o n o f 'bantu
c a t t le o w n e r s h i p s y s t e m s ' that all N d e b e l e ca tt le w e r e c o m m u n a l l y
o w n e d in th is w a y , and t h e r e f o r e u l t i m a t e l y the k i n g ' s . But th is was
not the c a s e at a ll. A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e r e w e r e p r i v a t e l y o w n e d c a tt le ,
iz in k o m o z a m a th an ga . C h iefs, successful w a rriors, iz a n u s i e tc.
t e n d e d to h a v e the l a r g e s t h e r d s . The king h i m s e l f had by f a r the
la rg e st. S u c h k i n g 1s c o w s w e r e r e a l l y k i n g ' s c o w s , u n lik e the
previous ca tegory. O n e m a n 's c o w w a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m h is
n e i g h b o u r ' s and f r o m ' r e g i m e n t a l / k i n g ' s ’ c a tt le w ithin the c h i e f t a i n c y
by a s y s t e m o f iz i m p h a w u . e a r m a r k s . S u ch c o w s a man c o u ld do
what he l i k e d with. He might a l s o be f i n e d with th em f o r s e r i o u s
m isdem eanours. F o r t r e a s o n h is w h o l e h e r d w o u l d g o . But a b o v e
all iz in ko m o za m a th an ga w e r e f o r l o b o l a , a u s e to w h i c h th e k i n g ' s c o w s
w e r e n e v e r put. ( A g a i n I mean communal c o w s . The king p a id l o b o l a
to the c h i e f s f o r t h e ir d a u g h t e r s f r o m h is p r i v a t e h e r d , as did any o th e r man.
P r i v a t e c o w s thus p r o d u c e d w i v e s o f ra n k, and l a r g e r v i l l a g e s , m o r e
s o n s , and m o r e f o l l o w e r s , and g u n s , and m o r e c o w s .
A n d th e y had to b e l o o k e d a ft e r and h e r d e d w h e r e the g r a s s w as
green. P r i v a t e c a tt le w e r e f r e q u e n t l y s i s a 'd out b y a w e a lt h y m a n to
f o l l o w e r s , e v e n s l a v e s , who - as i n the o t h e r Nguni s y s t e m s - u t i l i s e d
the f r u i t o f the c o w s but n e v e r a s s u m e d o w n e r s h i p . Su ch ca tt le r e l a ­
t i o n s h i p s w e r e o f c o u r s e p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b in d in g m e n t o g e t h e r ,
and t h e y f r e q u e n t l y l a s t e d f o r g e n e r a t i o n s . H e r d e r - o u t and h e r d e r
f a m i l i e s w o u ld h av e c o m m o n h i s t o r i e s and the c h i l d r e n w o u ld g r o w up
tog ether. In m a n y c a s e s s i s a 'd c o w s w o u l d f o r p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s
b e c o m e the h e r d e r ' s , th ou gh h e , o r in s o m e c a s e s s h e , c o u l d b e d e p r i v e d
o f them fo r b r e a c h e s o f loyalty. Th e s o n o f a s la v e t o o k o v e r the c o w s
h is f a t h e r had h e r d e d . Note that the two o w n e r s h i p s y s t e m s w e r e c l e a r l y
s e p a r a t e d e v e n w he n c a tt le o f s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s t a t u s e s w e r e h e r d e d
t o g e t h e r , e g . in w i n t e r p a s t u r e s . T h is w a s the m a i n w a y in w h i c h
s l a v e s a q u i r e d a c c e s s to c o w s . T h e h e r d e r m i g h t u n d e r unkn own
c i r c u m s t a n c e s be g iv e n a c a l f in fu ll, m a t h a n g a o w n e r s h i p . W as th is
c l a s s e x p l o i t a t i o n o f c o m m o n e r b y c h i e f as J e f f P e i r e s s u g g e s t s ? 1
w o u ld h e r e s i m p l y at l e a s t s t r e s s , I hope without b e c o m i n g to o
r o m a n t i c , the e l e m e n t o f s y m b i o s i s . Certainly, e ld erly N debele In fo r­
m a n ts o f c o m m o n e r status te n d to be n o s t a l g i c about t h o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
o f their lost p a ra d ise . But that m i g h t be e q u a l l y m i s l e a d i n g in v i e w o f
what th e y had to put up with in the tw en tie th c e n t u r y .
In 1894 the B S A C a b o l i s h e d p r i v a t e o w n e r s h i p f o r a t i m e o n the
s p u r i o u s g r o u n d that it w as b o t h r a r e and i m p o s s i b l e to d e f i n e . It w as
s i m p l y an e x p e d ie n t to s te a l e v e r y o n e ' s c a t t le , not ju st the ' k i n g ' s ' ,
i.e . c o m m u n a l c o w s w h i c h the B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t r e k d i l y a l lo w e d to be
p a s s e d to the w h ite s 'b y righ t o f c o n q u e s t ' . Th us p r i v a t e N d e b e l e
ca ttle a l s o e n d e d up in South A f r i c a n b u t c h e r i e s , s t o c k i n g white f a r m s ,
and w o r s t o f a ll, as gifts to c o l l a b o r a t o r s d u r in g 1 8 9 4 - 6 . It w a s a
la n g u a ge the N d e b e le u n d e r s t o o d o n l y to o w e l l . In 1896 t h e i r r e s p o n s e
was to r i s e and kill as many w h i t e s as p o s s i b l e in an attempt to
s a ve th e fe w rem ainin g c a tt le , w h ich , a ft e r the o u t b r e a k o f r i n d e r p e s t ,
the E u r o p e a n s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d to shoot.
Ca ttle h e r d s had b o th to b e b u ilt up and d e f e n d e d . So h ad the •
la nd h o ld in g . So t o o had the k i n g ' s la w and the k i n g ' s p e a c e . The
d a n g e r s o f p o l i t i c a l r e b e l l i o n and s e c e s s i o n had to b e g u a r d e d a g a in s t , and
B o e r s and l a t e r g o l d p r o s p e c t o r s kept at a r m s le n gth . T r ib u t e had
to be e n f o r c e d and tr a d in g l i c e n c e s had f i n e s c o l l e c t e d . Punishm ent
e x p e d i t i o n s had to be d e s p a t c h e d . These n e c e s s it ie s , as w e l l as the
foundin g o f the w hole s t r u c t u r e w e r e o n l y a c h i e v e d b y M z i l i k a z i ' s
m i l i t a r y e x p e d i e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y the p a r t i c u l a r w a y that he r a i s e d a m a -
butho. P r a c t i c a l l y all the Nguni s t a t e s had a m a b u th o o r at l e a s t w e r e
a w a re o f the c o n c e p t . The w a y N d e b e le ' r e g i m e n t s ' w e r e r a i s e d and
e v o l v e d h o w e v e r a p p e a rs to h a v e b e e n u n iq u e , s o it is w o r t h a tte ntio n.
A s P r o f e s s o r W il s o n o b s e r v e s , m u c h Ngu ni t e r m i n o l o g y has a
variety o f s e n se s. The N d e b e le ibutho iB a g o o d e x a m o l e . It c o u ld
f o r e x a m p l e r e f e r to an a ctu al a r m y o f m e n on a r a id . It c o u ld a l s o be
m e n f r o m a g iv e n a r e a who w he n c a l l e d out to fig ht w o u ld be s o
collectively. T h e s e u s u a lly o l d e r m e n w o u ld have to m a r c h o f f to
c o l l e c t i n g p o in ts and a w a it the k i n g ' s o f f i c e r s . I f a w a y o v e r n i g h t th e y
w o u l d s l e e p in g r o u p s c a l l e d a m a x h i b a . A f t e r the b u s i n e s s the m a t u r e
m e n w o u ld go h o m e a g a in i f t h e y w e r e l u c k y with a c o w o r , b e t t e r still,
a ch ild captive. Such a m a b u th o w e r e t h e r e f o r e t r a n s i t o r y .
In a n o t h e r m o r e i m p o r t a n t s e n s e the k in g r a i s e d a m a b u th o f r o m
y o u n g m e n o f the k i n g d o m who d id not r e t u r n h o m e . The k i n g ' s
m e s s e n g e r s w o u ld c o m b the v i l l a g e s f o r c a n d id a t e s o f the r ig h t age and
strength. Th e r e c r u i t s w o u l d be t r a i n e d , s u b d iv id e d , and o v e r a p e r i o d
o f y e a r s be u s e d as p o l i c e and s o l d i e r s , a l s o , th ough i n c i d e n t a l l y , as
k in g 's l a b o u r e r 's . T h e y w o u ld h e r d ca ttle f o r e x a m p l e . Such r e c r u i t s
f o r a tim e o c c u p ie d m ilita r y en cam p m en ts. A s In E u r o p e a n a r m i e s ,
the w o m e n go t in: g r a n d m o t h e r s c a m e to c o o k ; y o u n g w o m e n c a m e as
prostitu tes. T h e r e is n o ext ant d e s c r i p t i o n o f s u c h an e n c a m p m e n t
a w a y f r o m the k i n g ' s c a p it a l as E u r o p e a n s did not go in to t h e m . They
m u s t have b e e n u n tidy e p h e m e r a l s t r u c t u r e s . In w in t e r the ibutho
w o u l d b r e a k up and g r o u p s go c a t t l e - h e r d i n g , e s t a b l i s h i n g m u c h s m a l l e r
s h e l t e r s , the f a m o u s a m a l a g a . S o m e o f the c o m m u n a l ca tt le w o u l d be
a l l o c a t e d to the ib utho f o r k e e p s , h e n c e the title i z i n k o m o z e b u t h o .
T h e r e is -to e v i d e n c e , but s u r e l y a l e v y o f g r a i n m u s t have b e e n m a d e
f r o m s o m e w h e r e to k e e p t h e m ? If s o , then a w h o le o r g a n i s a t i o n o f
g r a i n - g r o w i n g f o r r e g i m e n t s , it s h a r v e s t i n g and d i s t r i b u t i o n h as
esca p ed description. S o m e w h e r e m e n m u s t have b e e n w o r r y i n g about
com m issa ria t p roblem s.
M a n y o f the a m a b u t h o ca n be t r a c e d , t h e i r d a t e s o f f o r m a t i o n ,
t h e i r c h i e f s and g e o g r a p h i c a l h i s t o r y , though t h e r e is m u c h l e s s detail
f o r th e e a r l i e r o n e s . I n q o b o f o r exa m ple w a s r a i s e d in the 1 8 6 0s ,
I m b iz o in 1871, and In su g a in about 1 8 8 3 -4 . T h e r e w a s no e x a c t
r e g u l a r i t y , th ou gh r e g i m e n t - r a i s i n g a p p e a r s to h a v e a c c e l e r a t e d
in tim e s o f n atio na l d a n g e r . S e v e r a l w e r e r a i s e d b e tw e e n
1887 and 1892, In th e m the m a rt ia l s p i r i t w as l i t e r a l l y c u l t i ­
vated. T h e r e w e r e no N d e b e le p a c i f i s t s . V e r y hig h s t a n d a r d s o f
d i s c i p l i n e and p u n i s h m e n t e x i s t e d . The p s y c h o l o g y w o u l d h av e b e e n
f r i g h t e n i n g f o r us h a d we to step out o f o u r c o m f o r t a b l e r o o m s in to the
past. H av in g g o n e t h r o u g h the mill, the ija h a , y o u n g w a r r i o r , b e c a m e
iqaw e. exp erien ced w a r r io r . F r o m th is s c h o o l e m e r g e d s o m e o f the
next g e n e r a t i o n o f c h i e f l y f a m i l i e s . Fou nders o f e a r lie r ch iefta inces
s u c h as G o d h lw a y o w e r e o f t e n g r e a t s o l d i e r s . A s an iq a w e g r e w o l d e r
the k in g s a id he c o u l d m a r r y and have c h i l d r e n , w h i c h w a s a w a y o f
s a y i n g he c o u ld stop b e i n g a f u l l - t i m e s o l d i e r . The w ife w o u l d c o m e
b a c k to the ibutho n e v e r t h e l e s s , w h i c h s t a r t e d h av in g a s p e c t s o f the
nursery. The w a r r i o r w o u l d in t i m e b e c o m e an iq a w e and an
u m n i n i u m z a n a as he b u ilt h i s o w n v i l l a g e . It is e a s i e r to r e p r e s e n t
th is p r o c e s s d i a g r a m a t i c a l l y , but th is i s in a d e q u a t e . We have to
v i s u a l i s e the b a r r a c k s b r e a k i n g up, c o n s o l i d a t i n g i.:s h o l d o n one
p a rticu la r valley, private villa g es p r o life ra tin g , n n relationsh ips
b eing e sta b lish ed . T h e r e w o u l d be a g r e a t b o o k d e r c r i b i n g o n e s u c h
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n if o n ly the e v i d e n c e w e r e a v a i l a b l e . S u d d e n ly the
c h i l d r e n w e r e g r o w i n g up, the c h i e f w a s o l d and had l o t s o f w i v e s ,
and the k in g w o u ld s e n d h is m e s s e n g e r s f o r the next ib u t h o . In th is
w a y a m a b u t h o , at l e a s t m a n y o f t h e m , h ad c o n t in u o u s h i s t o r i e s , and
d i f f e r e d f r o m a g e - s e t s w h i c h b r o k e up. The o r i g i n s o f th is c o n tin u it y
a r e a m a t t e r o f dou bt, and w h e t h e r the o b s e r v a b l e e v o l u t i o n o f L o b e n -
g u l a ' s a m a b u th o d u r in g s t a b le c i r c u m s t a n c e s w a s i d e n t i c a l to the
c a r e e r s o f M z i l i k a z i ' s e a r l y a m a b u th o d u r in g t i m e o f m ovem en t, is
a l s o n ot k n o w n .
The king w a s c l e a r l y making a l e v y o f men f r o m the o u tly in g
izigaba. A l e v y o f w o m e n w a s a l s o bein g made, th o u gh th e y
w o u l d h a v e g o n e in any c a s e . The o u tly in g c h i e f t a i n c i e s did not
c o l l a p s e tho ugh, b e c a u s e o n ly a s m a llis h p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e i r you ng
men went o f f in the end. I b u t h o - r a i s i n g w a s p s r m a n e n tly i r r e g u l a r .
Not a ll y o u n g men went. T h e r e w e r e exem ptions. Som etim es
men w e r e p e r m it te d to r e t u r n home. T h e y w e r e a l l o w e d b a ck
to p la n t. H e i r s w o u ld s t i l l s u c c e e d to p r o p e r t y . But it i m p l i e d m u c h to
and f r o i n g , and a l s o a t h o r o u g h m i x i n g o f p e o p l e . \ g e d p a r e n t s w o u ld
g o o f f to the s e t t l e m e n t s o f t h e i r s o n s . S om etim es sons would co m e
b a c k to l o o k a ft e r t h e m . D a u g h t e r s w o u l d ru n o f f to an ibutho to be
with a m a n t h e y had f a l l e n in l o v e with. P a r e n t a l a u t h o r it y fo u g h t in
v a in . In d e e d , the i d e a o f the f a m i l y m u s t have b e c : i d il u t e d . The
h i s t o r y o f the N d e b e l e i s to be w r i t t e n a r o u n d the s u c c e s s f u l c h i e f ­
t a i n c i e s , not c l a n s . How th e K a la n g a and R o z v i o r g a n i s a t i o n w a s
 o

m o d i f i e d d u r in g the p r o c e s s o f b e i n g s w a l l o w e d ( s e e b e l o w ) is e v e n
m o r e m y s t e r i o u s , l a r g e l y b e c a u s e no one has s t u d ie d t h e s e p e o p l e
h istorica lly . P e o p l e w e r e n ow m e n o f the k in g , and o f the c h i e f , as
w e l l a s o f t h e ir f a t h e r s .
T o d i s m i s s s u c h c o m p l i c a t e d h a p p e n in g s as ' e x p l o i t a t i o n ' o r
' e x t r a c t i o n o f s u r p l u s ' is s i m p l y d u ck in g the i s s u e s i n v o l v e d . Th e
m a i n p r o b l e m is that t h e r e is s till t o o lit tle e v i d e n c e to b e a ble to
d e s c r i b e e x a c t l y what w a s g o in g o n . E v e n with the i n f o r m a t i o n at
han d t h e r e is s t ill m u c h a m b ig u it y . In the N d e b e l e k i n g d o m h o w e v e r ,
it is c l e a r that in d iv id u a l f a m i l i e s l a b o u r e d f o r the king, e i t h e r b y
c o n t r i b u t i n g to c o r v l e s o r b y y i e l d i n g the l a b o u r o f t h e i r s o n s f o r
am abutho. What t h e y g a v e up to the c h i e f s is not s o c l e a r . In re t u r n
th e y g o t ca ttle s o m e t i m e s , captives m o r e r a re ly , s e c u r i t y and j u s t i c e
in variably. It w a s a s u f f i c i e n t l y g o o d b a r g a i n to a t t r a c t m i g r a n t s .
The c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n the l i v e s o f the w e a lt h y and t h o s e o f the l e s s
w e a lt h y w as m u c h l e s s than that b e t w e e n u r b a n w o r k e r s and
c a p i t a l i s t s in n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e . H o w the c o m p e t i t i o n f o r
w e a lth and p o w e r b e t w e e n the kin g and g r e a t c h i e f s , b e t w e e n the l a t t e r
and the lit t le c h i e f s , b e t w e e n t h e m and the o r d i n a r y a b a n i n i u m z a n a ,
and f o r a u t h o r ity w ith in the f a m i l y b e t w e e n the l a t t e r and t h e i r w i v e s ,
s l a v e s and c h i l d r e n f i t s in to c o n c e p t s o f c l a s s s t r u g g l e is a s u b j e c t
s t ill to b e r e s e a r c h e d .
A s a d e b a t in g h y p o t h e s i s I h a v e a l r e a d y s u g g e s t e d that the a m a ­
butho w e r e p r o d u c t i o n u n it s , e x p a n d e d ' w o r k p a r t i e s '. The o t h e r
p r o d u c t i v e unit l a y w ith in the u m u z i , that i s the v i l l a g e , th is p r o d u c i n g
the a u t h o r it y o f the u m n i n i u m z a n a . S i m i l a r l y the k i n g ' s p o w e r d e r i v e d
f r o m h is c o n t r o l o v e r m e n in a m a b u t h o . It w a s an i d e a w h i c h w a s
a t t a c k e d , .though I n o t i c e J e f f G uy is s a y in g m u c h the s a m e th in g f o r
the Z u lu . I t ' i s an i d e a I a d v a n c e a ga in . S o m e p e o p l e h av e r e s i s t e d
the v i e w o f the ibutho a s a p r o d u c t i v e unit . T h ere is a d iffe r e n c e ,
t h e y s a y , b e t w e e n e x t r a c t i o n th r o u g h r a i d i n g and p r o d u c t i o n . A ll I
w i l l r e p e a t h e r e i s th at quite a part f r o m d i r e c t s e i z u r e o f c a t t le ,
captives e t c . , the a m a b u th o w e r e p r o d u c t i v e in b o th the a c q u i s i t i v e
and p r o t e c t i v e s e n s e . Wit hout t h e s e d e f e n c e f o r c e s the N d e b e l e
w o u l d h av e q u i c k l y s u c c u m b e d to f o r e i g n e n e m i e s and p r o d u c t i o n
 it s e lf , w o u ld h av e h alte d. T h e amaiaha w e r e a s much d i r e c t p r o d u c e r s
aa th e w om en in the f i e l d s ,
So f a r I have m e n t i o n e d the in d ivid u a l v i l l a g e s , the i m i z i , tha
c h i e f t a i n c i e s , the i z i g a b a , the a m a b u t h o . and b y i m p l i c a t i o n the k i n g ' s
p l a c e , e n k o s i n i , a tow n on a d i f f e r e n t s c a l e and s t r u c t u r e f r o m e i t h e r
the ib ut ho e n c a m p m e n t o r the l a r g e s t u m u z i z a m a t h a n g a o r p r i v a t e
v illag e. In o t h e r w o r d s the o l d i d e a o f the N d e b e l e state b e i n g an
a g g l o m e r a t i o n o f huge r e g i m e n t a l to w n s i s not t e n a b le . V a rio u s types
o f s e t t l e m e n t e x i s t e d in d e p e n d e n t l y and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , e v o l v i n g and
s h ift in g in t h e i r d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s .
T h e r e w e r e ye t o t h e r p a t t e r n s , but b e f o r e m e n t i o n i n g t h e m , t h e r e
is o n e f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n a s s o c i a t e d with a m a b u th o and < i t t l e m e n t . W ere
the r e g i m e n t s g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r in to d i v i s i o n s k l a B r j. »h a r m y , and
w e r e t h e s e f o u r d i v i s i o n s , n a m e l y a m n y a m a , a m h l o p e , ig a p h a and
a m a k a n d a . f o r m a l m i l i t a r y - c u m - t e r r i t o r i a l s u b d i v i s i o n s o f the k i n g d o m ?
V i r t u a l l y all p r e v i o u s w r i t e r s f r o m M aund o n w a r d s a s s u m e d th is to
be the c a s e . But it is , in t h i s w r i t e r ' s v i e w , a seriou s m isd escription.
T h e y w e r e c e r t a i n l y not f o r m a l m i l i t a r y u n i t s . G e o g r a p h ic a lly they
e x i s t e d though. A m n y a m a f o r e x a m p le w a s a g e n e r i c n a m e g i v e n to
s e t t l e m e n t s in the u p p e r U m z in g w a n e v a l l e y , b e t w e e n the M u lu ngw ane
and M a t o p o s r a n g e s . A m a k a n d a (not hing to do with Z ulu a m a k a n d a )
e m b r a c e d c h i e f t a i n c i e s to the e a s t o f the M u lu n gw a ne >long the u p p e r
Insisa. A m h l o p e w as to the n o r t h o f the M a t o p o s ; and ig a p ha to the
w e s t , n o r t h and e a s t o f the o t h e r s . T h e y a p p e a r to ha >e b e e n e a r l i e r
a m a b u th o w h i c h f o r s o m e quite m y s t e r i o u s r e a s o n g a v e t h e i r n a m e s
to a r e a s in the M a t o p o s r e g i o n . A l l f o u r o r i g i n a t e d south o f the
L im popo. U n d o u b t e d ly t h e r e w e r e s e t t l e m e n t and b io 1 relationsh ips
b e t w e e n l a t e r c h i e f t a i n c i e s a n d / o r a m a b u th o and th e s e e a r l i e r a m a b u t h o .
Why t h » ? e p a r t i c u l a r f o u r s h o u ld have b e e n s i n g l e d ou i s not o b v i o u s
n everth eless.
T h e N d e b e l e c h i e f t a i n c i e s , the state that i s , clu ste re d together
in the r e l a t i v e l y r e s t r i c t e d a r e a o f about 4 0 00 s q u a re n i l e s in the
s h a p e o f an e g g , with the r o u n d e d e n d to the s o u t h - w e s t o n the w a t e r ­
s h e d b e t w e e n the Sh ash ani and G w a i r i v e r s , it s p o i n t e d e n d r e a c h i n g as
f a r a s the G w e lo and I n g w e n y a r i v e r s , it s n o r t h e r n e d g e s k i r t i n g the
S h a n g a n i vaLley and t s e t s e fly a r e a , it s s o u t h e r n e d g e the u p p e r I n s i s a and
N u a n e ts i r i v e r s . T h e p o in t e d end w a s an e x t e n s i o n o c c u r r i n g about the 1860
The to ta l p o p u la t io n o f th is c e n t r a l sta te is c o n j e c t u r a l , m y ow n c a l c u ­
l a t i o n s f r o m e a r l y E u r o p e a n c e n s u s e s g iv i n g a f ig u r e o f 5 0 - 7 0 00 0 . T h is
f a l l s w e l l s h o r t o f m o s t c o n t e m p o r a r y E u r o p e a n g u e s s e s th ough .
T h is a r e a o c c u p i e d b y the ce n ta l k i n g d o m w a s a l m o s t p u r e l y
c o i n c i d e n t a l l y p r e v i o u s l y o c c u p i e d b y the R o z v i - d o m i n a t e d C h a n g a m ir e
'e m p ir e '. T h e s e R o z v i g r o u p s w e r e c o n q u e r e d and a b s o r b e d b y the
N d e b e l e d u r in g the 1 8 4 0 s . T h o s e w ho r e s i s t e d w e r e f o r c e d to f l e e , as
w a s M a m b o T o w e c h i p i w ho e n d e d up f a r to the e a s t in the u p p e r Sabi
valley. T o w e c h i p i was f i n a l l y c a p t u r e d in 1866, g iv e n a l e c t u r e , and
sent back. O t h e r R o z v i f l e d to the B e lin g w e and M p ate ni r e g i o n s to
the s o u t h - e a s t . N o n - R o z v i p e o p l e s who h ad p a i d tr ib u t e to the m a m b o s ,
f o r e x a m p l e the N yu b i o f the M a t o p o s v a l l e y s , w e r e a l s o a b s o r b e d and
p a i d tr ib u t e to M z i l i k a z i in s t e a d . T h e s e p e o p l e w e r e s w a l l o w e d whole
and in the e n d N d e b e l e - i s e d . T h e i r c h i l d r e n w e r e r e c r u i t e d in to a m a -
b u t h o , g r e w up s p e a k in g S in d e b e le and p i e r c e d t h e ir e a r s . Som e of
t h e i r le ader.s b e c a m e i z i n d u n a ; t h e i r w o m e n w e r e taken as w i v e s by
the Nguni and S o tho . H o w f a r R o z v i v i l l a g e o r g a n i s a t i o n s w e r e le ft
in t a c t is n ot kn o w n . Un like the T u m b u k a in the N g o n i a r e a s h o w e v e r
the R o z v i a c c e p t e d ' k a f f i r i s a t i o n '. They b e ca m e N debele. The
N d e b e l e f r o m dow n s o u th r e g a r d e d t h e m as i n f e r i o r s , t e r m e d th e m
'h o li'. No o n e k n o w s w hat th is m e a n s .
T h e p o p u l a t i o n o f th is c e n t r a l N d e b e le sta te c a n thus b e d iv id e d
in to s e v e r a l g r o u p i n g s . T h e r e w e r e t h o s e o f p u r e N guni d e s c e n t , and
t h o s e N d e b e l e - i s e d S o t h o w ho c r o s s e d n orth o f the L im p o p o with
M zilik a zi. T h e r e w e r e a l s o s o m e S w a z i. Then there w ere R ozv i,
o t h e r 'S h o n a ' e s p e c i a l l y the K a la n g a , as w e ll as m o r e Sotho a s s i m i l a t e d
in the M a t o p o s . F i n a l l y t h e r e w e r e c a p t i v e s - a b a th u n jiw e y o . Rather,
f i n a l l y t h e r e w e r e i n n u m e r a b l e v o l u n t a r y m i g r a n t s , i n c lu d in g a g ro u p
o f F i n g o s u n d e r the M a z i z i s . T h e s e b r o u g h t with th e m th e ir s k i l l s
(W illia m M a ziz i b e c a m e L o b e n g u la 's ch ie f isanu si) and c u lt u r a l
en richm ent. Th e m i x s e e m s to have b e e n f a r m o r e p o s i t i v e than a m on g
M b e l w a ' s N go n i as D r V a il d e s c r i b e s t h e m .
 D id t h e s e g r o u p i n g s c o r r e s p o n d to c a s t e s , as m a n y w r i t e r s h av e
asserted? T h i s is s t ill a c o m m o n m i s c o n c e p t i o n : that t h e r e w e r e the
t h r e e c a s t e s o f Z a n s i , E nhla and H o li. T h e f i r s t thing to s t r e s s i s that
Z a n s i s i m p l y m ean t s o m e o n e f r o m dow n s o uth, and E n hla o n e f r o m the
t o p , i. e. f r o m n o r th o f the o r i g i n a l Ngu ni a r e a in Z u lu la n d a nd N ata l,
Z a n s i w e r e thus N gu ni, and E n h la Sot ho. They w ere g eograp hical
e x p r e s s i o n s de n o tin g t r i b a l o r i g i n . They w e re n ever caste te rm s .
N a t u r a l l y th e N gu n i, c o n t r o l l i n g the s ta te , r e g a r d e d t h e m s e l v e s as
su p erior. B y f a r the m a j o r i t y o f the g r e a t c h i e f s , th o u gh not a l l , w e r e
Nguni. T h e s e Ngu ni f a m i l i e s d id t e n d to o c c u p y the p o s i t i o n o f an
a r i s t o c r a c y , and i n t e r m a r r i e d with an e y e to e c o n o m i c e x c l u s i v e n e s s
and r a c i a l p u r it y . C h iefs s e l e c t e d m a r r ia g e p a r tn e r s c a r e fu lly fr o m
a n a r r o w group o f fa m ilie s. T h e y w e r e as i n b r e d as s e a lp o in t S i a m e s e
cat l i n e s . T h e s e f a m i l i e s a r e s t ill a s t o n i s h i n g l y u n p o l lu t e d by n o n -
N g u n i b l o o d to th is day. P h y s i c a l l y the e l d e r l y w o m e n a r e quite
distinctive. But I think a r u l i n g c l a s s r a t h e r than a r i g i d c a s t e . There
w a s m u c h i n t e r m a r r i a g e a c r o s s the b l o o d d i v i s i o n s , though it i s t r u e that
s l a v e u s u a l l y e n d e d up b y m a r r y i n g s l a v e , and N d e b e l e - i s e d R o z v i
s o m e o n e f r o m the R o z v i o r Sotho. L o b e n g u l a had o p e n l y t o p r e a c h
the v i r t u e s o f c r o s s - m a r r i a g e t o b in d the n a t io n t o g e t h e r .
A r o u n d the c e n t r a l k i n g d o m w a s 'the t r i b u t a r y s t a t e '. T h i s is an
a r t i f i c i a l c o n c e p t w h i c h c o v e r s the n o n - N d e b e l e l i v i n g o n f r i e n d l y
t e r m s with the N d e b e l e , w h o s e m a j o r d u tie s w e r e to a i d th e N d e b e l e
g r a z e t h e i r c a tt le and s u p p o r t the k in g in w a r . T h ey.occu pied p r e c is e ly
the a r e a w h i c h p r e v i o u s e x p e r t s d e s c r i b e d as a s c o r c h e d - e a r t h b e lt .
T h e y d id n 't l o o k h a r d en ough . Su ch t r i b u t e e s s e l d o m l i v e d c o m f o r t a b l y
as t h e y w e r e e i t h e r s a n d w i c h e d b e t w e e n the N d e b e l e , and f u r t h e r a w a y
a n t i - N d e b e l e c h i e f d o m s , s u c h a s the N g w a to to the s c u t h - w e s t o r the
K o l o l o / L o z i i n th e n o r t h - w e s t , o r f a c e d with the t e m p t a t i o n s o f
c o m p l e t e in d e p e n d e n c e . C h i v i , f o r e x a m p l e , a Sh one ( M h a r i ) c h i e f
in the s o u t h - e a s t w a s both c o m p e l l e d to p a y t r ib u t e and r e s e n t e d it.
T h e N d e b e l e r a i d e d h im p a r t l y to p u n is h h i m , p a r t l y to li ft h is c a t t l e ,
p a r t l y to p r e v e n t h im r e c e i v i n g guns f r o m the B o e r s and V e n da . If
he h a d s u b m i t t e d none o f th is w o u l d h av e h a p p e n e d . S i m i l a r l y in the
f a r n o r t h - e a s t the H e r a c h i e f H w ata w a s a l s o b ro u g h t b a c k to
M h la h la n h le la and w a r n e d . B y 1868 H w ata w a s f o r g e t t i n g h is tr ib u t e
and w a s r a i d e d again. H e w as an a c u te e m b a r r a s s m e n t to M z i l i k a z i
b e c a u s e o f h is c o n n e c t i o n s w ith the P o r t u g u e s e . S i m i l a r l y t o o the w e l l -
e s t a b l i s h e d t r ib u t e e N e m a k o n d e ( L o m a g u n d i ) w a s o u tb id by the P o r t u g u e s e ,
and w a s m u r d e r e d b y th e N d e b e l e in 1891 f o r f o r g e t t i n g to s e n d h is
presents.
You e s c a p e d th is s o r t o f in t i m i d a t i o n if you p a id tr ib u t e . C l o s e r to
th e N d e b e l^ the t r i b u t e e s had no c h o i c e e x c e p t to f l e e . F e w did. They
w e r e left in p e a c e as lo n g as tu e y sent to k e n s o f a l l e g i a n c e . . S o m e t i m e s
t h e y r e c e i v e d N d e b e le g o v e r n o r s . F o r e xa m ple , the N d e b e le c h i e f s of
N q a m a in the u p p e r T u li sent a g e n ts a m o n g s t the B i r w a , a Sotho g r o u p
l i v i n g to the south in the Jahunda H i lls ( m o d e r n G w a n d a a r e a ) . The
B i r w a s t a r t e d p i e r c i n g t h e i r e a r s and b e c o m i n g m a r t i a l . In the w e s t
the K a la n ga w e r e g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r in to v i l l a g e s s u c h as U s a b a and
L u lw a n a . S om e tim e s they r e c e i v e d N debele r u le r s . M o r e o f t e n th e y
co n tin u e d u n d e r th e ir ow n l i n e s , t h e i r c h i e f s b e c o m i n g m o r e N d e b e l e
than the Z a n s i. The w e s t e r n K a la n ga r e a c h e d the king th ro u g h the
S it h o le c h i e f t a i n c y o f A m a g o g o on the u p p e r K h a m i, and G am pu S it h o le
q u i c k l y b e c a m e an o v e r p o w e r f u l s u b j e c t . In the n o rth the Sh angw e
o f S ile y a and Inyoka r e c e i v e d v i s i t s f r o m In qob o and sent a t r ib u t e o f
tobacco, fn the n o r t h - e a s t , C h iw u n d u ra and G a m b iz a (S h o n a ) a l l i e d
with the K h u m a lo o f M b a m b a n je n i. In th e east the M h a ri o f 1m e m a ,
in c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n to t h e i r r e l a t i v e s in C h ivi, h e r d e d _attle f o r the
N d e b e l e o f Nxa. One o f the N d e b e l e g o v e r n o r s , N ito m iya p i is s till
w e l l r e m e m b e r e d today. T h e c h i e f s o f N x p a id e d the p e o p l e o f N h e m a
a ga in st N h e m a ' s e n e m ie s f u r t h e r e a s t, a situ ation w h ich le d d i r e c t l y
to th e A n g l o - N d e b e l e w a r o f 18Q". In the s o u t h - e a s t the N d e b e l e c h i e f s
o f G o d h lw a y o , the M a fu s . d o m in a t e d V e n d a , R o z v i and L e m b a g r o u p s ,
in an a r c b e tw e e n tue m o d e r n to w n s o f W e s t N i c h o l s o n and Sh abani.
Who - as p a r a s it in g o f f w h o m ? T a k e the la st e x a m p l e . The
G o u n lw a y o N d e b e le w e r e a b le to h e r d out th e ir ca tt le in M pateni. The
L e m b a s u p p lie d th em with c o p p e r . M e n f r o m the D u m b u s e y a i m i t a t e d
t h e i r m i l i t a r y eth os and s u p p lie d th e m with t r o o p s . S o m e s u p p lie d the
kin g with s k in s , o t h e r s with i r o n h o e s . In re t u rn t h e y w e r e le ft in
peace.
 T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p c o u ld not h av e b e e n e n t i r e l y u n h a p r , s i n c e v i r t u a l l y
100% o f th e N d e b e l e t r i b u t e e s r o s e with the N d e b e l e against the E u r o p e a n s
in 1896. T h is l i n e - u p had noth in g to do with a r e l i g i o u s n e t w o r k as
R an g er suggested. W a s the t r i b u t e e c o n o m i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ? It m a y
h a v e b e e n , but itff in te n tio n w a s a u f o nd p u t i c a l . Lobengula was s o m e ­
t i m e s s o d e l i g h t e d when w a v e r i n g t r i ) u te e s r e t u r n e d to the f o l d that he
sent t h e m p r e s e n t s in r e t u rn , .ch o f the t r ib u t e w a s s y m b o l i c . B ir w a
t r i b u t e w a s to k ill a c o w in n a o u r o f the l o c a l N d e b e l e g o v e r n o r . The
N d e b e l e w e r e e c o n o m i c * ) ' / ju s t about s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t and c e r t a i n l y did
not d e p e n d on t r ib u t e , w h ich i s not to s a y the king did not a p p r e c i a t e
I n y o k a 's t o b a c c o P a y m e n t o f t r ib u t e w a s a s u r e , i n d e e d th e o n ly
i n s u r a n c e a g a in st r a i d s . It w a s a p r o t e c t i o n r a c k e t , but th e v i c t i m s
p a id u p, and t h e r e w e r e a d v a n t a g e s . Do not c o n f u s e the l e v y i n g o f t r ib u t e
w ith r a i d i n g . T h e tw o w e r e in e s s e n c e a l t e r n a t i v e s .
A s m e n t i o n e d the g e o g r a p h i c a l e x t e n s i o n o f the t r i b u t a r y sta te
c o i n c i d e d with th e a r e a o f N d e b e l e w in t e r c a tt le g r a z i n g . O r put th e
o t h e r w a y , the N d e b e l e u t i l i s e d the p a s t u r e s o f s a f e t r i b u t e e s s u c h a s
N h e m a f o r t h e i r o w n c a tt le . It w as c a tt le s i s a 'in g c a r r i e d out on a
t r i b a l l e v e l , s i n c e the t r i b u t e e s f r e q u e n t l y s u p p lie d the h e r d e r s t o o .
A s with the s la ves, in s i d e the N d e b e l e k i n g d o m , the t r i b u t e e s g a in e d
c a lv e s , m a n u re, meat. N d e b e l e i m p i s w e r e p l a c e d at t h e ir d i s p o s a l
f o r h e lp a g a in s t l o c a l e n e m i e s , A va st f r o n t i e r o p e n e d up w h ich a d v a n c e d
and e b b e d . N d e b e l e w a r r i o r s w e r e jo i n e d b y n o n - N d e b e l e , e. g. the
D u m b u s e y a , in t h e i r r a id i n g . P a t r o l s w e r e out c o n t in u o u s ly . Some y e a r s
the f o c u s w as in o n e d i r e c t i o n , o t h e r y e a r s a n o t h e r . Europeans cea sed
to b e a b le to d is t in g u is h b e t w e e n N d e b e l e and N d e b e l e i m i t a t o r s . B e h in d
the a m a j a h a c a m e spy n e t w o r k s and th en hunting p a r t i e s . A s accurate
n e w s p a s s e d b a c k to the c a p i t a l , th e k in g s d e c i d e d w h e r e pu n ish m e n t
r a i d s w e r e n e c e s s a r y and o r g a n i s e d the a m a b u th o to c a r r y th e m out.
At th e o u t e r l i m i t s N d e b e le a r m i e s r e a c h e d a s f a r as s o u t h e r n
B o t s w a n a , s o u t h e r n Z a m b i a , th e l o w e r Z a m b e s i b e l o w K a r i b a , the
S a l i s b u r y a r e a , and as fa r a s the ' b o r d e r ' w ith th e G a z a in s o u t h ­
eastern R hodesia. F o r the h e a r t l a n d in th e c e n t r e a r e l a t i v e l y p e a c e ­
fu l e n v i r o n m e n t w a s a c h i e v e d w h i c h o n l y E u r o p e a n c o n q u e s t w a s to
destroy.
 F in ally, trade. A f t e r a ll it waa not a ll v i o l e n c e and th eft. Another
o f the o l d e r v ie w a waa that the N d e b e l e d id n 't k n o w h o w to t r a d e , and
w e r e not sus ce p tib lfe to th e e n t i c e m e n t a o f E u r o p e a n t r a d e g o o d a .
N othin g c o u l d b e f u r t h e r f r o m the truth. A n o t h e r m yth waa that the
N d e b e l e a c o r n e d the gun. S e e r e c e n t w r it in g a o f R a a m u a s e n and
M u den ge. Th ia ia a la o quit e u n tru e . T h e N d e b e l e w e r e o b s e a s e d with
guna and a m m u n it i o n e v e r a in c e th e 1820a. L a ter they wanted cloth,
and o t h e r th in ge auch aa b ea da . A a mu ch ju nk p a s s e d f r o m S h o s h o n g
to Bulawayo^ and f r o m t h e r e to the o u t ly in g c h i e f t a i n c i e s , a s to any
o t h e r A f r i c a n s o c i e t y in th e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A n y t a b o o th e N d e b e l e
m a y h av e had about s e l l i n g t h e ir c o w s w a s q u i c k l y o v e r c o m e b y the
dem and for f ir e a r m s . E u r o p e a n s s o l d guns w o r t h tw o g u in e a s f o r
c o w s w o r t h s ix at M a f e k in g . T h e N d e b e l e t r i e d to u s e th e f i r e a r m s
ao a c q u i r e d in o f f e n s i v e s , but n e v e r h ad en ough a m m u n i t i o n to b e a b le
to d i s c a r d the a s s e g a i . T h e y b e g a n to d r e s s in E u r o p e a n c l o t h e s . The
b e a t d r e s a e d c h i e f s h ad o l d j a c k e t s f o r i m p o r t a n t o c c a s i o n s . M any of
t h e m i n v e s t e d in a l c h o h o l f i r s t . S o m e t r i e d to s e l l t h e i r d a u g h t e r s to
the vyhites f o r b r a n d y o r a m u s k e t . W h it e t r a d e r s o u t n u m b e r e d
m i s s i o n a r i e s b y ten to o n e . T h e y p u r c h a s e d g r a i n and s h e e p f o r t h e ir
own su p plies. The N d eb ele began prod u cin g s p e c ia lly fo r them. The
q u a n tit ie s w e r e p r o b a b l y t o o s m a l l to s u p p o r t any t h e o r y o f u n d e r ­
d e v e l o p m e n t th ou gh . T h e k in g u s e d h is sta tus to get th e b e s t b a r g a i n s ,
and e x p e c t e d to s e l l h i s c o w s at a r o y a l p r i c e . A sca le o f com parative
p r i c e s w a s e s t a b l i s h e d , a nd s l u m p s and b o o m s f lu c t u a t e d . A b o v e all
th e N d e b e l e s o l d t h e i r l a b o u r . E u r o p e a n s a l w a y s n e e d e d h e lp with
w a g o n s and g u id e s . T h e N d e b e l e w o u l d w o r k s i x m o n th s f o r a gun.
T h i s i n c l u d e d the N g u n i, who w e r e s h y o f d e r i s o r y w a g e s r a t h e r than
o f work. B y the 1870s N d e b e l e w e r e w o r k i n g in th e d i a m o n d m i n e s
in th e K i m b e r l e y a r e a . I f yo u t r a v e l l e d the r o a d b e t w e e n K i m b e r l e y ,
S h o s h o n g and B u la w a y o yo u m e t N d e b e l e g o in g n o r t h o r south to fin d
w o r k o r r e t u r n i n g with th e p r o c e e d s . Much ban d itry took p la ce . W hen
t h e y got h o m e , i f t h e y d id , the v i l l a g e w o u l d c e l e b r a t e . W h e t h e r pa rt
o f the w a g e s went to t h e iz in du n a I h a v e n 't b e e n a b l e to d i s c o v e r . You
w o u l d a la o s e e l a r g e h e r d s o f N d e b e l e c a t t le b e i n g d r i v e n south t o the
slaugh ter h ou ses. W h e n th e w h ite s o c c u p i e d M a s h o n a l a n d in 1890
N d e b e l e c a t t je w e r e t r a d e d in S a l i s b u r y . N d e b e l e la b o u r f l o c k e d into
M a s h o n a la n d in 1 8 9 0 - 3 . T h e E u r o p e a n s at that t i m e had a p r e j u d i c e
in t h e i r f a v o u r in c o n t r a s t to the ' l a z y ' Shona. A f t e r 1894 the N d e b e le
b e c a m e ' l a z y ' and g o o d f o r n o th in g t o o . T h e N d e b e l e did not like
the n e w e r a o f f o r c e d la b o u r w h i c h f o l l o w e d the c o n q u e s t . But t h e r e
w a s no a n t i - w o r k e th o s o r w o r k s h y n e s s .
W e w ill l e a v e the N d e b e l e w o r s h i p p i n g t h e i r v a r i o u s G o d s . The
Ngu ni c o m m u n i c a t e d with Unkulunkulu and S o m a n d h la , the Sotho with
M l i m o and the K a la n g a , V e n d a and R o z v i e it h e r with t h e ir m h o n d o r o
o r the M w a r i cult. S o m e N d e b e l e w e r e e ven c o n v e r t e d to C h r is t ia n it y ,
with e s p e c i a l l y T h o m a s M o r g a n T h o m a s r e p o r t i n g s o m e s u c c e s s at
S h ilo h in the e a r l y 1880s. It w o u l d be a g o l d e n f i e l d f o r r e l i g i o u s
h i s t o r y but s o f a r it h as not b e e n t o u ch e d . W e a r e left with m y th s and
nonsense. ■■

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