S jopane Sermon Bsc soar GEOLOGY OF INDIA Volume 2 R. VAIDYANADHAN and M, RAMAKRISHNAN GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA BANGALORE 2010Geology of India (Volume 2) By R. Vaidyanadhan snd M. Ramakrishnan Poblished by the Geological Society of India, PB, 1922, Gavipuram P.., Bangalore - $60 019 Pages: axxind2 ISBN: 81-85867-99-1 Copyright © 2010, Geological Society of India ‘This publication is made possible through liberal finanefal assistance from MSPL Limited, Hospet Printed by Offset Process by M. Nagaraju, Drii Enterprises Bangalore ~ 5600 085 Foreword A phenomenal growth has been achieved in our understanding of the Geology of India since India’s Independence through the efforts of the Geological Survey of India and several other State Surveys, exploration agencies, research organizations, universities, institutes and scientific societies, Many of our earlier concepts of geology in relation to structure and tectonics, stratigraphy and sedimentation, magmatism ‘and metamorphism, and metallogeny and mineral deposits have undergone drastic changes with lager inflow of data, synchronising with the evolving global concepts of earth processes. New dimensions have been added to Indian stratigraphy by detailed geological mapping on the ‘one hand and through geochronology and to a limited extent geophysics and geochemistry. The need for a comprehensive, nevertheless succinct account of the geology of India, keeping in view the above developments, has been keenly felt and a positive step has been taken by the Geological Society of India in entrusting to two of our outstanding carth scientists, Prof. R. Vaidyanadhan and Dr. M. Ramakishnan, the task of addressing this need. Professor Vaidyanadhan hails from an educational steeam from the Andhra University and is widely known for his expertise in geomorphology and a capability for incisive synthesis and review. Dr. M, Ramakrishnan has several decades of dedicated field work in different parts of the country to his credit under the banner of the Geological Survey of India and in guiding streams of younger scientists in geological mapping and interpretation. Both the authors have published widely quoted papers of lasting value. They served the Geological Society in the challenging task of being successive editors to the Journal of the Society and have established editorial capabilities. Tt goes to the credit of these two earth scientists that they, in the present two volumes, provide an exhaustive and commendable synthesis of Indian geology, covering the major recent advances. They have thereby generated, perhaps, the almost up-to-date and authentic publication on the subject now available» FOREWORD ‘The authors have taken to a central path in areas of modeling 8.11 | Exote blocks ofthe Malla Yohr Kingad 1 Pea, Unarkhand.| 687 812 | Lithosratigrphie framework of Middle Jurassic and lower Upper Jurassic rocks ofthe Kachehh Basi, Guat, os 813 | Tectonic map of Kueh, Gujarat 696 8.14 | Conetation oftihostratgraphie units of western Rajastian Basins, 69 8.13 | Geological map of te Ariynur dst showing the Aiseibuion of Cretaceous and Tenary ormtions, Tail Nadu m1 8:16 | Ourcrops of Bagh Grovp along Nammids river valley in Maharashra, Gyjaat end Machys Prades. ns 5.17 | Mop showing attferen infeed inland bins of Lameta | seaimenataion in Mabacashr, Gujrat and ‘Madhya Prades, ma 8:18 | Geological msp of Andaman Nicobar islands in Bay of Beng 13 lucy | 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3: Foils of the Mesoecic. 62.614usr oF FIGURES We Ne “Fite Page No. Chapter 9: Deccan Voleanle Province 9. | Flood basalt forming Large Ignecs Provinces (LIPS) ‘ofthe world along with gene inks to hotspots mm 162. | Seetion across the BVP frm Mysore Placa to Laccadive Basin showing the exposed and concealed ‘extent of the Decean Tap. 13s 93. | Map of Peninsular India showing ditibution of both surface and subsurface voles. 736 9.4 | (a) Lobecofa simple pahoehoe ‘low (b) Outrop of a ‘compound paoehoe ow () Schemati venical ‘seaton of 4 compound lv ho. or 95 | (a) Features of inflation ofa pathos tbe. Sketeh (b) and photograph () of ls lobe noma with radial racks ns 9.6 | Cotomnar joing of Deocan basalts near Ande, Mumbai) 739) 9.7 | (a) Schematic diagram ofa lava chanel (b) Sinaows parle ridges of levees in lave chunnel near ‘Absdonga. 00 9.8 | (a) Photomicrograph giving typical textural and mineralogical characters of Gant Plgiocase Basalt (OP), “Thalahat.(b) Red tole horizon atthe How contact between two flows of Poladpur Formation, Simagad For, Pune. (6) Photomicrograph of ted bole. a 99 | Zeolite in Decean tal, ma 0.10 | (a) Aerat view of Lonar Lake in Mahafashica, {(b) Panoramic view of Loar Lake oy 9.1 | ca) Swatigraphic coum showing detinetion of fortanons wring Heid and pewogrpic eters [ote GPs marking the formation boundaries (Wb Statgraphie coreation log. as 19.12 | Chemical stratigraphy based on elemental abundances ad ration. 46 9.13 | Disuibution of subprovines ofthe DVP. a8 0.14 | Lithographic Map of Western Maharastra 750 19.15 | (a) Chemestrtigrapy ofthe Wester Deccan Province, (b) Areas dominated by simple and compound patceioe flows an dye svarms 152 LUST OF FIGURES sti 3 Page No. 9.16 | (a) A generalized carton showing te thee subgroups of Decean Basal Group (8) EW cross-section of DVP From Rati t Gulbarga (e)N-S cross-section of DDVP fr Nannada River to Belgaum (Belapav). 153 9.17 | Deccan bassls and vasno-potonie complexes of Saurashiva arch. Note the dyke swarms tending early EW. 758 918 | Geotogieal map of Girar Igneous Complex. 759 9.19 | Geotopieal map of MundwaraFencous Complex. 764 9.20 | Pillow inva ner Muni 162 9.21 | Colamnar joined rhode of St. Mary's Islands, off “Maipe near Udopi onthe west coast of Kamataka 62 9.22 | Simplified geologial map of Amba Dongar alkane carbonate eomplen 163 9.23 | Deccan tests and volcanic plugs of Kachchh 168 9.24 | Mafc dykes inthe Deccan basalts of Narmada valley 166 9.25 | Common microscopic exturs in Deccan bass 168 9.26 | Diwibation of if snd gravity high in DVP. m 9.27 | DSS profile across Saurasta showing Gimar horst ‘marking the sit of Gimar Igneous Complex. m 9.28 | Heat flow vals in DVP, m 9.29 | 1sopach comour map of DYP based on DSS profiles. ms 9.30 | Osigin of lage plumes fom core rantle boundary. ma 9.31 | Movement of faa over the Reunion plume ms 9.32 | Regional dip of Deccan lavas support dering due 10 derplting of magmas forming lige magmas chambor. 76 933 | Map showing the dsvibution of infiae and inter-trappean bed in peninsular Faia ne 9.34 | Schematic representation of posible mlationships between infra and inte trppear. sequences and the associated lava flows ond the rifted bse ment haloes. m8 (Chapter 10: Cenczoic 101 | Chart showing he Cenozoic succession in Western Sub-Himalays and Indo- Gangetic focedeep including ‘ge, generalised lithology, depositional envionment, ‘eneiny Sequence and conventions thstatigraphy 788av sr OF nauEES Figo. Tie Page No. 10.2 | Geological and tectonic map ofthe Jager basin and the adjoining areas, western Rajasthan, 78 103 | Generalised swatigrphicsuession in Assun-Arakan ‘Basin, Norheastera Inia 800 10.4 | (A) Regional setup and varoas ithotectonic unis of aril ara, Ladakh Hialaya, (By Detaled geological map ofthe aa, 509 105 | Amideatise profi of diferent segments of a basa on ‘he aubducting plate near alison zone. sia 106 | NeogeneQueterary boondary in Indian basins. 836 4107 | Quaternary sediments of Idi, 837 108 | Physical stratigraphy ofthe exposed Late Pleistocene sediments ($1 and 52 suresh in the lower Narada valley an the ajacent Mahi and Sabarroat valleys a8 109 | Geological map ofthe Kathiavar Peninsula, Gujrat. 340 10.10 | Map showing sabsartace traces (ST,, ST, and ST,) sind sirdrural framework ofthe Cenval Natmada Valley. 30 10.11 | Detsited geamorphologcal rap of the Narmada-Tawa river confMuence ates shotng disbution of depasiional terraces, Madhya Pradesh sas 10.12 | Quatemnary geologic! map of Sarma lake, Rajasthan. 881 10.13 | Thar dunetield showing dane types and their locations 855 10.18 | Lithosatigraphic map of Karewa Group, Kashmic valley, ammo aa Kashmic 856 10.15 | Geological and geomorphological map of pans oF GGagara Rapti-Gandak sub besins, Uttar Pradesh (older). | 862-863 10.16 | Tectonie map of Ganga Basin. 861 10.17 | atorphogeotopie wap of th aes atound Busdwsn, ‘est Bengal (foter 366-867 10,18 | Geororphological mp of Krishna Gadavati det 869 10.19 | Holocene sea evel eure for west nian continental margin ceative vo preset sea level 880 1020 | Landforms slong the seaward margin oF the Billosk southeast of Reva Polsizamy Viatbapstnar district “Anas Pradesh, 882 1021 | Schemsi illustration of tlie sea level change ofthe sat coos of India during Midi to Late Holocene as UST OF FIGURES Figo. Tie Fase No. 70.22 | Shes of sade of Sione-Age people inthe Himalayan province and acighbouring rezions 886 Plates} 10.1 and 102: Foraminifera ofthe Conaznie. 92-703 Prate__| 10.3: Foraminifera and ober fasit of Cenozoic. pa ‘Chapter 1: Siwallk Group 11.1 | Sivalik belt of nontivest Himalaya showing important stargraphic localities. 390 11.2 | Surotigraphy snd maneslin funa ofthe Upper Siva ‘ofthe Jama eon. 396 11.3. | Distibuion ofthe Sati Group and elder Cenozoic rocks sn the ane of he Pay e-enuans and sjoining areas 198 114 | Geological erosssecton cross Mohand and Mussoorie syea, Unarakhand 900 115 _ | Littotogicatcolumo dough sequence of multstoried sandstones ofthe Mid Siwvalik Salgroup inthe Delua Dus region, Unarakand. 901 Strvtra arhitecie ofthe Siva teeane 908 Plste _| 14.1, Venerat annals end Prinwies of Cenezoic. $95 Chapter 12 Geology of Offshore Basins 12.1 | orfanore basins ofl 908 12.2 | Creceous ana Cenooletiochonostatgraphy (Stages snd bioivons): Standard an Indian (olde), 91091 Lithoseatigraphy of Bengal Basin, 912 1Litnertiniie nomena af sedimentary seqences penetrated in the East Godavari bain, ora 12.5 | Seismic ine serss dhe Bas! Godavari subbasin, SE ar of Tank hort (Mandapeta trough), ots 126 | Teenie fanework of Krish Godavari Basin, 916 127 | Stratigraphy of alr and Penna basins ors 1238 | Suatigraphy of Caovery Basin ow 129° | Teownicmap of Cawvery Basin 20 Stigaphie sucesso, exoblished biozanes in he uterop ae subsuface Cauyery Basin (Tiruchirapalli are) “Tamil Nad, nds, orLust oF riaures "Tide Fig Tite Page No] 12.1 Representative eaneversessiomie section across the nortirn pat ofthe Koakan deepwater basin showing theif and tt locks off the west coast of India om 12.12. | Litesratgrapie units of Kerala-Konkan Shel. 924 12.13. | Bombay Offshore Bain, 925, 12.14. | Staignphy of Bombay Onshore Basin, 926 12.15. | Generalised palyse-svtigraphy and litho sr of Bombay Offhore Basin ox 12.16 | Rock stratigraphic sccsssion of Kutch Basin. 98 12.17 | Geelagjeal section cree south Andaman, 930 Plate _| 12. Conozote Faget cyst, 910. Chapter 13: Morphology and Evolution 15 | Schematic NNW-SSE sections dough the upper reaches ‘of te south Indian piedmont benchlands, pallet the sue ofthe Western Ghats oe 132 | (a) Generalised morphologies! map of Ketch showing ‘yee denudaional surfaces (b) Profile across Ketch tanked showing cyclic Iandsutace. oa 133 | Goomorphie map of Keonjhar region, Shakhand and Oris. 943 134 | ANnb-Southcros-setion from the Himalaya tothe Bay of Bong 9a Physiograpic variation in te southem, conta and vonber Segients of Orissa, 946 136 | Stiswtace trctra features superimposed over the desing map of Gujarat Alluvial Paine oa 13:7 | Majrpelcochoonels in Rajsihan and adjacent eras. 99 138 | Riverdotas of nda showing major ancient channels, beach ndges and posible stages of progradation, 930 129 | Bvoltion overs tong gerod of ime ofthe four major thst defining the boundaries ofthe Himatsyan teranes. | 952 15.10 | Geomorphological and geological sting of the Psocene Lamy lake in Himalaya 93 13.11 | Quatemry geological and geomorphological map of Kailash Mancarovar route, Pthoragarh distri, Unarakhand 94 13 nas ‘Generalised cros-tecton ofthe planation surfaces (ongiminal and transverse) in Wester India. Schematic geomoepic map of Gangetic plain showing | major georoepic fetes: | Traces of abandoned chatnels and channel belts in Gangs-Gominterfiuve, Uttar Pradesh 956List of Tables [atte no Tite Page ne (Chapter 6: Palaeozoic 6.1 | Lithorstigrphic clasification ofthe Palacozoic. sequence ofthe Kashmir Teshys Himalayan sequence in he Lider Valley, Jammu ant Kesh. 502 62 | Upper Palaeozoic succession in Kashynir showing plat-tearing horizons 570 63 | Pennian in Kashmir faunal zones. 398 64 | Comeliion of some marine Lower Permian Bed of Indi. 63 65 _| Paleonic sequences in various sectors oer) 6ie6is (Chapter 7: Gondwana Supergroup 71 | Suatgrphic correlation of different peninsular Gondwana basis. ais 12 | Genera stratigraphic succession of Son-Mahanadi Graben on 73. | Litbeseadgrapy of the Rajmahal Formations eas 74 | stratigraphic range of Mega Plant fossils in Lower Gondwana | 635, 75 | Litboststigraphy and fossils in P-G Valley. on 16 | Seatirapic succession ofthe Upper Gondwana sediments tn the Kriss. Godavas coastal act 65 17 | Clasifcaion of sats in Plar Basin, 607 1.8 | Patyaoforms and Zones in the coat bearing Gondwane of Penns Inca. 835 19° | Compsratve(tenaive) eatigraphie sequence in some ofthe major Gondwana sedimentary basin i southern contin. 60 Chapter 8: Mesozie 81 | Bicoratigraphicctsiicaion ofthe Tas System of Spit (oie. 682-683 82. | PermianJuasic formations of Painkhand (Nii aes) 688.089 83 | Mesozoic stratigraphy of Kachoh. 4 8334 _| Liosua 694.995 raphy oF Kutch (foes) 1st OF TABLES vin ble no. Title = Page no. 4 | Upine on Kechehi Forse ammonoid chronology and sequence satigrphy (older 03.09 85 | Ammoncidbioseaigraphy of Spit Formation around CCichim and Gaitey- Spit Tei, Himachal Prades oer. 702708 86 | Ctussiteation of Upper Jurassi-Cretaccous rocks of ‘Mall Johar Area, Kumaun Himalaya 70 89 | Suaigraphy of Triekinopoly Aven 73 88 | Strtigrphy ef Bagh Formation, no 89 | Litostatigraphic succession of Lameta rocks in Narada basi m2 8:10 | Biot of Infasrappean (cLameta) beds nan (Chapter 9: Deccan Valeanie Province 9.1 | Litostratigraphy of westem Maharastra 709 9.2 | Chemical Sutigaphy of Westem Deccan Province, 75 9.2 | Comparative able of Kihosttigrphy and shomosttigrphy 755 9.4 | Bio of subsurface Intra sn Krish Gaara 3 95 | Possiterous Deccan Intertrappean outcrops (older. A785 Chapter 10; Cenozate 101 | Cenozoic Linser Time Seale 786 102 | Conetation of Cenozoic formations In Gujarat. ot 103 | chsstcaion of Cenozote succession of Andaman Nicobar Islands 802 104 | Teniary ratiraphy of Katoh 08 105 | Paleogene formations of the sab-Himalayan belt and Sindhu Teangpo valleys. 808, 106 | Characteristic fetures of Kary] Molasse. 810 107 | Strasgrophy of Subathy inthe Himalayan foothills a2 108 | Linossstgraphic classification ofthe Sirmar Group. a3 109} Composite galynosvatigeaphy of Mikir ils, Dhansr valley and Upper Assam. 316LIST OF TABLES {iabieno| Tie Page no. | 1010 | Section in Um Sobryngkew River near Thera ‘exposing an uninterrpted suecesion of Late (Cretaceous-Paleogene sta 817 1011 | Suatgraphie corcation of Neogene sediments ofthe Incian subcontinent 221 10.12, | Surma-Tipam saceession in Assam and adjoining regions 827 1013 | Lithostatigrphic classification of sedimentry sequence in Kerala, me 10.14 | Comparison of plonktonic foraminiferal cata levels between Andaman Nicobar/DSDP site 214 and | } DSOP ste 289. a4 10,15 | Suatigrephy of he Quatemacy deposits of Saurashi, 339 10.16 | Litostatigraphy of the Quatemary deposits of (Oknammandal sat 1017 | Quaternary suatgeaphic suocession of Cental India. aaa 10.18 | Disuibution of Fauna in Indian Pleistocene deposits and ther probable ages. a6 10.19 | Chronological sequence of fois in Nard Vly sis 1020 | The litho- and biosteatigraphy of the Narmada Valley based on recent data sis 1021 | Sunsmary of major lithofacies characterises, archaea” rtigrapliy and luminescence dates of Quatemary alluvial sequences, Luni basin, 850 1022 | General Quatemary lihostaigraphy ofthe Thar dese. 852 1023 | Scheme of ub-division of the Karewa sequence, 855 1028 | The Quaternary succession in imachal Prades. 858 1025 | Litosuatigraphy and morphostaigraphy of Quaterary ecimonts in Kali valley 160 1026 | Quernary sratigesphy of the Indo Gangetic plain end Solp-Himalays, Ur Prades 8a 1027 | Cocrelaion of Quaternary Formations in oastl plain of Wes Bengal 366 1028 | Quaiemary tithostratigraphic sequence in coastal Orisss, | 868 Chapter 11: Siwalik Group 14 | Chreuostatigraphic division ofthe Siva Group. 01 112 | Lithostatigraphy ofthe Siwalik Grovp. sz 1.3 _| Gonecalised Sowalik sratigeaphy in Utaraknand 900 LST OF TABLES feo] Tite Tem] Chapier 12 Geology of Ohtoe Bans 121 | ceertedihoaatgratic ean of send Otter Ba on 122, | conrad saree cat fre Pula Bain m7 123 | udexagapy er Ananan Baa oa 124 | ag. Some rock Rese casa Tp Polit Dain nai 2 (Chapter 1: Morpolgy and vation 111 | ssnons f piel lnsape aot der develop! iste fore ne 926 va. | puna seer of Kaden oo 133, | ete conto of paetats fh By, Ie pes Inthe on 124 | cecmoptic wis of un and Hanan ston pins | 985Palaeozoic ANTRODUCTION Rocks of the Palaeozoic era covering a span of about 290 Ma occur :mainly i the Himalayan region and that too most of them inthe Tehyan basin, extending from Kashmir in the northwest {o Bhutan in the east (ig.6.1). A - basin by the Kishtwar-Giambal-Nunkun-Suru crystalline zone. Tithe southwest, itis tectonically delimited by the Panjal thrust, along which the rocks have been transported over the Lower Himalayan tectogen. On the northeast, the Kashmir Tethyan belt overrides the Indus tectonic zone along the Sunko thrust. The Lidder valley forms a part of the southeast zone of the asin. It displays an excellent section of the Palaeozoic sequence of the Tethys Himalayan basin. The sequence earlier classified by Middlemiss, however, offers seupe for 1evision in respect of lithostratigraphy and nomencInture (Table 6.1). In the Lidder Valley, the Palaeozoic rocks together with the Triassic sequence are folded as NW-plunging overturned anticline designated as Lidder [Anticline, with its main closure located in Walorama sector (Fig.6.3). South of the Panjal thrust is the "Autochthonons Zone” representing a folded and imbricated belt, This extends from Uri in the Jhelum valley in the ‘west to Chauhira in the Ravi valley in the east, into the Jamma and Kashrair (1 & K), and further east inks up with the Shali structural belt of Lesser Himalayan tectogen of Himachal Pradesh. This is bound to the south by the ‘Murree Thrust, separating it from the Tertiary rocks, mainly Marree and Siwalik Formations, whereas the Panjal Thrust marks its northern limit with the ‘Nappe Zone? made up of elder rocks forming the basement of the Tethyan sediments 3 Se: Cat eta kuna Jn Sequences: 3 Cryin Thst She's; 4- Bocambrian-Plasomsc; 5 - Mesozoic: 5 é i § 3 Kashmir Sub-bosin e ; 4 i § z ee 6 Gpsiolte Nappes MCT» Main Cereal Tas Fig. Tathyon Basi TT360 (GEOLOGY OF INDIA ‘The Panjal thrust isa high angle major tectonic lineament dipping towards north and is traceable from Jhelum valley to Ravi valley in the east and beyond into the Satlej valley in Himachal Pradesh. The tectonic plane, considered earlier to bbe the trace of “Panjal Thrust’ inthe Chenab valley, is found to be a major fault the Sudh Mahadev Fault - within the Autochthonous Fold Belt. Bhadarwah-Chamba Sub-basin ‘This lies to the southeast ofthe main Kashmir sub-basin. It exposes the Permo-Triassic sediments overlying he Panjal voleanics, which unconformably overlie the Precambrian-Eocambrian rocks. ‘The Outer and Lesser Himalaya can be divided into the tectonic units from south to north as shown below. ‘Tectonic sting of Lesser Himalaya of Jam (modified afer Shah, 1980. .133) ‘South OwterSiwalik Bek dn Bastt = = = ‘Murree Bel, with Jumma Limestone capped by Bocene (Sabato facies) in basement high regions and Sivaik rocks inthe syncinal areas Pacasutochihonous” zone containing Shali Formation, Mandi Trap, Agglomeratic Slot and Eocene (Hazats facies) showing a younging of ssvcession westwards = Pagal Tast = = ‘North Kashmir Syncineriam. wih te southern ib bearing rocks of the mixed “Tethyan and "Lessee Himalayan” fini Spiti-Zanskar and Kinnaur Sub-basins ‘The Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sequences in the south Ladakh of J&K and Spiti and Kinnaur area of Himachal occur in two isolated synclinoria having ‘comparable lithostratigraphic and faunal contents. They possibly represent part of the same basin, now separated due to erosion along a structural bigh. The Kinnaur sub-basin links up with the Garhwal-Kumaua Tethyan sub-basin of ‘Uvarakhand across south Tibet. These segments together constitute the Spiti- Zanskar basin in the Indus Himalaya, exposing spectacular, almost uninterrupted Protcrozoic-Palacozoic-Mesozoic~Tertiary succession in the Indian Himalaya (Figs. 64 and 6.5) Itjs bound by the Vaikrita Group of Central Crystalline Zone on the southwest side and by the Indus Tectonic Zone on the northeastern side. The geology of this region has been worked out in considerable detail and part of the geological map of this region together PALAEOZOIC so. Fig.6.2. Geological sketch map of the Kashmir Himalaya showing various totonie and ‘setigropic units after Sha, 1960;repented with permission rom Hindstan Publishing Corporation, New Delhi. with a section is presented in Figs.6.4a and 6.4b. The overall stratigraphic sequence is shown in Fig.6.5. Garhwal-Kumann Tethyan Sub-basin ‘The Garhwal-Kumaun Tethyan sub-basin is mainly seen in the Malla Johar and northern Kumaun areas. This zone comprises a thick sequence of sedimentary rocks of Proterozoic-Phanerozoic formations. FIE6.3. Geological eross stetion across Lider Anticine in Wilorama sector, Kahin (ater Srikantia and Bhargava, 1983, p34), eese GEOLOGY OF INDIA “Table 6.1. Lithotragrphicclasiistion of the Palaeozoic sequence ofthe Kashnit Tethys Himalayan soqencein the Lider Valley, Jamo and Kashmir modified after Srkantia ae ‘Geup ‘Formation “Thickness Mialemiss (1910) om "Tiassis Semana eae ewan Upper Permian Panjal ——wpperlavaffows 2000 Lower Pemian Velesnics lower 250 soleanogenic Lowermost Pindobal 700 Agglomeraic ste Permian to ‘Lidder——Ganesbpar 1800 Fenestelia Shale Carboniferous Ashmugam 700 = Passage Beds ‘Syringohyris Ls. Devonian Chergall—Wazure 500 ‘Muth 1000 Muh Quarzite Cambrian Rishkobal soo Midate Hopamnar —-Rangamal 400 Silurian Shumatot 3500 Base not exposed ‘Though almost close wo each other, the thickness ofthe various stratigraphic horizons in the adjoining basins across the Himalaya differ considerably from Kashmir in the northwest through Spiti-Zanskar in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand and at the other end in Nepal-Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. Detailed descriptions of these formations follow under different periods of the Palaeozoic. PALAEOZOIC LIF Invertebrates Early life seems to have been essentially marine and practically most of the invertebrate fauna known now, existed in some part or other of the Palacozcic. Uniellular organisms were quite common. Foraminifera (Protozoa) were present right fiom the Cambrian times though they assumed some importance in the Carboniferous. Sponges (Porifera), one of the simplest ‘multicellular organisms and essentially marine, increased in number only in the Carboniferous. However, there are not many repos of sponges from India Corals came into prominence in Ordovician and Silurian and continved in other PALAKOZOIC 36 succeeding eras as well. They are among the main carbonate builders, The ‘exclusively marine echinoderms, which persisted almost tirough the entire geological column of the Phanerozoic, were mostly represented by cystoids in the Palacozoie right from Cambrian, becorning prominent in Ondovician- Siturian and became extinct by Permian. Blastoids were also mainly confined to the Palaeozoic. Crinoids were more abundant in the Paleozoic era than the ‘other echinoderms. Bryozoans, which were dominantly marine in habit, generally axe found as encrustations on foreign bodies like shells. These are seen occurring as colonies and are termed ‘coralline crags’ though they ate not strictly corals in their structure. Though known to have appeared in Ordovician, a majority of them are known in India from the Permian only Brachiopods, which are exclusively bivalved species, are known to have one of the longest ranges of existence among the invertebrates right from Cambrian to Tertiary. Even in India, Linguelia, Obolus wastonia and Obotella ailantica have been reported from the Cambrian of Spit, Since most of them ‘are made up of calcareous matter, they are very well preserved and hence are in a position to be used in stratigraphic classification. Within the Palaeozoic, their occurrence in the Pesmo-Carboniferous strata of Kashmir and Spit is ‘well known and so also inthe Salt Range in neighbouring Pakistan, productids being the most important ‘Mollusca perhaps represent one of the largest groups of invertebrate fossils that have worldwide distribution: Pelecypods, also known as Lamellibranchiata, live in fresh, brackish and marine waters. These also range in time from Cambrian to Holocene. Except in a very few cases, these cannot be considered 235 constituting important zone fossils in the Palaeozoic. “The gastuopods can thrive in all types of environments from the waters of great depths in the oceans (5000 m) to over the tops of the mountains in the lakes of Himalaya (6000 m) ney do appear in Cambrian, are represented by a few species in Ordovicia Silurian and occur in considerable numbers in the Permian, Cephalopods, ‘which are exclusively marine, are represented by afew species in the Ordovician and a few more in the Pertnian, Ostracodes are known from the Palacozoic. However, the fossils that are of considerable importance as index fossils in the Lower Palacozoic ate Uuobites, which became almost extinet by the end of Permian. Conodonis were described and illustrated about 150 years ago. Their lack of facies restriction and worldwide distribution has helped in their use for correlation “They extend from Cambrian to Triassic. ‘They are reported from some of the Palaeozoic strata inthe Himsalaya. Graptolites do not seem to have made theit presence in India, In Plates 6.1 to 6.3 are presented some of the important fossils of the Palaeozoic era from the Himalayan terrain.soe (GEOLOGY OF INDIA. SCHEMATIC secONS Fig.64, Goologzsl map) and action bf gor of Spit Kins ares, Bitnachal Pradesh (fies Bhagvaan Bas, 199). Fig. for explanation of te nutes inte sp and the seston) PALAEOZOIC Laguoanst ranawaa ‘and Bass, 199) ‘sauce 565 Leseno [EE exrsone [E29] mmc 2 see566 GEOLOGY OF INDIA Vertebrates Pethaps it is in the Devonian that primitive vertebrates came into being. Amphibians perhaps evolved from the fishes of the earlier Silurian period and: ‘made their presence. Plant Life Acritarcha are unicellular microphytoplankton of organic composition of ‘an unknown life cycle. They are mainly marine in nature and occur in rocks ranging in age from Precambrian to the Recent. They attain their acme period during Ordovician-Devonian time. At present, itis believed that most acritarcha are derived from either unicellutar green algae, dinoflagellates or from precursor organisms in the evolutionary lineage of dinoflagellates. Algae are known from, even the Precambrian strata in India. Vascular plants came up in the Cambrian, An advance in the plant life can be seen in Devonian with Charophyta and Algites, and there were quite # few representatives of the plant kingdom. I ‘was in the Carboniferous that luxuriant vegetation thrived in other parts of the world (ultimately giving rise to extensive coal seams), but with only a few representatives in the Himalayan region. It was, however, in Peninsular India that we come across plants belonging to many families in the Gondwana strata, of Permian, The discovery of plant-bearing beds from the Lower Carboniferous sequence of Kashmir region has opened up a new field of palaeobotanical study involving Carboniferous or Pre-Gondwana flora in Kashmir. The earlier knowledge of Pre-Gondwana flora in the Indian subcontinent was negligible and restricted to Spiti in Himachal Pradesh. Six horizons (Table 6.2) have been recognised at distinct stratigraphic levels, out of which four show presence of Pre-Gondwana or Devonian- Carboniferous flora and two Permian floras. The later are somewhat similar to the Lower Gondwana flora of Peninsular India. Inthe Upper Devonian the plant fossils are extremely rare and very badly preserved. The Lower Carboniferous flora show a remarkable resemblance with those known from the Lower Carboniferous flora from other parts of the world, MAGMATIC ACTIVITY ‘There was invasion of granitic magma on a lange scale throughout the Himalayan province from Manshera in northem Pakistan to Manaslu in Nepal and beyond. The climax of this granitic activity occurred $25 to 475 Ma ago. This seems to have affected the older Proterozoic rocks, which it invaded, causing low grade metamorphism of those sediments ser Plate 6.1. 1. Phycodes pedum (Early Cambiisny; 2. Redlchia noeting! (Early Cambin) 2 Redlcitanoeting (Early Cambrian), 4. Orctocephalus indicus (Esly-Miadle Cambrian) 5 Onctocephatassoltert (Late Midile Cambrian): 6 Diplagrase planicauda (Late Middle Cambrian); 7. Dartesopesheridanorum (Late Mile Cambin) 8. Hyoithes(Orthotheca af. leat (Erly Camisany 9. Lingala sptensiFaely Cami}: W-It. Meldeotaa bandalica (any Cambrian: 12. Provohertana anabarica (Eat Cambrian: 13. Otvoides mntsudcats (aly Cambrian); 14, Spivellus shankert (Barly Cambrian), 15. Apiduim indicum (Late ‘Oxdovician);, 16. Ordhs aff sitesi (Silaian); 17. Orhoceras commasarum (Onowcian) 18, Plycodes crcinauam (Easly Ordovician) 9. Lepraena packecis(Ondoviian). (Courtesy ON, Bhargevs).$69 Plate 62.1. Pentamenes oblonga Siariany 2 Halystiescatnaleria vs. tarensis(Si 3 Kadiasnoea sp. (Silurian) 4. Calceo sandalina (Devonian). Aya reteataris S 6 Arya af. spinosa (Sih ian): Plate 63. 1-2. Burydesina cordarum (Early Permian); 3. Lonzdaleia salinara (Permian) 8. frioduedificilis (Devonian) 910, leiadus arkonensis 4. Chydognathus unicornis (Early Carboniferous); 8. Chyagnathur gibwernensis (Eat) @evooian); H-12. Pseudopotygnaines primus (Devouican}, 13. Bispathodus wculeotas Carboniferous): 6. Neoprioniodus confluence (Barly Catvonierovs). 7. Lammimarsies anteposicordus Devonian; 14. Bispathodue aculetus plus (Devonian. 18. 3 Hndestas rus (Devonian, 16. Chay . matoyaensis (Late Permian); 8-9. Cyelolobis oldham (Late Permian). 10. Kenodise ates cavusformis (Devonian: 17. Motlolaliderenss (Early 8 CihongtshFomston Plant Foss, ace Foss raeely % pemian ates onion Permian z : Prodecis and other % Carboniferous: ‘Saser Brangsa Formation — SvANeS (suphico Karlen gate nd Mineraisation) Set ou nal Ieiaseamentay rocks Late Cretacsous- Palaeogene gritos and Bataooese meta- eciments SHVOK SUTURE ZONE Fig.6.13. Schematic tectonostrtgrphie terse column of easter Karakoram (Sinha ta 1999) (Gource: Upadhyay, 2002), grey greywacke, Black slates occur at the contact between Saser Brangsa Formation and the underlying Pangong, Tso Formation, Saser Brangsa Formation has yielded Spirifer, Costispirifer, Atrypa, Linoproductus, Fenestella and ‘on the basis of this assemblage it is assigned Late Carboniferous age Himachal Pradesh A group status is given to the Carboniferous strata in the Spiti-Kinnaus sub-basin and designated as Kanawar Group, which includes Lipak, Po and Ganmachidam Formations, Lipak Formation: Due 1o its dark colour, in contrast to the underlying596 GEOLOGY OF INDIA ‘white Muth Formation and the overlying shale-dominated Po Formation, itcan be easily identified in the fully developed sections. Originally Hayden proposed the name after a valley ofthis name. It comprises of dirty white to grey, locally ‘ross-bedded sandstone in basal part, grey to ash grey shale interbedded with limestone and sandstone inthe middle prt and Limestone, local shale and lenticular gypsum bed in the upper part. The formation hasan uneven distribution throughout Spiti. In the Kinnaur area, tis formation or its equivalent is not developed, but further southeast in the Kumaun aca, similer rocks ate referred to as “Kali Series.” It has, however, considerable thickness towards northwest and in the Lahaul area. Sills of dolerite occur in the Lipak Formation at Teriya, Shalkar and WNW of Yalong Dogri “The presence of limestone, dolomite and gypsum suggests an evaporite sequence. Change from the clastcs of the Muth Formation to heterogencous carbonate-dominated sequence together with hard grounds (surfaces of unconformity) and reefs indicate a relative deepening of the basin. The environment of sedimentation of Lipak Formation varies from sb-tidal to intertidal, with acquisition of supratidal conditions in the terminal part to form an evaporite basin, when gypsum was precipitated "The basal Lipak contains Cyathophyllum sp. Idiestroma, Atrypa aspens, Orthothetis and Productella. Other important fossils are: Springothyris ‘cuspidata, 8. lydekkeri, Neospirifer banbadhurensis, Productus, Besides these fossils are crinoids, corals, gastropods, echinoid spines, shell-hash ~ all these also form carbonate builders in some places. Also reported are conodonts of Tournaisian age from the Labul area. The presence of Tentaculites and Syringothyris cuspidata inthe basal part and Phillipsia ef. clifford in the upper part indicates a Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous age (Tournaisian) for the Lipak Formation, Po Formation: Tiss aso named by Hayton afer vilge of he same name. It is mainly developed inthe NW and SE comers of Spiti valle. Ii entirely absent in eastem Kinnau ‘Te Po Forination forms a stepped topography due 1 alternation of light coloured quartzite and dark shale. It hs conformable contacts both withthe underlying Lipak Formation and overlying Ganmachidam Formation. It comprises alternation of dark grey, pale green shale, silstone and white and {rey sandstone, with shale predominantly inthe middle part of the sequence. “The strata have burrows, sole marks, ripples and some with internal erosion surface, besides occasionally low-angled festoon cross-bedded clean quar xenite. This shale-qvart2arenite cycle is tepeate five to six times. In the basal pat ofthe Po Formation plat fossils Rhacopteris ovata and Sphenopteridium fuclanan have been recorded near Tabo. The Rhacopteris PALABOZOIC sor flora represents the oldest uidisputed megascopic land plants known from Indie. This a cold climate flora. “The upper part ofthe Po Formation contains a rich assemblage of bryozoa Fenesiella, Other fossils include Praductus lineatus, P. sabriculus, Dielasma, Reticularia lineata, Protoretepora ampla, ‘The trace fossils are represented by Asteriacites, Aulichnives, Cochlichnus, Gyrochorte, Phycodes, Planolites, Skolithos, Ruzophycus and Rhizocorallivm. Besides, the shale in the Mardang. nala section contains nautiloid, orthoceratid, Fenestella, Pleuratomaria and crinoids. Though based on plant remains, a Middle Carboniferous age to Po Formation was assigned. The overall invertebrate fossil assemblage suggests a Lower to Middle Carboniferous age (Late Tournaisian to Serpukhovian). Ganmachidam Formation: This formation, earlier referred to as Permian Conglomerate by Hayden, is developed only in those sections where Po Formation is also developed. This has a gradational contact with the underlying Po Formation, best exhibited in Kurig, Yelong valley, Po, Pomarang, Angla and other sections. The upper part of its contact with the overlying Gechang, Formation of the Kuling Group is very sherp. It comprises pebbly mudstone, pebbly siltstone, pebbly sandstone, conglomeratic sandstone and black shale altcrnations. The lithounits are lenticular in nature with the result that even in close by areas the lithostratigraphic assemblage varies. Thore is coarsening of successive cycles indicating a sequence from shore facies to beach and possibly deltaic in some cases. The conglomeratic parts are pethaps the remnants of mountainous coastal rivers, reworked on a beach, ‘The entite sequence is unfossiliferous. The conformably underlying Po Formation is not younger than Middle Carboniferous and hence the lower age of the Ganmachidam Formation may be Middle Carboniferous. It is overlain by a sharp contact, denoting & possible break, by the Assclian-Sakmarian Gechang Formation of the succeeding Kuling Group. The upper age limit of the Ganmachidam Formation thus may be Upper Carboniferous possibly ansgressing into earliest Permian Uttarakhand In Utarakhand, the Kanawar Group represents the Carboniferous with the following succession: Po: Kali iver sction: very thin Fenestella Shales (Midale Carboniferous) Lipa: Ganji, Kalapani and Kuti in the Kali valley arly Carboniferous) ‘The fossils are generally similar to those reported from the Lipak and Po Formations in the Spit area Kanawar Groupsoa GEOLOGY OF INDIA PERMIAN In Peninsular India, afr a great hiatus since the Precambrian, terrestrial deposition commenced, generally with pockets of glacial tlle of Upper Carboniferous age followed by deposition of terresuial strata of the Gondwana Supergroup, extending almost to Lower Cretaceous. In the Himalayan terrain, however, after the Muth Quartzites of Devonian in some places and those of Lower Carboniferous in others, particularly in Kashmir, Spiti and Kumaun, there was a hiatus. Land conditions prevailed followed by the earliest manifestations of volcanism during Upper Carboniferous (2), but the out- ‘pourings were considerable, though intermittently during the Permian. This is seen in the Pir Panjal Range. Intercalated with these volcanics are fossil plant beds. Extensive marine sedimentation is a conspicuous feature in the Himalayan terrain in Permian in Jammu and Kashmir [extending right from Asselian t0 Tatarian (Table 6.3)], in Ladakh and Eastern Karakoram, in Himachal Pradesh particularly in Lahaul, Chamba basin and Spit, in Utarakhand, Bhutan ‘Table 63. Penn in Kas faunal zones (ootifie ater Nakazawa and Kapoor 1977) a8 Ma eisbachin? | Khunsnuh Fm. | & | Clara bion! D_ | Neogondottia subcorinaa gemnFn. | C | Coctotobus. N subearinara roan |S 5 |- A | Cotanietta minima, Anadebel Marsal eds in uoien a |: Pensa Kezanian B | Mone beas id Permian 3 |? | Gondwana | “| Maraboma beds & | vini beas shat isin 1 Volcanic ow Kunpurian 5 | Bucconopris warha one BE | PreeundutomyaSpiifersone | = ~~ BB | Leccumdalomya Spirit 2006 Varia. | Aesomentic | 25 |Taenioriaems:Bunronia zone | UMM She TYbleanic Faw g | Bawen Asean 2 Manendsgath ES | _Eweydesma Deltopecten zone_| Formetion 250 Ma AEH See EEE EEE Fenestlo roe PALAEOZOI 399 and Arunachal Pradesh, There are marine incursions of Permian within Peninsular India also prominently noted in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir ‘The upper part ofthe Agglomeratic Slate at the base of the Panjal Voleanics contains the following fossil zones: ‘The lower Fossil Zone contains Eurydesma cordatum (Plate 63-182), Deltopecten mitcheli, Megadesmus gracilis and Aviculopecten cuneatus. ‘This assemblage is considered to be Early Asselian in age. ‘The upper Fossil Zone contains Derbyia, Buxtonia kashmiricus, Taeniolthasrus permixtus, Fusispirifer plicarus, Cyrtetla, Reticularta, Brachythyris, and Wyndiamia, This assemblage is considered to be of ‘Sakmarian-Barly Artinskian in age. Panjal Voleanics; The rocks of this group are prominently visible on the summits and sides of Pir Panjal Range forming bill masses, The entire crest of the Pir Panjal Range and the southwestern slope extending from Pir Panjal Pass in the northwest to Kaukut peak (13480° or 4109 m) in the south- east is formed of this group. The Trap lies on top of Agglomeratic Slate and almost forms the central axis of the Pir Panjal Range, where it attains 2 ‘maximum thickness of about 1000 m. It is a conspicuous Palaeozoic lithounit covering neatly 775 kin? in the Kashmir valley constituting over 20% of the ‘exposed hard rocks. A fine section of the Panjal ‘Trap is seen in the gorge of, ‘Mandi valley between Sekhulu (33° 7: 74°15) and Mandi (33°48': 74°15!) where about 700 m of steeply dipping bedded flows are Taid bare in the provipices. Panjal Voleanios are directly overlain in many parts by a series of bes of ccherts, siliceous shales, carbonaceous shales, thin-bedded limestone, flaggy siliceous beds of quarzite with a band of rock known as ‘novaculite."’ These beds contain fossil impressions of ferns like Gangamopteris and Glossoprents, ‘equisetales, conifers with skeletons of Inbyrinthodonts and fishes, These beds Aare met with in several localities. Both the exposures at Risin and Zewan in the Vihi district are the most noteworthy because of theit being overlain dietly by the fossiliferous Permian strata ‘The Panjal volcanic episode represents continuous outpourings of lava flows without any noticeable tie lag as inferred by fused nature of flow contacts ‘and conspicuous absence of weathered zone at the top part of the flows, prior to ovtpourings of succeeding flows. The volcanies consist of basaltic andesite ‘with typical glomeroporphyritc texture, andesite with minor dacite and basaltic-600 ‘GBOLOGY, OF INDIA andesite and andesite composition. Field studies reveal as many as 156 flows ‘otalling to 2414 m in the Sonamarg sections. The Panjal volcanics show close laritiesinnature and composition of flow in these widely separated sections, ‘The nature of the volcanic flows is indicated by 3 to 10 inthe Fig.6.14. The episode signals the outpouring ofthe flows with little time lag in terrestrial as ‘well as sub-agaeous environments. ‘A two-fold classification of the Panjal Volcanics into Lower and Upper not only-holds good throughout the northwestern Kashmir but also in the URSECTON —_BANDPURA SECTION ET soo {HLH nif TTT LIAL ELLEN on TITTY ax sul uti tii, TTT itr von -fiitit iV TNL ® pRB rs) TCH IIHT] & te aR soo Hi(NIK II] zl ATT [owen panuar voucames to 15.00 Fig.6.14. Lithootuma of the Panjal Volcanics of Sonamarg, Lar and Bandipura sections of oriwestern Kashmir, 1 Cambro-Silurian: Stae, siltstone, quartz aenite, 2-Apglomeratic St: Sloe, quarteaenite, ciamictite and tafaccous tock +10: Pan ‘Voleaics:3- Glomeroporphyrive Now, 4” Pipe amygdelevesicular ow, 5- Compact, part of Dow, 6 ~Ferphytiie ow, 7 ~ Weathered ow, 8 Volcoic bec, 9~ Vesicle "mee, 10. Schisoe flow; X= Zewan Formation: Limestone, ct sl 12- lille ‘hisses Limestone and shale B- Basal, BA - Basti andesite, A Andesite, Nx = no exposure; F - Fal (afer Inder Singh, 1996) PALAEOZOIC or southwestern Kashmir (Awantipara, Tral and Lidder Valley) where 400 mi thick intervening acid differentiates are also observed. ‘The flows in the lower Panjal Voleanics vary in thickness from 2 to 46 m, but are mostly around 10 m. The flows are usually non-porphyritie in nature but a group of 8-10 glomeroporphyritic flows with radiating clusters of plagioclase lathsis quite conspicuous in all the sections occupying the basal part Of the sequence. The vesicles in the flow vary from less than 2 to $0 mm across and are spherical, ovoid to elongate in shape with inegular margins. ‘Those vesicles are often filled with secondary chlorophaeite, chlorite, epidote, quartz and eakeite. ‘The upper Panjal Voleanics are dominantly basalt to basaltic andesite and subordinate andesitic flows. These flows vary in thickness from a metre to 44 1m with an average of 13 m. The basaltic flows are dark greenish grey, fine to medium- grained, compact, non-porphyritic and usually accompanied by the top part having angular to subangular vesiculated, epidotised voteanic fragments ccomented by cherty matrix. The acid varieties found in the area around the Kashmir valley include rhyolites, dacites and trachytes. Panjal voleanics possibly represent island arc tholeiitic volcanism in bimodal environmeat i. in terrestrial as Well as subaqueous conditions. The intense epidotisation in the smygdaloidat part of the flows, besides few pillow Iavas from Guruyal ravine, support marine environment of deposition, These are overlain by Zewan Formation (Middle to Late Permian) However, the Gondwana plant beds (Early Permian) are also known to overlie these voleanies ia some sections in Kashmir. These may suggest that Panjal ‘Voleanies may represent time transgressive episode spanning from Artinskian to Kungurian, Permian Gondwanc/Gangamopteris Beds: The Permian Gondwana Beds, a term eater preterted by some to the name ofthe Gangamopters Bed, are variously named according to different horizons in which they occur within the Panja Voleanis as Mamal, Munda, Marahoma, Vihi and Nishatbagh Beds “These are shown in the Table 6.3.The possibilty of iscontinuity between the evan and the Permian Gondwana has been suggested, though in Pahslgam, the Mamal Beds are in conformable contact with the Zewan. ‘The Permian Gondwana Beds ae considered to have been deposited near the contemporary shoreline, and in some places are litoral or coastal or lagoon an in other places estuarine or even fluviatile, These are met with on the south side of Pir Panjal Range overlying Agglomeratic State unconformably. In Golabgarh Pass Didom Gali (12501" oF 3810 r») ares, and also in Bhodarwah-Bhallesh sub- basin, and on the northeastern flank of the Warwan valley anticline, these occur below the Zewan Beds.602 OBOLOGY OF DIA Five distinct floras were recognised above the Carboniferous beds, one below the Panjal Trap and the rest above it 1. Below the Panjal Trap: Nishatbagh Bed — It marks the beginning of Gondwana in Kashmir and occurs as isolated outcrops at various localities of which Dal Lake, Basmai, Nagmarg, Bren and Nishatbagh are important. Gangamopteris angustifolia, G. kashmirensis, Glossopteris angustifolia, G indica, Psygmophyllum haydeni, Cordaites hislopi, Samaropsis, Cordaicarpus and stems. 2. Onthe top of Panjal Trap: Vii Bed. (Gangamoptetis Bed). Gangamopteris Aashmirensis (dominant), Vertebraria sp., Psygmophyllum haydeni, ‘cones and stems of lycapods. 3. Marhoma Bed: Lava between this and Vihi Bed, Schizoneura sondwanensis, Spenophyllum, Sphenopteris polymorpha, Glossopteris communis 4. Munda Bed: Traced from Jawahar tunnel to Ahrbal. Pecopteris, Taeniopteris kashmirensis, T: feddeni, Vertebraria indica, 5. Manal Bed: Youngest floral bed of Permian Gondwana in Kashmir. Lepidostrobus kashmirensis, Schizoneura, Phyllotheca, Pecopteris, Glossopteris indica. ‘The Gondwana affinity of Permian floral beds is undisputable in spite of its having distinct nature, being far from the mainland. The fact of its being a Dat ofthe Gondwana continent gets the support from the underlying Eurydesma fauna, typical of the Gondwana shelf. ewan Eotmatian: Marine fssliferous rocks of Petmian age, refered to as Zewan Beds in Kashmie stratigraphy, are well exposed in Zewen village in Vii disuet. Tis locality represents a type section forthe Permian ant hete the Gangamopteris Beds are directly overlain bya thick series of imentonee a shales, sch in Tosi Jn the Jammu region, the only important occurrence is that of Didar Golabgarh Pass area, where aayacline of Puja Votemnies encloses ssion of Gondwana Formation, Zewn and Tia. Here the sieeoue and carbonaceous sates containing Lower Gondwana flora ae sisted by the “ewan Fonnation comprising an earthy, calcareous sandstone and shale with brachiopods, dark thinly bedded limestone with Proeretopora amplacand about 4000 m of Productas Shale. The Zowan in tum Is succeeded by Triassic Limestone, which forms the core ofthe syncline, Fesilferous Petmnian sata overlying the Panjal Volcanics and Gondovana beds occur in Bhadarwahs Bhalleshsub-basn also. The base ofthis formation isarilaccous and eonaine ‘emai of Prtoretpra, 2 polyzoan resembling Fenestella The upp pat CSREES eee -PALAEOZOIC os calcareous with intercalations of shale containing fauna, having affinities with the Gungri Formation (Productus Shale) of Spiti. The Zewan Formation is also ‘ported from the hills southwest of Vihi, Pir Panjal, Upper Sind and Lider valleys, Brachiopods: Leptodus, Costiferina, Cancrinella, Waagenoconcha, Spirigerella, Stenocisma, Whitspakia, Marginifera, Neospirifer, Productus cora, Spirifer rajah Ammonoid: Cyclolobus walkeri Conodlonts: Hindeodus minutus, Gondolella carinata Khunamuh Formation: The main constituents of Unit E (see Table 6.3) at the top of the Zewan Formation are dominantly Permian brachiopods much ‘teduced in size, abundant bivalves (many genera, more than brachiopods), {oraminifers, and bryozoans almost nil. Among bivalves Claria bioni Nakazawa is significant and present throughout the unit, The genus is a common characteristic fossil of Early Triassic and as such the unit indicates a dubious nature. Brachiopods and some bivalves indicate a Perinian age, while Claria and other bivalves, a Triassic age. This unit, on this account was suggested to be a zone of mixed fauna with its age as Early Greisbachian i.e. the first appearance of Triassic bioelements. Jn Ladakh, the Zanskar range exposes an excellent section of upper Palaeozoic socks of the Spiti-Zanskar sub-basin, The formation is interbedded ‘ith basic lava flow representing the Phe (Panjal) voleanie activity in the area, Jn the northwest part of Spit-Zanskar sub-basin in Ladakh there is a major transgressive event of the Phe Volcanics over the early Palaeozoie-Proterozoic sediments ‘The Phe Volcanics appear continuously from the Gurloke nala of the Lingti ‘alley in the southeast the mountain lope near Udok i the Ringdom Gompa area in the northwest. The Phe Volcanic belt constitutes a very conspicuous lithological unit along the southern escarpment face of the Zanskar Mountains flanking the northern part of the Lingti, the Phise, the Kurgiakh, the Doda and upper reaches of the Sura river. In Kurgiakh Chu and Linti valley, whore a complete sequence of Proterozoie to Mesozoic rocks is exposed, the Phe Volcanics occupy a nonnal position between the Ganmachidem Formation of the Kanawar Group and the Kuling Formation, But further northwest the volcanics progressively overlap successively on to older formations, ultimately resting on the Giamal Group in the Ringdom Gompa sector. Thuis the base of the Phe Noleanic belt in the northwest half of the Zanskar area is a marked angular ‘unconformity.oon GEOLOGY OF INDIA ‘The Phe Voleanics, as a linear volcanic belt, comprises a pile of compound lavas of 250 to S00 m thickness. It comprises of 9 10 10 major flows and several minor flows. As the Phe Volcanies occurs between the Ganmachidam Formation (Carboniferous) and the Kuling Formation (Permian) itis suggested that the volcanic activity commenced atthe close of Carboniferous and ceased dduting Barly Permian (Sakmarian stage. ‘The succeeding Kuling Formation is exposed in the section between east ‘of Mulbekh and Lamayuru and it occurs in clase association with the Lilang Group (Trias) in an extremely complicated schuppen belt bounding the southern ‘margin of the Indus Tectonic Zone. These were described as “Indus Flysch,” but a study of the lithology seems to contradict such an inference as they are ‘mainly made up of carbonaceous shales-slates, often bleached to ash grey or pale brown colour with thin-bedded limestone, caleatenite und sporadic phosphatic nodules, thin-bedded siltstone ang! silty shale. At many places, mud cracks and worm burrows are noticed in shales-slates. Cyclolobus sp. from the area close to Honiskot, and also other Permian fossils from Lamayurs, besides Permian Productids. Polypora sp., and crinoidal stems, confirms the age of these rocks to be Permian. ‘The Kuling Formation along the Indus Tectonic Zone is considered to be part of the Spiti-Zanskar Tethyan belt forming the northeastern limb of the Spiti-Zanskar synctinorium. In Eastern Karakoram, the Saser Brangsa Formatin is reported to be overlain by a sequence of siltstone, coarse-grained sandstone and black shale lerbeckied with pillow lavas having interstraified limestone. The limestone. has yielded a faunal assemblage of Parafusilina, Pseudofusilina and Schwagerina (foraminifera). On the basis ofthis assemblage itis assigned an Farly Permian age. It is substantiated by the occurrence of the Early Permian plant fossils of Noeggerathiopsis and Gangamopteris equisetalean, This is ‘nayned as Chhongtash Formauon, Below this lies Aqtash Formation comprising, 11500 m thick succession of polygenetic conglomerate, purple and green shale, limestone, chert lenses and volcanics. It is highly folded and is in faulted contact with the Saser Brangsa Formation. On the basis of the occurrence of fusilinids and corals an Early Permian age is assigned to the Aqiash Formation. Himachal Pradesh In southwestem Lahaul, along the southem slope of the Dilburi Ridge and along the northern slope of the Pir Panjal Range forming the southwestern flank of the Chandra andé Chandra Bhagha valley is the Tandi belt. Iisa highly folded, predominantly carbonate sequence resting over the carbonaceous phyllite and quartzite lithounits of the Terminal Proterozoic Batal Formation PALAEOZOIC os of the Haimanta Group. The Fandi Group is divisible into Ki Dilburi Formations in the ascending order. Kukti Formation is made up of carbonaceous phyllite, thin-bedded limestone, calcareous phyllite, and sporadic calcarenite and pebble beds. Michelina salinaria, Waagenophyllum indicum, Wentzellella cf. salinaria and Qclolobus oldhami (Plate 6.3- 8&9) are reported from this formation, ‘The last fossil confirms the age of this formation as Late Permian. In the Chamba sub-basin, between the Pir Panjal and the Dauladhar Range ‘of NW Himachal Pradesh, a thick sequence of Proterozoic and Upper Palacozoic-Mesozoic formations is exposed. ‘These formations link up with similar rock types of Bhadarwah in Jammu and Kashmir in the northwest and the Proterozoic rocks are the continuation of similar rocks of southern Lahaul. ti, Gushal and The sequence in the Chamba area is made up of Chamba Formation (Meso- proterozoic), Manjir Formation (Neoproterozoic), Batal Formation (Terminal Proterozoic), Salooni Formation (Permian) and Kelhel Formation (Triassic). Salooni Formation comprises black shale, slate, calcareous slate and lenticles of limestone. Modiola lidarensis, Spiriferela rajah, Productus sp. are some of the fossils found in Salooni indicating Permian age. In the basal part are basic lava flows, which may be cortelatable with the Panjal Voleanics of Jammu and Kashmir. In the Spiti area, the term Kuling is restricted tothe sequence between the Kanawar Group and older formations below and the Litang group above, The base ofthe Kuling Group marks a major unconformity of regional significance. Itvariously overlies the Thango, the Takche, the Muth, the Lipak, the Po and the Ganmachidam Formations. As the Kuling sedimentation heralds the advent of Permian, it, along with its equivalents in the Tandi and Chamba areas, represents a major transgressive phase in the Tethys Himalayan Tectogen and has « wide regional significance in the Indian subcontinent. The Kuling is now raised to the status of 2 Group (Bhargava and Bassi, 1999) and is divided into Gechang and Gungri Formations. Gechang Formation: Its best sections arein the Lingti valley around Lalung village, along the left bank of the Spiti between Poh and Tabo, Khimokul La and in Ratang valley. The Gechang Formation comprises brown to grey, pale rey, coarse-grained weakly bioturbated cross-bedded, calcareous sandstone with local conglomerate and/or shell lag at base. Locally, mud eracks are observed in the upper part, Apart from some trace fossils, Eurydesma condatum, Deltopecten, E. hasdoensis, E. manendragarhensis, Waaganophyllam and Neospirifer are also reported. ‘The lithounits of the Gechang Formation, beginning with conglomerate506 GEOLOGY OF INDIA, or shell ag, indicates a transgressive cycle. Shale laye's and micaceous sandstone inthe middle part point to subtidal environment of sedimentation, which changed to foreshore to upper foreshore in the upper part when ferruginous sandstone ‘was deposited and mud cracks were formed. Furydesma in the basal part and Waagenophyllum near the top suggest an Asselian to Sakmarian (Lower Pemnian) age for the Gechang Formation, Gungri Formation: This formation is uniformly developed in Lahaul, Spiti and Kinnaur and like the Muth Formation forms an excellent marker bed, The Gungri Formation, abruptly resting over the Gechang Formation, comprises black shale, calcareous silty shale, phosphatic cherty calcareous nodules, and thin limestone and coquina lenses. Some ofthe nodules enclose fossils. Towards the upper contact, the Gungri Formation is overlain by a ferruginous layer, which has been interpreted to represent a subaerial break and by some as subaqucous break. This formation represents sedimentation chiefly of shelf ‘and under restricted circulation, Fine shell fragments and silty layers represent storm layers. Zoophycos is a common trace fossil in the Gungri Formation. ‘The other fossils include Marginifera himalayensis, Productus gangeticus, and Spiriferelia rajah. The cephalopods are Xenaspis carbonaria and Cyclolobus oldhami, This assemblage suggests a Djulfian age ~ possibly extending into a part of Dorashamian or Changsingian (uppermost Permian). Kungirian and Midian elements (middle Permian) have not been so far encountered between Gechang and Gungri Formations. This absence could be due toa break in sedimentation, manifested by sharp contact between the Gechang and Gungri Formations. {Ularakand {Inthe Tethys Himalaya, an 18 mthick sequence occurs over Muth Quartzite in Niti, Malla Johar and Byans. These contain Linoproductus — Waaganoconcha assemblage of Sakmarian age (Barly Permian) In the Niti Pass, Hotigad and Raulibagar sections are exposed rocks of Kuling Shale Formation. These contain striate bisaccate pollen. These palynoflora show a close similarity with the contemporaneous palynofiora of the Raniganj Formation of the Gondwana Supergroup. Besides, both the Kuling Formation and the Raniganj Formation have a common characteristic of having a few elements of Lower Permian (namely Plicattipolenites and Callumispora) which, if not considered as reworked, may be taken as remnants of the older floras from Early Permian. ‘The palynofiora here can be taken as precurvors of Barly Triassic microflora in Niti valley. In the Lesser Himalaya, the Boulder Slate of Doggnda and adjoining area PALAROZOIC oor of Garhwal, are similar to the Agglomeratic Slate of Kashmir, and contain Fenestella garhwalensis, Polypora middlemissi, Dogaddanella audeni (bryoz0a), Aviculopecten (pelecypoda), Spiriferina, Neospirifer, Productus, and Strophalosia (brachiopod) of Early Permian. The Late Permian fauna of Dielasma latouche, D. kinauricum, Spriferelta rajah, Spirifer, Marginifera (brachiopod) and Cyclolobus oldhami (cephalopod) are also reported from the area, ‘The litho- and chronostratigraphic correlation of Phanerozoic sequence in Tethyan belt of NW Himalaya is presented here as suggested by Arora etal. (2002) in Fig.6.15. The nomenclature of a few formations may, however, be debatable, as they ate not defined as per the code of stratigraphic nomenclature. Bhatan Seti Khola Formation: Two northward dipping thrusts separate 1000 m thick Seti Khola Formation from the underlying Siwalik sediments in the south and the overlying Phunisholing Formation in the north, The formation is Aivisible into the following horizons: A. Pink, maroon, white, sporadically green, well-bedded sandstone. Red beds are the dominant unit ~ 400 m 1B. Rhythmically interbedded carbonaceous black, grey and green shale and calcareous quartzwacke ~ 140 m C. Dirty white to grey sandstone, carbonaceous shale and diamictite ~ 550 m, Horizon C contains marine fossils represented by bryozoans, brachiopods, gastropods and crinoids, which come from four different levels. They contain Neospirifer ct. faseiger (Keyserling), Trigonotreta sp.. Plaryteichum sp.. Protoretopora tf. ampla, Weaganoconchacf. vagens and Wet. humbolddi, which indicate a fate Party Permian age. A shallow marine to lagoonal environment is suggested for the sediments of the formation based on lithology, sedimentary structures and fossil content Seti Khola Formation of Bhutan Lessor Himalaya is correlatable with Gara Formation of Arunachal Pradesh inthe east and Rangit Pebble Beds of Sikkim in the west. Recognition of the Permian Seti Khola Formation from the ‘Sankosh valley in Bhutan establishes the presence of a more or less continuous ‘marine Permian sequence along the foothills ofthe Himalaya Arunachal Pradesh ‘Arunachal Himalaya remained a landmass where no sedimentation tookoe CGpOLOGY OF INDIA - jj. |} [Fig6.15. Litho: and chrono-stsigraphic onelation of Phanerozoic sequence, Tehyan beh [Northwest Himalaya (source Aro et 2002) PALAEOZONC 09 place from Neoproterozoie to Carboniferous. The Palacozoic is represented by two sedimentary sequences, the Lower Permian rocks of the Lower Gondwana ‘Supergroup and the Upper Permian of the Yamne Formation, Lower Gondwana Supergroup: This lies unconformably overlying the Bomedila Group (Middle to Late Palueoproterozoic) abutting against the Main Boundary Fault: This occurs in an undulating ENE-WSW direction from the border of Bhutan, crosses the Subansiri river, and then takes a turn towards north up to Sisang river, limited in the east by the Bame Fault. Lithostrati- graphically, the sequence is divisibie into Miri, Bichom (also named as Bomte, Gara and Rilu Formations in different places), Bhareli and Abor Voleanics in ascending order. Divisions based on facies and tectonics have also been attempted. ‘Miri Formation overlies unconformably Ketabari and Tenga Formations of Palacoproterozoic and is conformably overlain by Bichom Formation. The Bichom Formation is divided into the Rilu, Bomte and Sensa members. The Bomte Member contains a rich marine Early Permian fauna Brachiopods: Subansiria naganensis, Lissochonetes carbonifera, Dielasma dadanese, Linoproductus cora, Oldhennina sp. Pelycypods: Anthraconetlo kansana, Eurydesma cordatum, Phestia cf. P. Iyonesis, Deltopecten mitchelli, Aviculopecten sp. Gastropods: Warthia cf. intermedia, Platyeichum brenensis (Reed), Bellerophon sp, Pleurotomaria sp. Cephalopods: Uraloceras siangense, Sueroceras bomtense. Bryozoans: Fenestella spp., Polypora spp.. P. megastoma. Conulariida: Conularia laskari ‘The fatna and mierofloral assemblage indicate a coo! palacoctimate during, the deposition of the Rilu and Bomte Members. The presence of coal balls ‘within the Bote Member is suggestive of deposition in shallow marginal ‘swamps subjected to marine incursions. ‘The Bahreli Formation constitutes the continental sedimentation of the Lower Gondwana sequence and conformably overlies the Bichom Formation, It comprises a thick sequence of grey to dark grey feldspathic sandstone and grey to black carbonaceous shale with lenticular coal beds. The plant fossils recorded are as follows: Upper Member: Schizoneura gondunensis, Vertebraria indica, Phyllotheca sp Cordaicarpus zeilleri, Samaropsis Sp. Glossopteris longicaulis, G. indica. Lower Member: Gangamopteris cf. eyclopteroides, Glossopteris sp. Vertebraria sp., scales of Glossopteris sp.610 ‘GEOLOGY OF INDIA “The palynoassemblage dominated by the occurrence of Callumnispora in association with sadial monosaccate pollen grains is suggestive of Barly Permian ‘age comparable to the palynoflora inthe lower part of Karaharbari Formation of Peninsular Gondwana. ‘Abor Voleanic Formation: Tre name given by Coggin Brown has been ‘used to describe mafic volcanics and the associated inter-trappeans in the Liang valley, which have now yielded Lower Permian microflora. The Abor Voleanics are considered coeval with the Lower Permian Panjal Voleanics of northwest ‘Himalaya. The voleanie rocks comprise basalt, andesite, acid tus, lapis and agglomerates. The basalts and andesites occur as highly amygdaloidal, 5-10m thick flows having greenish base and reddish coloured top and are best exposed in the road section around Dosing, along Pangin Geku ~ Yinkiong road. Development of pillar structure js also seen. The rocks are aphanitic and predominanily non-porphyritic. In thin sections, the groundinass in both the types show extremely fine-grained intersertal to intergranular texture, The minerals in the groundmass are plagioclase, augite, chlorite, iron oxides (magnetite), epidote, sphene, glass, calcite and rarely pumpellyite. Geochemically the rocks are transitional between alkali basalt and tholeiite. “The inter-trappeans near Yinkiong comprise conglomerates, calearvous sandstone and carbonaceous sandy shales. The shales have yielded many palynomorphs. A band of black shale in an inter-irappean quartzite-shale (3 m) (Grom Yamibung nala to Roting) bas yielded Lower Gondwana sporomorphs. ‘Yanine Formation: This sequence is of very restricted and localised nature reported from the southern slopes of Dalbuing in the Yarnne nala and hence the name, Ibis sandwiched between the underlying Geleu Formation yielding Early Eocene plant fossils and the overlying Dalbuing Formation containing Lower Eocene smurine Nummulitie fauna. 1 comprises pale brown ferminons shale ‘about $ m thick and contains marine invertebrate fauna of Upper Permian age. Both the contacts appear to he tectonic as evidenced by shattering, plications and contortions in beds. The fauna include the following: Bivalves: Aviculopecten, Burmesia, Eoschizodus, Etheripecten, Goniopora, Mysidioptera. Brachiopods: Neochonets, Neospirifer, Productus, Spirifer. Gastropods: Loxonema, Meekospira, Mourlonia, Neitsonia, Peninsular India Marine incursion in the southern belt of Himalaya in the Early Permian PALABozore aa took place possibly trough rift valleys in the Indian Shicld, Marine incursions arc ported rom fey places in Foninsuar India aswel, These together with at in Salt Range (in Pakistan) throw light on the palacogeography of Cental India during part of the Permian period and aid in precise correlation of ‘associated terestral sediments in those areas (Fig.6.16). stl trea seamen | __| i616, Maine inasion i soubarn bo ofthe Hi thr bt f the Hina inthe Early Permian took pace Phy row ato ein Si ir Chapel Han) (source: Valdiya, from Gondwana Research, v. Intermatic 7 Goce vi 97 wl, 6; © Intemational Asoiaon Salt Range, Pakistan: A boulder Bd of glacial origin of a axinum thickness of 60m overs encooformably the Cambrian, Tete scm t be Similar othe Tlie nln Red the base of many Gondwenn bens Peninsular Ini. Inmeainely above the boulder bed cecum 8 Eayesae hoz conaning many bivalves (Buradesme cordaram, Nucla viewopecen, Inachiopod (Dielaima dadense) and bryoren (Fenesel fossula). This is correlatable with the Eurydesma horizon in Kashmir. Over! : the Eades biome (eropod) Conran (Conear eviat, © punjabi a estoy Plwetomaria slong wth few Imei and brachiopods. These are considered to be uppermost Caronieros (Uralian — above Gzhelian) to Lower Permian age. ; Badhaura, Rajasthar aes ee i The ‘marine exposures here among others, contain ampla, Dielasma, Spirifer, Bellerophon, Conularia ef. t oboe ana Di 7 cf. laevigata. lar fossils are reported in the nearby locality of Bhimjikagaon. The fauna62 GEOLOGY OF INDIA show close resemblance to the Conularia and Amb fauna of the Salt Range indicating Upper Sakmarian to Artinskian age. Besides this the common clements between the faunas of Badhuara and Umaria are noteworthy. Umaria, Madhya Pradesh: About 3 m-thick marine strata occurs intercalated in the Lower Gondwana strata in the Narsarha railway cutting near Umaria in Madhya Pradesh. Similar intercalations occur at Anvkput and ‘Manendragarh about 150 km ESE of Umaria. The Umaria marine bed overlies the Talchir Boulder Bed (of the basal part of the Gondwana Supergroup) and ‘passes gradually into the overlying Barakar rocks of Lower Gondwana. In the ‘marine bed, made of sandstones and clays, a number of species of the following, genera are found ~ Productus, Spiriferina, Reticularia, and Athyris. A few ‘pastropods (Plewrotomaria wmariensis) were also met with inthis assemblage, besides a bryozoan (Rhombopora). Crinoid stems and fish remains have also bbcen reported from this bed. Productids form the predominating element of this assemblage. It is inferred that possibly an arm of the sea extended from the west (Fig. 6.16) up to this place and a little beyond leading tothe deposition of these sediments during the Permo-Carboniferous times. ‘Manendragarh, Madhya Pradesh: A marine bed was discovered under the railway bridge on Hasdeo river, about 4 kin southeast of Manendragarh railway station, This is just 5 m thick and is associated with the basal member cof the Talchir Formation (of Lower Gondwana) overlying the Archacan, No ‘marine fossils are reported from the upper members of the Talchir Formation, although its total thickness is about 50 m. The marine bed around Manendragarh ‘commences with shale followed by conglomerate, blackish shale, green spintery shale, and an uppermost member of green sandstone, The fossils ae mainly confined to the basal conglomerate horizon. Representatives of the genus Aviculopecten form the bulk of the fossils, Pelecypod: Aviculopecten squamuiferous, A.mitechelli, Deltopecten, Ewrydesma manendragarhensis, E. hasdoensis Gastropod: Euomphalus, Plewrotomaria Brachiopod: Trigonotreta, Spirifer Bryozoa; Provoretopora ampla Crinoid: —Streblopteris Forams: Hyperammina, Glomospira, Trochammina, Tolypammina ‘The marine fauna has lose affinities with the Rajhara fauna of Bihar, Darjeeling fauna of West Bengal, Khemgaon fauna of Sikkim and Subansii fauna of Arunachal Pradesh, thereby indicating that the marine transgression, which deposited the marine rocks at the base of the Talchir Formation came PALAOZOIC 6 from the north, On the other hand, the Umaria fauna, which lies close to ‘Manendtagarh, has affinities with those of Badhaura in Rajasthan and Salt Range from Pakistan, thereby indicating that the transgression ofthe sea, which ‘deposited the marine rocks at Umaria, came from the west along the Nasmada, sift, These two arms of the sea apparently came ot different times during the Barly Permian period. Itis believed that the Manendragarh marine transgression took place during Asselian, while that of Umaria occurred during Sakmarian period as indicated by their fauna It may be noted that both the pathways suggested, one from the west and the other from the northeast, are along, the Narmada-Son fracture zone and the incursions must have been aided by movement along these faults. It may, however, be mentioned that there axe ‘views different from this, namely that (i) the Umaria marine bed could be the result ofa transgression from the southeast and (ji the Umaria and Manendragarh beds form part of the same environment, but of different times. ‘A tentative correlation of the above marine Permian beds in Peninsular India is presented in Teble 6.4, Palaeozoic seqeunces in many other sectors are provided in Table 6.5 (folder) “Table 64, Comelation of some marine Lower Permian Beds of Ini ‘Kashar ] Sat Range | Rojastnan | _Modiya Pradesh Skim | NEFA 7 f {khero- | (Subae- Hest Tian Panera svn | Sh rat Duds ftanon | ars [Dan brie maria |sansones | rate eben beets nadhaura|strne ind sinter | Zoe Fame [Bet Fou Conlria be awe [serine | ny | Sines Sno Bre | Bay eee «fama [Sata [ani [Fone | deme Soc | fe — g cite |Z pont [outer Yowier [Bouter | Hot ) oo ca” |) pen oes [cs [pes fet ot ‘Nove: Beds shown in italics indicate marine conditions (after Sastry and Shah, 1964, opp. p-142) Cauvery Basin From a well, Pundi-B, drilled in Cauvery basin (Thanjavor sub-basin in ‘Tamil Nadu) about 10 km ESE of Thanjavur, a rich assemblage of radial monosaccate genera associated with Trilete sporesand I eiosphaeridia suggestive of Barly Permian age has been recorded (Assclian to Sakmarian). This is ‘overlain unconformably by palynofossils of Turonian (Mid-Cretaceous aBe).“Table 65, Palacozote sequences in vaio sectors (Bhargava, 2008, 212) Sai Renae Charice ‘seer Pes va Zane tan omar io ah va a St lon Nop on Pano | To zaeh Grip iat Sana Tig Sas | None — | Batshonw ac Peal Vaan | Pani! VOaTCS E [eT itnshan Group [Fast Banh 8 Geoha on é Marga | Ganmechidem nae int st Pana Te “tia Sou ace rataaa See | Fo a Caan ate Sra eo take a nae pak : 2 Waza 7] kak Fr To Pass 8 “ FWazura- Muth | Lipak - Muth é ‘a waa waa z Z. Newsnea ao [sniaaYone | Chancregt | = | Gugakinar _ “Shiala-Yong | | Critang Kandar — ‘Dark Band Lst Pee [see | Fa Pani i ye unm fom (YY i es Banca g Yi Yy Littl Le : Z ZZ, Qearate Li: 3 com |" ote Li : apa Gv silam 7 vanetg raempae ‘GeoLOGY OF INDIA ‘These assemblages show general similarity with other Talchir assemblage recorded from elsewhere like Goria, South Rewa basin, and Jayanthi coalfield, Bihar. Yoleanism and Magmatism ‘There was volcanism all along the Outer Himalaya in Early Permian ~ a chain of volcanoes formed possibly along deep faults duc to rifting ‘Shahbazagatha in northern Pakistan; Pir Panjal in Kashmir; Bhaderwah- ‘Chambain western Himachal; Dugadda-Rathwadhab belt in southern Garhwal; ‘Tansen hill in south-central Nepal; Barahkshetra in southeastem Nepal; Ranjit valley in southern Sikkim and Bhutan, and Jirdo in Eastern Arunachal. ?Perrmo-Carboniferous magmatism in the Indian subcontinent includes the alkalic province of Peshawar, comprising the 294 Ma Malakand granite and ‘29744 Ma Ambela Sjolite, several hundred! metres of intermediate to silicio- welded taffs above the glaciogenic deposit in the Agglomeratic Slate, and the 3111 Ma Mandi leucogranite and the 2841 Ma Yoman anorogenic granite in Ladakh. In the Eastern Himalaya the Abor Voleanies comprise basaltic and andesitic flows, silicic tuffs and agglomerates. Peshawar S ‘Lesser Himalaya YZ ata Kandi. Y Uy i - rebar Nwshora ee Tran Z Men Banda, ato the © Early permost number © major position v places diments tions. It ye term rm was nerates, in from iurassic/ adwana owever, -outhern elndian me vostralia system itof the ablishod. rated inThese ass: recorded fi Bihar. Volcanism, ‘There chain of vol Shahbi Chamba in v ‘Tanson kill i valley in sou Permo- alkalic provi 2974 Ma A welded tis 3111 Ma Mi Ladakh, In € andesitic flow Gondwana Supergroup INTRODUCTION “There was a profound hiatus spanning about 250 Ma, subsequent to the deposition of Vinghyan and Kurnool sediments (Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian?) in Peninsular India. It was during the closing phase of uppermost Carboniferous that deposition of glacial sediments was initiated in a number cof basins in some parts of Peninsular India, most of them confined t0 major river valleys, namely the Damodar, Son, Malanadi and Godavari. Deposition jn these basins continued up to Early/Middle Mesozoic and also in a few places ‘long the coasts and souther sections of Himalaya. ‘Though these sediments svete essentially terrestrial, some evidence exists for marine intercalations, It Was to this sequence of sediments that H.B. Medlicott coined the termy ‘Gondwana’ after an aboriginal Gond tribe of Central India. The term was mainly used to denote the glacial boulder beds and succeeding conglomerates, sandstones, shales and coal measures of fluviatile and lacustrine origin from Peninsular India, ranging in age from Upper Carboniferous to Upper Jurassic! Early Cretaceous, Subsequently, sediments, flora and fauna of the Gondwana affinity are recorded almaostin all he southern continents of the world. However it was Edward Suess (Austrian Geologist) who conceived of the great southern continent of Gondwana in 1885. He used the word Gondwanaland to the Indian Peninsula, Madagascar (now Malagasy), Central and Southem Aftica, stressing their common features in their geological history. He later included Australia ‘and South America, Subsequently further investigations led to Antarctica also to be included in this supercontinent. ‘The formations of Gondwana collectively comprise more than. one system ‘ofthe internationally recognised standard sequence, and the upper limit of the whole proup of formations transgresses the boundaries of the now established International Geological Time Units (Chapter 2). Lower age limit of Gondwana sequence, when critically evaluated in ‘context of marine basins in High Himalaya is early Permian. The marine a ES ERTae ‘OBOLOGY OF INDIA jncursions in Umaria and Manendragarh also aid in aniving at this age. ~The ‘upper age limit of the Gondwana sequence may be Early Cretaceous based on the occurrence of Umia Plant Beds associated with Lower Cretaceous marine strata in Kutch, Characteristies The Gondwana basins of Peninsular India (Fig.7.1) contain mainly a thick pile (-200 m to as much as 4000 m) of clastic sediments preserved in graben’ half-graben bounded by high angle normal faults. The Gondwana besins are believed to represent remnants of an originally extensive and thicker ‘master basin whose palaeoslope was towards northwest. It is found that the ‘main depocentres of Gondwana sedimentation are confined to the existing ‘major river valleys and are along and within the earlier Precambrian tectonic fabric. ‘The following are considered to be the essential requisites of Gondwana stratigraphic units: ( A glacial boulder bed to start with (in some of the basins), followed bby sandstone, shale and coal in an ascending sequence in the lower part (Gi) preservation and/or deposition in intracratonie narrow Tinear faulted basins (ii) largely fuvio-lacustrine depositional environment, except for the _glacio-marine influence near the base in some cases Gy) presence of Glossopteris and Prilophylum flora and (¥) an almost consistent west or northwest directed palaeoslope All these characteristics may not necessarily apply to those sediments, containing the above plant fossils in the peripheral regions along the coasts or in the foothills of Himalaya, Unlike the Permian and Triassic span of the largely non-marine Gondwana sequence in Peninsular India, the marine equivalents in the Extra-Peninsular India arc largely Lower Permian and Lower Cretaceous in age; 2 major part of the Permian and the entire Triassic is mostly absent. The floral beds associated with these marine sequences are considered to have been transported by sireams into the basins where they are now found, Itmay, however, be mentioned here that there is a strong opinion among some of the earth scientists in India that the sequence of sediments in the peripheral rezions need not be relegated to Gondwana, just because they contain plant fossils of those periods. | | | ‘GONDWANA SUPERGROUP or angio abe 4 iS mS Sa ig 7.1. Major Gandwana sata in Iti STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE A major patt of the Gondwana sediments are confined to the three tracts, which include Koel-Damodar, Son-Mahanadi and Pranhita-Godavari basins Even in these there are many sub-basins separated from each other by older Precambrian basement highs and ridges. Table 7.1 presents a generalised classification and correlation of various stratigraphic units in Indian Gondwana formations, ‘Two schemes of classification were proposed for the Gondwana on the basis of their lithological and palaeontological considerations: (i) Two-fotd classification by W.T:Blanford, who divided the Gondwana sequence into lower(GBOLOGY OF INDIA. 4 Ea Con ‘Tati i : 3 i é ‘aikas & Ganga Koa F Tiger F PRECAMBRIAN er Pai M Mie PM ower ai mF ; Crna atk Bana Rows ‘SoxMienad Lovet Kerb ‘eou-baes) M Pek F/ Up Kam F aiges achat MewtreF Nahacers © t : E i aac F anigan| F Bema g : i i 5 i ‘ : ; Rajat Tae Rana Procter P upper a } 5 4 é £ 3 i Craseons & 4 ‘and upper divisions and the line of separation being top surface ofthe Panchet ‘Stage (Camic to Nori). The lower and upper Gondwanas are characterised by the Glossopteris and Prilophyllum floras respectively. (ti) Three fold casification by Hughes, who identified a mixed flora called Dicroidium in | between the Glossopieris and Prilophyllum floras. Vredenburg also proposed a three fold classification and his middle division included “Kamthi Series, | ‘Panchet Series’ and ‘Maleri Series.” Since over a century the Gondwana sediments have been divided into an Upper andl Lower Groups (as supported by Blanford, Medlicott, Oldham, Fox, Pascoe and Krishnan) and is being followed in roost of the publications. ‘Thee major groups of faults are recognised in the Gondwana basins. ‘They include what are generally termed “boundary faults.” which are in fact ‘basin margin faults, intra-basinal faults and basin marginal cross faulls.A perusal cof the detailed geological maps ofthe Jharia and Raniganjcoalfields will clearly ilustrate example of all these three. The basin marginal faults, with variation in amounts of downthrow and presence on on€ side or both sides, have given rise to half-grabens, homoclinal dips and sometimes asymmetric synctinal basins. These faults range in time almost from early Talchir times to close of j Gondwana sedimentation, namely Late Jurassic to Rarly Cretaceous and even considered to have lingered on to early Cenozoic. | covogana seman js } Damodar Valley i "The most important coalfields of the Damodar Valley include Raniganj, Ihavia, Bokaro, North Karanpura, Ramgarh, South Karanpura, Hutar, Auranga, * Dakonganj, Jaintia, Ssharjuri and Giridhi basins (Fig.7.2). | ‘A generalised stratigraphic suecession of the Damodar Valley coal basins is as follows Panchet Group Supra-Panchet Fm, Panchet Fm. [ Raniganj Fi. | Barren Measures Fm. Lover Damuda Group | Barren Messures F GONDWANA Barakar Fim, Karharban Fi. Talchir Group Talchir Fm. ‘The Damuda Group comprises the basal Karharbari Formation, followed by Barakar, Barren Measures and Raniganj Formations. The group derives its ‘ name from the Damodar river that flows from the Karanpura basin in the west through Bokaro, Jharia and Renigan) basins where itis well developed, TheseLGONDWANA SUPERGROUP a «0 (GEDLOGY OF INDIA formations are gesirally characterised by fining upward sequences. They generally pass up gradationally without ény conspicuous unconformity. It is Cover these that Panchet Group lies with a profound unconformity. ser), Talchir Formation: This overlies the Precambrian basement along an unconformable contact, Boulder bed/illite, rhythunite, khaki green needle shale and light green sandstone constitute this Formation. The boulder bed tilite is ‘made of angular, poorly sorted pebble to boulder size clasts supported by sandy ‘matrix. Clasts composition points to adjacent Precambrian provenance. The khaki green shales silty, laminated, varved and breaks into needles. Dropstone clasts are common, Light green sandstone is micaceous, ripple and cross- sttatified. Although the Talchir Formation is fairly represented in ail the major coalfields of the Damodar Valley, it attains maximum thickness of 300 m ia Daltonganj coalfield wherein besides Glossopteris flora marine fauna comprising Eurydesma, Priondomya and Fenestella are recorded. Sedimentary features indicate glacial and glaciomarine environment with palaeoslope towards WNW. 24) Ramnkols, (25) Twapen, (28) Sonha, Karharbari Formation: Generally the 200 m thick Katharbari Formation ‘succeeds the Talchir Formation along a gradational contact. However, at places sharp and overstep nature indicate local unconformity between the two formations. Conglomerates, pebble beds, coarse to very coarse-grained pebbly sandstone (gritty), siltstone, shale and thin streaks and bands of coal are met ‘with. It contains coal seams ina few basins and the plant fossil Gondwanidium burriada biozone is considered as characteristic of this formation. Giridih coalfield is the type area for Katharbani Formation. (13) Tahir, (1 Iriver, (18) South Reigch (16) Noch Raigeb, (27) Mand QU) Lakhanpur, (32) Bisramp, (23) Jl (1) Renigan} (2) Inari, (3) Boker, (4) Non Kecanpura, (8) Ramgarh (6) South Karanpure, (ater Casshyap and Tew, 1988) (Repent with permission fom Blackwell Pu Barakar Formation: & 250 m thick Barakar Formation is the main (a) Pebbly very coarse sandstone (bottom) ‘Truncation of beds (e) and ({) is common. Based on the development of beds (a) to (f) the cyclic units may be categorised into two types, viz. fully developed! and truncated cyclothems. Thick coal seams are developed in the Be u i338 repository af cri poate Sandstone shale, carbonaceous shale and coal i cue occurring in the form of fining upward cycles characterise this formation. An 3 Pr ae idealised cycle generally comprises the following sequence of beds He 318 (© Coal, shaly coal HLinh, 32 {©} Carhonaceos siltstone and shale . spiel ly Gee {@) Inerdeded fin 1 medium sandstone, siltstone and shale GH) | 408 nee aoe BOoO0ase é z (b) Coarse to medium sandstone : River, 18) Keron ROLOGY OF INDIA cyclothems oflowerand middle pats ofthis formation Sandstone feldspathic nd displays tabular and trough cross-bedding whose palaeocurten is towards rest or northivest, Shale and coal seams abound in leaf and stem impressions ‘of Glossepters flora and related spore and pollens (Palynofossils) “Barren Measures: As the name implies this formation is devoid of coat seams and is represented by alternating units of eross-bedded ferruginous Sandstone, micaccous siltstone and ferruginous shale. The latter rock unit is liko called fronstone Shale in the Raniganj basin and Barren Measures in the feamaining coalfields of Damodar Valley. These have gradational contact with ‘oth the underlying Barakar Formation and the overlying Raniganj Formation. Since some of them have iron content of 30 to 40%, they have been worked as iron ore in the beginning of the last century. Raniganj Formation: Inthe type area, i.e, Ranigany coalfield this formation attains » maximum thickness of 800 m. It consists of sandstones, shales and ‘Coa! seams, the sandstones being fine-grained than those in the Barakar Formation, Workable coal seams are largely confined to this formation in Raniganj basin only. Panchet Formation: The Panchet Formation is best developed in the anche Hil located along the southern fringe of the Ranigenj basin and a few places elsewhere. Though not found in the Shara basi, as presences reported aBokaro, North Karonpura, Auranga and Hutar basins. Itis also found in 'he cesterm part of Rajmahal Hills and in the Malda basin in West Bengel. It Hes syith an unconformity over the Damuda Group formations Innthetype area of the Raniganj basin, the formation comprises of greenish, puff and brown current-bedded sandstone (lithic to feldspathic arenite), shale ded siltstone inthe lower part, Maximum thickness ofthis formation is of the order of 500-600 m. Supra-Panchet (Mahadeva): Maximum development of Supra-Panchet jg found in the Bokaro basin, where it attains a thickness of 600 m in the Lagu {Hil section, Coarse to very coarse sandstone interbedded with conglomerate, Jaspery quartzite and also micaceous ferruginous sit and cay-ate prominent Tithounits in this formation. Many of the prominent his in some of the basins in Damodar Valley coal basins are capped by this formation, In most of these desing, the Supra-Panchet attains a thickness of about 200 m. [tis infersed that this formation was perhaps present continuously across most of the basins Dut tarererosion has left only afew remnants ofthese. Basal contact ofthis formation CONDWANA SUPERGROUP ei is marked by angular unconformity. Ferruginoas sandstone, conglomerate, pebble beds and red clay are prominent rock units of this formation. Satpura Basin ‘The Satpura basin is located south of Narmada River and extends from Jabalpur to Lokartalai. Mohapani, Pench-Kanhan and Tawa Valley are prominent coalfields. The lower Gondwana sediments are exposed in a broad ssyneline whose southern limb is marked by Pench-Kanhan and Tawa coaltields, ‘and Mohapani is located on the northern limb. Most of the Lower Gondwana, tracts are concealed by the Upper Gondwana sedimentary cappings. The Satpura basin (Fig.7.3) is spindle-shaped with a length to breadth ratio of 4:2. The entire arca of the Satpara basin is about 1200 km?. The shape of the basin is, ‘governed by the intersection of the three prominent tectonic trends () the ENE~ ‘WSW fault parallel to the Narmada-Son lineament in the north, (i) the NW- SE trend conformaing to the Dharwar tectonic grain in the west and (ii) the NE~ ‘SW tend parallel to the Eastern Ghat tectonic grain. Figure 7.4 represents a ‘generalised stratigraphic column of the Satpura basin. The Matai Formation encompasses the Denwa and Bagra stages, which are believed to display intertonguing relationship, About 490 m thick Talchir Formation is represented by diamictte, light seen sandstone, olive green needle shale (varves) and shythmites. Stated pavement, an unequivocal evidence for glaciation, is recorded from Popas naa, Fig:73. Geology and paleocurrent map, Satpara basin (fies Jes Peters and Singh, 2001)o ootocy oF Nos amare coe a ze |s| | = HEE = : af o]2 a i i Hw Fig-TA.Steagraphy of Satpra basin (afer James Peers and Singh, 2001, p31) near Chordongri beneath a basal diamictiteftilite. Movement of glaciers was towards NW and WNW, Sandstone, carbonaceous shale and coal constitute ‘the Barakar Formnation, where upper part only is knoiwn to contain economically workable coal seams. Succeeding the Barakar Formation, along a gradational ‘contact, is the Motur Formation (=Barren Measures) comprising red clay, feldspathic sandstone and grey shale with thin coal laminae. This formation CGoNDWANA SUPERGROUP 2s ‘derives its name from Motur village located’ 18 km SSE of Pachmachi. The BBijori Formation derives its name from the village of the same name and is said to be the equivalent of the Raniganj Formation. Maximumn thickness of the Bijori Formation is estimated to he 1600 m., There is a variation in lithology, i.e, clays are prominent in the east whereas sandstones in the west. Besides Glossopieris flora, a labyrinthodont vertebrate Gondivanosaurus bijoriensis of late Permian age was recorded from this formation. ‘The type area of Pachmathi Formation is in Mahadeo bill ranges, where it attsins a maximum of 750 m thickness. Thick beds of white sandstones interayered with pebble beds are the prominent rock units, The Pachmarhi Formation is devoid of any well preserved fossit remains. A 300m thick Denwa beds (Formation) shows normal contact with the underlying Pachmarhi Formation, Sandstones and clays are prominent lithounits. The later has yielded plant fossil Phoenocopsis along, with labyrinthodonts Mastodonosawrus indicus, ‘Metuposaurus and Paratosaurus of Early Triassic to Middle Triassic age. Recent ‘surveys have indicated that the Bagra conglomerates overlie the Denwa clays. ‘The ‘Bagra beds’ (Formation) is mainly a 180-240 m thick conglomerate sequence of late Triassic age Som-Mahanadi Valley [About 575 km long funnel-saped Gondwana act of Son-Mahanadi area includes E-W oriented Son Valley basin in the northwest and NW-SE trending ‘Mahanadi Valley basin in the southeast. Most of the coalfields are located in Rewa-Chattshgarh areas. The coalfields of Son Valley part include Singravli, Sohagpor, Jhillmili, Sonbat, Ramkola, Tatapani, Bisrampur ete. and those (of the Mahanadi Valley are Korba, Hasdo-Arand and Mand-Raigarh, An E-W ‘basement Precambrian high i a conspicuous feature in between Son and ‘Mahanad. [About 2200 m thick Gondwana lithie fil is classified into Tatchir, Karaharbari, Barakar, Barren Measores, Ranigan/Kamthi (Lower Gondwana), Pali Tikki and Parsora (Upper Gondwana) formations. The upper Gondwana is woll represented in Rewa area ‘The Talchir Formation in Son Valley area documents evidence for the distinct marine transgression at Manendragarh and Umaria, The Manendragarh rarine shale bedi associated with basal tllit, whereas at Umaria che marine bed occurs above basal tilites and these are dated to be Asselian and Sakimarian ‘ages respectively. The Barakar Formation is represented by coarse arkose, cross- bedded sandstone, shal, siltstone and coal seams and oecurin fining upward cycles. The Barakar sediments are succeeded by a diverse lithological assemblage deposited over a long period in several sub-besins, in the Easternas GEOLOGY OF NDIA Son Valley, Rewa and Upper Mabanadi. The lithostatigraphic units and sedi- mentary characteristics of the Gondwana sediments are presented in Table 7.2. Palacocurrent analysis in the Son Valley part of the basin reveals northwesterly sediment transport throughout Mahadeva (equivalent toPanchet) sedimentation. The uniformity and consistency of northwesterly palaeoslope throughout the Gondwana sedimentation in the Son Valley evidently calls for extension of the given basin futher north in the downslope direction beyond the north boundary fault (Son-Narmada lineament). The occurrences of ‘outliers of Gondwana rocks, resting unconformatly upon Bijawar and Vindhyan strata, north of the Son Valley, support such a possibilty. The post-Gondwana, pre-Decean ‘Trap large-scale erosion in Central Peninsular India may have removed a substantial part of the sediments that might have been aid there. Talchir Basin: ‘The WNW-ESE oriented Talchir Basin isthe easternmost ‘Gondwana Basin of the Son-Mahanadi valley and bordered on all sides by the Precambrian basement with tapering end towards east. ‘The Gondwana sediments preserved in this basin are classified into the Talchir, Karaharbari, Barakar and Supra-Panchet (Kamthi) Formations. The Talchir Formation is well exposed in SE, NW and norther part of the basin and shows converging ips. The Talchir Formation is named after the Talchir village in the eastern part of the coalfield. However, it may be noted thatthe present Talchir village is located on Karaharbari Formation. Thickness of this formation amounts up to 280 m. The Talchir Formation compris of diamictite, needle shale and ‘hytbmites. Sedimentological studies revealed that there were two periods of glacial advance and reeat during the deposition of Talchir sediments. The coal bearing Barakar Formation is well exposed in the eastem part whereas the western part of the basin is capped with the Kamthi Formation, In the Tb river section the Talchir Formation is about 130 m, though in some places it s up to 280 m. The succeeding Karharbari Formation is around 270 m thick and contains a superior grade coal of seam 1. Barakar Formation is the main coal bearing formation witha thickness of SOO m in Talcbir and Ib river basins and has eyclothems of shale, carbonaceous shales and coal seams. These are unconformably overlain by Barren Measures (200 m non-coal) and Raniganj Formation (about 180 m in fp river basin) and in turn overlain ‘unconformably by Kamthi Formation inthe Ib river basin. Tchnostratigeaphic ranges of 24 types of tracé fossils have been established in the Talchir basin of Orissa. Ichnofacies tongues in conjunction with complementary marine invertebrate body fosils, unquestionably suggest strong, infaunal activites and short-lived marine incursions, the most conspicuous of which are within the Talchir and Barakar Formations. Swomatolits are also GONDWANA SUPERGROUP on “Table 7.2. General tsigrphie sucestan of Som Mahinadi Giabon after Pande and Dave, ism ee i humcne” Sagi’ “Teneig""— pag Some ott eee cae oe oe Se aiueeeeeeeeete i Saas i pelt oe ia Baas eto araal tite aaa peers sce Seema cece no eet ne aaa ee ett et eee Z = fer eee ete cere a eet eee ac eee Mee MH oe eeengie elise eerste ee Serietoce Consct gations 19 mentee ~ Upner Resi Fagg sdetone wih thi amiated 200m «9 Permian emt Aemons of exooracons sale, 400 (ower Mester) sore cabooneou sale sions fs Ranga Fm. Medion psn, teow, ferpmous sone snd inter exborcanee ale 5 En Form vas ae Nate rape, pyeh 125m me Bee aes g op Se cane = ‘Barakar ‘Sandstones with shernations of shale! — 200 m to = hemos Sigua a canes 9 g a Lowe Kaha ‘Me erga so, 00 Kon Romi emcee wh xo rahe asl bus ban clyiy matin 500 Franson fatweliyatenao fac, 0m ‘Shitanes nd stone, Shales se tae en ba splery Uncontontiy — Precambein Unclassified Geiss, schists, quarts, lies ® pezmaits ‘Actes, Dhar Ftc, pert, gates, certy(eomteremuns7e7 9 ASauneD) ysapeed UapEY Moe vanepon ageng oi jodeu eOpN SLB vosadwinns “09 wooo “Ob vm wvuvown NV LWN Liha TT iS O07 JaNaWTHINIHO - BO A = we ° ‘coanon-on 9 Lampgyanee os ou i we ee ey prrere N aurvonows [77] ‘008 ANTI sano evingnanae [-T> y ccounsaane wows FT} crow nnvrns [777] @ veurnuos vow FT ].] Nowwmos VIMO sounwios wverameiors =] souneioa wena [777] voues votes [——] NOUWNMOS SauNSWEN NAwUER Tum souvmwcesuen [aaa] vourmoassvn [==] soumwos vox IST avoerones [oS] XBONIon GEOLOGY oF Dia reported for the first me from the Talchir ba ceryptalgal origin. ‘These are of shallow marine ‘Pranhita-Godavari_ Valley ‘The NW-SE tending Pranhita-Godavari Valley is unique as it preserves ‘about 3000 m thick sediments deposited in atime span of 200 Ma from late ‘Catboniferous/early Permian to Cretaceous. Most of the coalfields are located along the western margin at Sirpor, Bellampalli, Mandamari, Ramagundam, Chelpur, Pasra, Lingala, Kothagudem, Yellandu and Saitupalli, whereas Cherla and Manugura are located inthe eat. Generalised lithostatigraphie succession of the Gondwana sediments includes Talchir, Baraka, Baten Measures, Kami (Lower Gondwana Group), Maleri, Kota, Gangapur and Chikisla formations (Upper Gondwana Group) (Figs.7.5). The major stuctural elements are shown in Fig7.Sa, ‘The Talchie Formation unconformably overlies the Precambrian basement ‘and attains a thickness up to 370 m. Diamictites, rhythmites and light green sandstone constitute the Talchir Formation. Glacial, glacio-lacustrine and lacio-fluvial depositional envionments are favoured. The Barakar Formation is about 350 m thick and made of pebble beds and coarse feldspathic sandstone in the lower part and coal-bearing fining-upward cyelothems in the upper part, In addition to Glassopteris sp., Gangamopteris, Schizonewra sp. and Vertebraria sp., Grey Shale has yielded sich microfloral assemblage dominated by Indotrivadiites, Rhizamospora, Faunipollenites and Scheuringipoltenites of Barly Permian affinity. A 60-800 m thick, middle to Tate Permian Barren ‘Measures Formation overlies the Barakar Formation with a normal contact. Light yellow feldspathic sandstone, siltstone and grey shale are prominent Iithounits, Glossopteris flora and microflora characterised by Pensipallenites and Crescentipolenies are recorded ‘The Kami Formation, named after Kamptee in Maharashtra, is known to have widespread distibution and covers over two-thirds ofthe basinal area, However, rocent surveys have revealed that about 7000 km? area earlier marked as Kamthi Formation is now found to be an assortment of all the Gondwana stratigraphic units of the area. The Kamthi Formation shows ‘overstep” nature over the older Talchir, Barakar and Barren Measures Formations. The thickness of the Kamthi Formation ranges from 50-400 m and contains conglomerate, conglomeratc sandstone, siltstone and shale of early Triasste age. ‘The Upper Gondwana Group begins with 250 m thick Maleri Formation ‘comprising reddish brown to greenish grey clay, siltstone argillaccous sandstone and lime-pellet rock along with mile to Iste Triassic fauna. The succeedingig.7-Sa, Major struc elements inthe Goda if (Courtesy: Lakshinarayano), Jurassic Kota Formation includes large-scale cross-bedded sandstone along ‘with Prilophylliom Nora in the lower par, fish and dinosaur-bearing limestone in the middle and upper sandstone and clay with Prilophyllum flora. White sandstone, buff siltstone and light grey clay along with well-diversified Ptilophyllum flora of Neocomian-Aptian age characterise the Gangapur Formation, Lithoassemblage of the Chikiala Formation includes unfossiiferous conglomerate, conglomeratie sandstone and ferruginous sandstone of post Aptian (2) age.0 GEOLOGY OF INDIA ‘The Pranhita-Godavari Gondwana basin consists of a series of NNW= SSE grabens and half-grabens. Three prominent fault pattems are identified viz. () NNW-SSE trending syndepositional faults that contrelled sedimentation and grabenvhalf-graben development, (i) NW-SE faults thatimparted enechelon fabric to southwestem margin and (ii) the NE-SW transverse faults, oriented parallel tothe grain ofthe Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt transecting the Godavari valley basin into different sub-blocks (Fig.7.5). It is considered that the progressive subsidence of these blocks in a southeasterly direction paved the way for the deposition of coastal Gondwana tact, 8 three-armed radial rift system in which the Godavari valley remained an abored rift or aulacogen in Early Cretaceous, while drifting about the remaining two arms led to the ‘development of the east coast of India. A 3000 m thick Gondwana lithic fill consisting of multifacies associations is preserved in this NW-SE oriented {ntracratoni basin set across the Eastern Ghat Complex (EGC). The depositional ‘environments varied from glaciolacustrine to highly sinuous fluvial Phased upliftof the EGC during Mesozoic imparted changes tothe Permian intercontinental drainage system, which started supplying increased amount of detritus tothe basin, Basinal marginal faults were frst formed atthe beginning of the Tassie. The easly Jurassic uplift of the Mailaram High (Fig.7.6) in the north imparted westerly shift to the braided rivers during the Kota sedimentation. Due to the prominence of Kamavarapukota ridge (Fig7.6) in the south by ‘arly Cretaceous, the drainage pattorn became centripetal, and short lived high sinuous rivers debouched into the basin. The siting up of the Chintatapudi sub-basin with the sandstone-claystone sequence of the Gangapar Formation ‘marks the culmination of the Gondwana sedimentation, perhaps coinciding ‘vith the break up of India from the Gondwanaland along the east coast. An interesting outcome of a detailed study of the Chintatapudi sub-basin and the Coastal Gondwana basin in the Krishna-Giodavari tract isthe recognition of the Godavari Triple Junction (Fig.7.7) and a sequence of events, which trace the transformation ftom continental Gondwana to coastal Gondwans. Wardha Valley ‘The Gondwana rocks of the Godavari Valley extend northwestward into the Wardha Valley of Maharashtra. Important coalfields are located in an ‘area of about 4150 km that have geological succession similar to that of the Godavari Valley. As in the Godavari Valley, Archaean gneisses and Proterozoic Pakhal and Sullavai sequences constitute the basement ‘The Gondwana sediments comprise the Talehir, Barakar, Kamthi and ‘Maleri Formations. Striated pavement at Irai provides unequivocal evidence {or glaciation during the Talchir deposition. A prominent unconformity separates GONDWANA SUPERGROUP ‘si iano oex | \Elecm FA et mae tp a eer [2 te Form rn rn [Eel omer rman EH va ron [Evans ern saw romon [CE wee Foran [Bema AM ~~ FY Fig 7. A. sation wap of he Godavan Tape Jncon. B Gospel map of i Galswr ‘ipl uncon (ter LakshninsayanaandMur, 190; akshigarayata ea 1992. CG Chinalpati Gren, KCB = Krsna Oodsvar Coal Basin. X= Flanctn Bil, 2 Sstoragadem, 3 ~ Nebrapagaram, 4 Maser 5 ~ Gtipall:Dugu §- Mireaporam, 7 ~ Tadkalopot, 8 ~ Raghovapura, 9 ~ Dudkors. 1 - Lover M- Midi. U = Upper (Tom Gondwana Research, ¥51), 228, © lteretons Asocition of Gondwana Reseerh) Jerse ta Fr) EE ey vise pam Fin) E21 Pemintaeironsowalar Fm) [Eg tate ects (ptf) coal coraara Ext Cetxe ghran Pr) Fig777. Schematic geological cross section across the the Godavari Triple Tunaion (her ‘akshminarayana 2002). (from Gondwans Reseutch, ¥5(1), :229; © Intemational ‘Associaton of Gondwana Researchon (GEOLOGY OF INDIA the Barakar and Kamthi- Formations. The latter have wide areal extent and. overlap the older formations. The Wardha coalfield is a broad anticliie plunging NNW. The Sasti, Ballarpur, Lalpeth, Mahakali and Rayatwari collieries are located along the eastern limb, whereas Ghugus, Majri, Telwasa and Chinchala areas constitute the western limb. Kamptee, Bandar and Umarar coalfields: The Kamptee coalfield, located about 20 km NNE of Nagpur, comprises an ascending succession of Talchir, Barakar, Motur, Kamthi and Lameta Formations. Most of the *Coal Measures” are covered by younger sediments and Decean Trap. Kamptee coalfield is the type area for the Kamathi Formation. Isolated coal bearing outerops spreading. over a hundred square kilometers are located at Bandhar and Umarar. Large areas in the Wardha Valley in the south and Pench-Kanhan Tawa Valley in the north are covered by Deccan Trap. Tracing the subsurface continuation of Gondwanas beneath the Deccan Traps involves integrated geological and geophysical surveys. Rajmahal Basin ‘The Rajmahal Hills, situated in the northeastern part of the Jharkhand State, preserve Gondwana Formations comprising Talehir, Barakar and Dubrajpur Formations (Figure 7.8). These are overlain by the Rajmahal Formation made up of a series of basaltic lava flows and associated inter- trappean beds (Table 7.3). The Durgapur Beds comrelatable to the Dubrajpur Formation shows wide areal extent in Damuda basin in the western part of Burdwan district, West Bengal and consists of feldspathic sandstone with ‘occasional red and green shales, carbonaccous sandstones, carbonaceous shales and lenses of dull coal. The Durgapur beds is correlatable with Supra-Panchet in ve Renigan) coalfield. The fossil plaut-beds (nter-tappeans) at Katangi Hill are essentially cycadophytes and pteridophytes belonging to Onychiapsis sp. Ctensis sp,, Taeniopteris sp. and Pagiophyllum sp. along with Upper Jurassic marker Culcites sp. LIFE IN GONDWANA Flora Buongnian, in the early 1880s, described and iustated Glossopteris ‘browmiana vac indica and Glossopteris angustifolia from the Raniganjcoalfie. Ottokar Feistmantel not only undertook an exhaustive aud intensive ‘morphographic study of the Gondwana plants but also used the information forage determination and palacobotanicel zonation. In addition to profuse leat GONDWANA SUPERGROUP os 1 tee ae ig umn ogo . leet c RPE ranger ab elas EUS 4 Tse y Sel ion j Cj everra | Sr, w, wo cone \ oe ‘ al [© rvecontns Fig.78, Distituson of basalt and Gondwana sediments as exposed inthe Rajinaal Hil ‘harkhand State, Te locaton of inferred volcanic wens are aio show, (ft Ghose and Keat, 2003) and stem impressions of Glossopreris flora, the upper stratigraphic levels of Raniganj Formation is characterized by the presence of fossil woou!-Dadoxylon, whose trunks measure up to 30 m in length and diameter ranging from 35.5 to 75.5em. Growth rings are well preserved. In view of the fact that a majority of the plant fossils are common to most of the fonmations of Lower Gondwana, ther stratigraphic range is presented in ‘Table 7.4. (also see Plates 7.1 and 7.2).a GEOLOGY OF INDIA ‘Table 73. Lithosratigraphy of the Rajmhal Formations (simplified ftom Sengupts, 1988) (Source: Mahadevan, 2002, p.425) novi Latente 'D, Upper trap flows with and without intersappeans seareely Fossliferous ‘ceescoous C. Uppor tap flows with Fossiiferos intertappean [Bed & with Taeniopterisspatulta-Brachyplion ‘ombicum. Assemblage 2one 3 Lower Cretaceous Rajmahal—B. Lower trap lowe (4106) with fssiferous Formatien _iatetrappean beds (8107) with ladophebis inden = Dictyooanites indicus. Assemblage zone 2 Mile Jurassic ‘A. Lower trap flows (1103) with unfosstifeoss Jntertappean beds (1 and 2) Igneous comet Baked sandstone silsone Lower Jur Dobrajpar Fosilierous siltstone with Paitopylam acutifoliam Formation and Gleichenitesglickenaider Assemblage zone 1 Petbly sandstone Coarse sandstone, shale and clay beds Tins Luxuriant vegetation was prevalent during Lower Carboniferous in Europe. It was then extremely cold in the Gondwana continent and many of the earlier plants must have died out, leaving a few stragglers like Glossopteris and some spores. Glossopteris flora was comparatively less luxuriant and less varied than the Northern flora - Angara/Kuznetz (Siberia) and Cathaysian. or Gigantopteris (China, Korea, Sumatra and western part of North America). “The main difference between the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic flora is that the former consisted mostly of extinct types of plants and the later, in the Upper ‘Trias, had some forerunners of the modem plants. ‘The arid conditions, which began in other parts ofthe worlé, were felt in India also during the Triassic period. The Glossepteris, Gangamopteris, Schizoneura, which are characteristic of the Permian age, slowly disappeared from India. Equisetites sp., Sphenopteris sp. Cladophlebis sp. and mega spores Triletes and Pityosporites began appearing in Tiiassic. Dicroidiwm is widely disiributed in the Triassic of Gondwana. The sparsely developed Triassic flora gave place to well developed Puilophyllum flora, seen in Rajmahal Hills and Jabalpur areas, Damodar Valley, Son-Mahanadi Valley, in Kota in Godavari Valley and the East Coast. Cycadophytes and coniferales became prominent at the expense of pteridosperms and filicales. A few gymnosperms also made GoNDWARA ‘SuPERGROLE 635 ‘Table 7.4, Siratigraphic range of Mega Plant frien Lower Gondwana __ Names ofthe plant fossils 123 4 ~+«S 6 ‘Preridospermae Gtosropters indica xox ox wx xk Gangamoptens cyclopremides x x xx Gangamopteris angustifolia = x x uisctale ‘Schizonewra gondwanensis, === Xk Phytorheca indica EE EE ey ee Condsitates oeggerrathiopsis hislopt co Coniferales Buriadiasewanti Beefs eH Cyeadophyas Taeniopteris danaccides Sate ‘Sphenophyla Sphenophyllum speciosun 1 Tle, 2~ Karharbor, 3 Basar, 4 Barn Measures, 5- Ragan, 6- Pancha x reported occurrences. their appearance. In the carly part of the Cretaceous, there were some ferns ‘and cycadophytes of the preceding period. The occurrence of a few plant species of the Gondwana terrain in pats of Central Asia and China, and similarly tose of Angaraland in Kashmir suggest existence of some land bridges to ern this migration, in spite of being largely separated by the Tethys. Palynomorphs Palynomorphs are considered as one of the effective tools to identify the ‘environmental changes that occurred at the time the vegetation flourished in the Gondwana continents and also best-suited tool for bostratigraphie zonation, Itis more so for Gondwana sequence of India because of its dominantly non~ ‘marine depositional environment. They are complete units in themselves, the genetic characters are fully manifested through the phenomenon of evolution because the spores and poilen are the entities directly linked with the reproduction system; they are produced in astronomical numbers and theoretically must be found in most of the sedimentaries. ‘The preservation Potential is the highest in spores and polien in comparison to other fossils because of the wonder material sporopollenin, of which they are made up. The range zone of selected taxa are more reliable element of palynoevent datum than the acme zones because the latter is based on numerical dominance. of ‘axa which in the context of spatially separated regions could be biased by16 GEOLOGY OF INDIA ‘GONDWANA SUFERGROUP or | Plate 7.1. 1 - Reconstruction of the plant Piyllotheca indica (Lower Gondwana), rb. Reconstruction of the plant Rawiganjia bengalenris (Lower Gondwana). ‘ae Reconstruction ofthe plant Glassoptris(Lawer Gondwana) (Courtesy BS, Venkatachala Plate 7.2. ta-d - Reconstruction of Pewozyon sabe (Upper Gondseana). 2a, Thiele land N.C. Metzora). (reproduced with permisia from the Editor ofthe Palaeabotanie) Khatengiensis (Upper Gondwana). 2b. Sphenopterie hislopi (Upper Gondwana), 2. Brachyphyltam mantilare (Upper Gondwana). 3. Clalplebi indica (Upper Gondwana} 4. Prerphyllum morrsianam (Uppee Goudvans). (Courtesy: BS. Venkatachala and N.C. | ‘Mehror).zeproduced with permission fom the Editor ofthe Palesbotanist).oe GEOLOGY OF INDIA ecological variabilities. Quite often FAD ~ First appearance datum and LAD- ‘Last appearance datum of the species are indicated, which are most useful in correlation and classification. In Plate 7.3 is presented some of the important spore-pollen in Lower and Upper Gondwana. ‘The classification of the Gondwana sediments into Lower and Upper Gondwana Groups orLower, Middle and Upper Gondwana Groups are mainly based on lithostratigraphic considerations with supporting floral or faunal associations. Formations included in each group display gradational contacts or local unconformities and also faunal/loral transitions. In order to further refine the Gondwana classification, some authors believe that the bio- stratigraphic classification based on palynofossils is appropriate and will better explain the variations in paleoclimates. Nevertheless, classification of the Gondwana sediments remains debatable and forms a fertile topic for research. Fig.7.9 presents the morphographic features of spores and pollen preserved in the Lower Gondwana formations. Fauna ‘Vertebrate fossils ae of considerable variety in the Gondwana Formations, particularly in the Upper Gondwana. Many of these show thelr relationship to those in other southem continents, which were part of the erstwhile Gondwanaland. A majority of vertebrate fossils were found in the Upper Gondwana sediments of Pranhita-Godavari Valley (Table 7.5), though some species have been described from some of the other basins as well. The interesting finds include crustaceans, insects, ostracodes and coprolites (fossilised excrements of vertebrates such as fishes, reptiles and mammals), ‘Koratherium haldeni, a therin symmetrodont from the Kota Formation is the first reported earliest mammal from India. Oldest known Indian turtle Indochelys spatulata and the first ever record of flying reptile Campylognathoides indicus are both from this formation. The sediments of Camie age (Middle Triassic age) in the Kota Formation have yielded the dental fossils of a non-therian mammal, Gondwanodon tapani, that pushes down the Known oldest occurrence level from Rhaetic (Cerminal Triassic). Plate 7.4 shows some vertebrate remains found in the Mesozoic sediments of Gondwana, besides that of a reconstructed and mounted sauropod dinosaur skeleton of Kotosaurus yamanapalliensis. Fossil reptile Lytrasaurus (one of the dicynodonts, a widely distributed group of the rapsids or mammal ike reptiles) occurs in the Panchet Formation ‘of Raniganj coalfield. They are also found in the Katberg Formation in the Karoo sequence in southern Africa and in the Fremouw Formation of ‘Antarctica ~ all dated Tass GONDWANA, SUPERGROUP «9 Plate 7.3. Lower Gondwana plant microfossils (spores and pollens). 1-Vesicospora Corisaccies, ¥ Denzipollenites, -Lunatisportes, 5-Faunipoltentes, &Vikkipotenites, ‘T-Plicatipollenites, SParasectes, §-Alspories daotadiens, 10-Virkkipolteitestrangutaris, 11-14 Upper Gonvana pan miosis Spores ard pollens) -Impanlecsponacpiverrucata, I2-Acguitiradites spinulosts, BCopiospara cauveriana, W-Classopolis melsiangutes. (Courtesy: BS, Ventachala ay N.C. Mehrota).(eprodced wih permission from the Elton ‘of the Palasobotanist and Geophytaloy)«0 GEOLOGY OF INDIA A highly specialised and distinctive group of extinct mammals, the | Suclamericidse (Gondwanatheria), is reported from the Late Cretaceous of | Madagascar and India, This comprises the first evidence of Gondwanatheria | ConDWaNA, SUFEROROUF a 3 3 “Table 75 Lithography and fon PG Valley Goce: Bandyopayny 1956) 7 7 ; rE ( Formation | Main Lilo Tporant Foss | Age ge) FR] g |B | ge8 1 EB) som |e Chika | Highy forgive > coreg set an englomerates ale sla 2 2 cangapar | Cour rity srdiones, | Gleichenie,Peiophtus i BEDS a] f Gg) amen |F | srey-wbitewpikish msde | Puophylton, Elatoclader Poly i £ i ‘ones with eet = 5 2[= -| om |§ | foe rf Kota ‘Sandstones, siltstones and ‘Holostean fishes, Sanropods | Early to @~<>__— i smidsones with inesne | Crocodstomorts, Cote, | Middle i tends ‘Symmetrodons Ini i PDhamaram | Coace sandstones and | Proseuropods (age and} ae Late Se sadsones small), Sphenosuchia Siassie 2 | Mates Modsones, fine to medium | Metsposaarids catly Lae z ssndsones and caliites | Chignosaude, Paasuhie, | Ties Ss oe Riynchoutwads, Acoma iby vinran | Cease to fine sanones tate oe 583 : feraginos or cacarcous 7 Mite iis | places nd matsones Tse 33 eral | Maialy ed and volt | Caposars, Protacedd | arly 287 smadsone and calciulites | Prenosuchid, Dioynodois, | Mae ae | cynodont “Diassic Pee | Kami | Smisoacs ind stvonc | Glowoperts pom ra ase ‘Trasie ge te - fale ‘ gee Amphibian Paraiosuchs, along with the reptiles Wadiasaurus and PE Rechnisauras inthe Yerrapali Formation of the P-G Valley ae comparable to Boag the fauna Dinodontosaurus from South America and Sangusaurus from Ntawere £325 i Formation of Zambin of Middle Triassic age. ‘The Maleri fauna of Metaposaurus £ aE in India, except for specific differences, is identical with Meraposaurus in | S88 | Europe, North America and North Africa. The Kota Formation is known for 3 the occurrence of well preserved sauropod dinosaur Barapasaurus tagorei AG iii These occur well below a horizon containing undoubted Liassic (Lower Ee L Srromme | 2 BES Gondwana supercontinent, The reptiles collected from Pisdura and Jabalpur soon | won| rt [wna | alla | ano | Sel a BS (Lameta Formation) are considered to belong to uppermost Cretaceous- room JA UTE Maastrichtian, few of these occur in the Turoninn or Santonian of Madagascar. 2oe GEOLOGY OF DKA Koraaurus Yenanepalicsiy 2 ssuropod dinosaur skeleton recorstnced and mounted by the Geologie! Survey of India t Birla Moseum, Bea Science Centre, Hyderabad A mae tooth fa micromarma from ‘Dorsal vertebra in (a) anterior (2) anterior Tower Turse Kola Formation Tatra) posterior views. The bar is 5 em “Teth of dinosaur, lower Jurassic ‘A complete humerus Fre Tin clement) Kota Fexmation ‘of Sasopod noir Plate 74, Mesozoic vertebrates (Courtesy: P. Yak GONDWANA SUPERGROUP. co outside South America and the first indication of eosmopolitanism among Late Cretaceons Gondwana mammals. Antarctica may have served as an important Cretaceous biogeographic link between South America and Indo-Madagascar, ‘The distribution of vertebrate fauna in different Indian Gondwana beds raises the question as to what extent they are results of migration or transportation. Jf the latter, their distribution may be explained either by India remaining a part of Gondwanaland until a late date in Cretaceous or through, land connections between India, Madagascar and South America, well into late Cretaceous. ‘Trace Fossils Ichnological findings from the Indian Gondwana basins provide a new insight into the role played by the ancient sea in shaping Upper Palaeozoic ‘Mesozoic Gondwana history. The ichnocoenoses with high density and diversity of Skolithos and Cruziana indicate shallow marine conditions. These zones ‘occur as interstratified units within the continental Gondwana deposits at various stratigraphic levels and also within coal besring Lower Gondwana succession. These ichnofacies tongues in conjunction with complementary marine invertebrate fossils, unquestionably suggest strong infaunal activities and short-lived shallow marine incursions. They also spit the coal seams into transgressive-regressive couplets, a very common feature of shallow marine lower deltaic (paralic) coal deposits. Study of these trace fossils has aided. very mach in both correlation and inferring depositional environments in the Gondwana times in India. Invertebrates ‘The marine intercalations particularly associated with the Talchir Formation in some basins contained invertebrates. For example, Fenestella sp. aff. jabbiensis (bryoz0a), Dielasme, Eurydesma hovbartene, E. playfordi, E. ¢globosum (brachiopods) are reported from Upper Tatchir of Daltonganj basin (one of the sub-basins in Damodar basin). ‘The marine fossils within Tatebir Formation in Manendragarh and Umaria (Chapter 6) establish marine connections in Gondwana times. COASTAL GONDWANA BASINS East Coast Regional synthesis of both surface and subsurface lithological, palacontologica}, geophysical and tectonic data available for the sedimentaryon GEOLOGY OF INDIA basins ofthe east coast iidicates a cogent geological and sedimentational history for the rocks of Cretaceous and ‘Tertiary age in this belt. The megafloral assemblages of the cast coast Upper Gondwana units are rich in pteridophytes and gymnosperms. Pillophyllum sp., Cladophlebis sp. and Elatocladus sp. are ubiquitous. Invertebrate fossils viz. pelecypods, gastropods, ammonoids and foraminifera are associated with floral remains, ‘The coastal Gondwana formations occur as isolated ovtcrops along the cast cozst of India between Mahanadi in the north to Cauvery in the south. Prominent outcrops are located at Athgarh (Orissa), Ranasthalam, Eluru, Guntur, Ongole, Saryaveda (Andhra Pradesh), Sriperumbadur and Utatur (Tamil Nadu). A conspicuous feature of the rocks is that Pritaphyllum flora is associated with ‘marine invertebrates, thereby justifying the term ‘Coastal Gondwans,’ Athgarh (Orissa) Covered partly by laterite and partly by alluvium, about 400 m thick conglomerates, grits, carbonaceous shale, variegated shale and fireclay constitute the Athgarh Beds of Upper Gondwana at the head of the Mahanadi delta, near Cuttack. Palaeocurent in sandstone is towards southeast ‘This formation has yielded the following early Cretaceous plant fossils: Prilophyliun, Marattiopsis macrocarpa, Cladophlebis indica, Rhiaomopteris ball, Thinnfeldia and Otozamites Krishna-Godavari Coastal tract (Andhra Pradesh) ‘The NW-SE Continental Gondwana rift basin of the Godavari Valley is transversely superimposed by NE-SW trending Krishna-Godavari coastal trac, ‘The contact between these wo sedimentary basins defines a triple junction Framework termed as the Godavari triple junction. The coastal Gondwana sediments in these areas unconformably overlie either Precambrian gneisses oo the Kamthi and Kota Formations of the Godavari Valley. Table 7.6 shows revised stratigraphic succession of the Krishna-Godavari coastal tract. Raghavapuram Formation: This comprises two distinct lithologies: (@) grey clay, siltstone an fine-grained sandstone with ptilophyllum flora which thrived in inter-distributary swamps of southeast flowing delta plain isuibutaries and Gi) white clay and sandstone characterised by a mix of pilophyllum flora and invertebrate fossils (pelecypods, gastropods, ammaonoids and foraminifera) of prodelta and shallow marine environment. This formation contains Early Cretaceous (Neocomian-Aptian age) palynofossil assemblage, represented by Microcachryidites antarcticus, Contignisporites. sp.. ‘GONDWANA SUPERGROUP os “Table7.6, Strstigrphic succession ofthe Upper Gondwana scitments in the Krishna: Godavasi coastal uct (after Laksbminarayans et al 1992) ea Formation Litbotogy Age conformity Conglomerate sandsone, Feruginaus sandstone, micaoous sindstcne, clay-clast Timpat ‘bearing sandstone and laytono with Palophyltum Bera ad fossiesons limestone (aia tappean) Ccreuceous Upper Gondwana Greys white to buf state, xbonaceous Raghavapuram | sistene and micaceous sandstone with Palophyltar Dora, plyzofosils sd fnvertebrate far sees ee Uneonormity = ‘Conglomerai sandstone, cay-lest hearing. | Jrasic sandstone, variegated claystone with Patophyllan fora Voconformity = CConglomera sandstone, ferginots Upper Kesnths sandstone and elaystane With Glssoptris | Permian to oes Lower “Tissic COASTAL Tine cones 5 Tower CONTINENTAL Gordan + -Unconfomityia. Khondalite Procanteian Callialasporites sp. Lycopodiumsporites sp., Impardecispora sp.. and Concavissimisporites sp. Among the plant fossils in the Raghavapuram Formation are Piilophyllium acutifolium, P. cuichense, Taeniopteris spatulata, Otozomites sp., Prerophylium sp., Cladophebis clentialata and Araucarites cuichensis. Foraminifera characterised by Haplophragmoides and Anmobacullies suggest an Early Cretaceous age. Tirupati Formation: This formation conformably overlying Raghavapuram, Formation and sometimes overstepping onto the khondalites ofthe Precembrian, is met with in the Gopalapuram-Buchayapalem-Duddukuru area of West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh. It is made up of conglomerates, ‘conglomeratic sandstones and sandstones of prograding delta. The plant fossils recorded from this formation are: Marattiopsis macrocarpa, Gleichenites gleichenoides, Dichoteris elorensis, Dietyozamites indicus, Ptilophyllum ‘acutifolium, Nilssonia morrisiana, Elatoctadus sp., Podozamites lanceolatus.es GEOLOGY OF INDIA ‘A horizon of Im thick fossiliferous limestone at the top of the Tirupati ‘Sandstone, south of Duddukura, characterised by the presence of Turritella, Cardita beaumonti, Nautilus, Lumulites and Chelae of crab etc., originally considered ta be infra-trappean, since itjust underlies a flow of the Trap (Deccan “Trap, is now thought to be the topmost unit of the Tirupati Formation. These beds represent delta abandonment phase in late Cretaceous. Therefore, the Raghavapuram and Tirupati Formations together denote a Cretaceous delta cycle. “The change from continental Gondwana to coastal Gondwana is considered to have taken place in the following four stages: ‘Stage T: Sediments in a north-westely flowing system (Late Carboniferous ~ Barly Jurassic) ‘Stage Ti: Westerly shift in palaeocurrents attributed to an obstruction caused by an upliftment of the Meilaram high parallel 10 NE-SW Eastern Ghats trend Stage IH; Deltsic sedimentation towards east Early Cretaceous separation of landmass) Stage IV: Basement uplift and delta progradation [A NE-SW Kallachernvu-Zangareddigudem ridge is considered to have prevented marine incursion from the southeast into the Godavari graben, during the deposition of Raghavapuram Formation, This suggested that the changeover from continental Gondwana to coastal Gondwana had occurred over a time span of about 70 Ma between Late Jurassic: to Cretaceous and controlled by phase-wise upliftment of the basement as a ccorollaty to the Gondwana continental break up. The contact zone between the {ntracratonie Godavari rift and the Krishna-Godavasi Coastal tract defines the ‘Godavari Triple Junction Figs. 7.6 and 7.7). The sedimentary transition pattern between the continental Gondwana and the coastal Gondwana reflects the pattern of the continental break up. Vejendla- Vemavaram Formations: In Vejendla-Vemavaram area of Guntur jets of Andhra Pradesh, the so-called Budavada and Pavalur {its in a monotonously thick and Prakasam dis Sandstones oceur as disconnected lensoid Sequence of Vernavaram Shale. ‘These sandstones laterally grade into the shale Bruce Foote had originally classified the Gondwana sediments of this area {nto Budavada Sandstone, Vernavaram Shale and Pavalur Sandstone. These ‘are now classified as Vernavaram Formation (wth intercalations of sandstones) tnd Vejendla Formation, Vemavaram Formation contains fossil assemblage GONDWANA SUPERGROLP i (Glora and fauna) with Upper Gondwana affinity. The fossils include Prilophyllum sp., Dictyozomites sp, Dicroidium sp., Williamsonia sp,, and rollusca Inoceramus sp, Mytilus, Nautilus sp. and fish impressions. ‘There are outliers of Upper Gondwana in Jaggampeta, Simhadripuram, Ayyaparaz-Kettapalle, Gunupudi and Gurrajupeta in the northem part of coastal ‘Andhra Pradesh. They are represented by pebble to boulder-conglomerate overain by sandstone, They ae sen wp o 80m above ml. Uplifment de to ns Papen along lineaments during the Quatemary is suggested Palar Basin (Tamil Nadu) ‘The Palar basin lying close to Chennai (formerly Madras) city in Tamil Nadu extends over a distance of about 125 km, the maximum width being about 20 km, ‘The basin extends a lite into Andhra Pradesh also to its north Within ihe basin, the Gondwana sediments occur as three distinct patches from north to south, including the Sriperumbudur-Satyavedu, the (former Conjecvaram) Kanchipuram-Kattavakkam and the Uttiramentr-Madurantakam areas. The stratigraphy of the Palar basin is given in Table 7.7. ‘The assorted boulders present in the Talchir argillaceous siltstone in onshore Palar basin in Chengalpet district, Tamil Nadu are probably morainic blocks carried by icebergs that floated on a proglacial lake basin. Hence the environment could have been placio-lacustrine, Greenish grey argillaceous siltstone in the Lower Gondwana sequence may be indicative of the same. ‘Table 7.7. Classification of sata in Paar Basin air Natarajan and Komaragers, 1998) Formation Tihology Age ‘Sayeed ‘Gongiomerae | Upper Sarat Sandstone Conglomerate Gondwana sae Sipermmbadur | Sandstone Conaimre MidaleSurassic (2) Lower Tlehir Green Stes Gondwana older Bede Upper Caboniterous Cuddapah — | Nagar qurtzites Proterozoic Supergroup Peninsatar | Granites and Arehaean Greies Gareissesoe GEOLOGY OF IND During the Laté Carhoniferous and Permian the Palar basin is considered to haveexisted between 60 and 70° south palaeolatitudes. Itisin the Utiaramerura- Madurantakam area that Talchir sediments of glacial origin were met ‘with, Boreboles at Kattavakkam and Orikkai around Conjeevaram in Palar basin yielded a palyno-assemblage, which with the exception of Cyclo~ baculitesporites and Microbaculitispora is highly characteristic of Talchir Formation and confirms unequivocally the occurrence of Talchir sediments in Patar basin. Good sections of Sriperumbudur Formation are seen near Pundt along, tho banks of Kortalayar River and also in Odappi in Ticuvallur district, Tamil Nadu. Pascoites crassus (ammonites), and Haplophragmoides and Spiroplectammina (forarns) are reported from here and as a whole suggest & Lower Cretaceous age indicating Upper Gondwana. ‘Satyavedu Formation is named after Satyavede village in Chittoor district im southern part of Andhra Pradesh. This formation consists of ferruginous sandstone and conglomerate characterised by the presence of pebble to boulder size clasts of Cuddapah (Nagari) Quattzite and Precambrian crystalline ‘basement Jocated to the west. Trichy Area The Sivaganga Formation is divisible into three members namely Kovandakaruchi conglomerate, Kovandakaruchi siltstone and Terani Clay member, The conglomerate is pink to baff and made of sub-angular to sub- rounded pebbles and cobbles derived from the Precambrian gneissic basement located in the west, The conglomerate is cast supported in the lower part, matrix supposted in the middle, and grades into pebbly sandstone in the upper part. The siltstone. is off-white to Tight grey, parallel bedded and made of fining upward couplets of siltstone/sandstone and silty clay. The Terani Clay is made of white to grayish white clay and silty clay containing an ensemble of invertebrate fossils viz. bivalve (Inoceramus sp.) and ammonoids and plant fossils viz. filicales, cycadophyta and conifers of Ptilophyllum flora and ‘of Barremian (early Cretaceous) age. 4 ferruginous clay bed marks an tunconformable contact between the Terani Clay and the overlying middle to late Cretaceous Uttatur Stage of the Cretaceous suceession of Trichinopoly area. Ramanathapuram ‘The southernmost Gondwana outcrops known so far are met with in Sivaganga district of Tamil Nadu in the Sivaganga-Tirupattar area, The CGONDWARA SUPERGROU? oo sediments consist of boulder beds and conglomerates atthe base, followed by micaccous sandstones, grits and shales. These are called Sivaganga Beds and the important plant fossils in them are: Cladophlebis lobata, Taeniopteris spatulata, Ginkgoites crassipes, Brackyphyllum expansum, Elatocladus plana, Podozomites lanceolatus etc. These are considered to be Neocomian to Aptian (Lower Cretaceous) in age. Coastal Gondw: ia Formations have yielded plant and marine fossils ‘which indicate (i) time of marine transgression within Gondwana and (ji) palaeo- ecology and sedimentation history. The ammonites (Pascoeites crassus, P, budavadensis, Australiceras jacki), the lamellibranches (Ostrea sp. Inoceramus sp., Tellina,) and palynoflora indicate an Aptian age. WEST COAST Kuteh (Gujarat) ‘The Umia Series conformably overlies the Katrol ‘Series’ and is made of sandstone, conglomerate and shale. The Series was earlier divided into three ‘members namely Umia, Ukra and Bhuj. The Bhuj member is characterized by the presence of Prilophyllum flora and the early Cretaceous palynofossils (Gee page 703 under Crotaccous in Chapter 8) GONDWANA IN EXTRA-PENINSULAR INDIA Kashani ‘The earliest plant bed of the Lower Gondwana affinity, lying at the base of the Panjal Trap in Kashmiris designated as Nishatbagh Bed. The beginning of this bed marks the emergence of the continental phase in Kashmir during the early part (not earliest) ofthe Artinskian stage (Early Permian). Five distinct plant horizons at different levels are reported. The formations are already listed under the Permian Gondwana in an earlier chapter and the sequence is given therein (Table 6.7). ‘The Nishathagh Bed is separated from the Maal Formation by volcanic flow and inter-trappeans. The Mamal Formation subdivided into Risin, Marhom, Mund and Dunpathri Members is separated from the overlying Zewan Formation containing Upper Permian marine strata by a disconformity and a fault Dark coloured tuffaceous shale is the main constituent of the Nishatbagh Bed. The plant fossils in this bed include: Gangamopteris kashmirensis, Gangustifolia, Glossopteris longicaulis, G nishatbaghensis, Psygmophyllum haydeni, Cordaites hislopi, Samaropsis.50 GEOLOGY OF HiDIA ‘The Mamal Formation is mainly composed of tuffaceous suite of rocks, stratigraphically positioned between older Panjal voleanies and younger Zewan Formation. The members developed concurrently in Iagoonal or lacustrine environments during the Panjal Volcanic extrusive episode. The plant fossils in this formation included Paraspenophyllum, Trizygia speciosa, Lobarannularia ensifolia, Rajahia mamalensis, Glossopteris intermittens, G feistmantelli, @ sahni, and Ginkgophyllum haydeni. ‘These non-marine sedimentary deposits of Early Permian in Kashmir with characteristic Gondwana elements were originally termed as Gangamopteris Beds, but later as Lower Gondwana. These were considered to be local representatives atthe northemmos frontier of Gondwanialand of the peninsular Lower Gondwane of Talchir-Damuda. Since all of the beds here belonged to Permian, they have been also called Permian Gondwana. These beds contain the following plant fossils: Lycopod stem, Lepidostrobus kashmirensis, Kawizophyllum dunpathriensis, Pecopteris, Kashmiropteris meyenii. These show similarity with those of Cathaysian flora. All these are referred to Eafly Artinskian to Early Kungurian age (Middle Permian). A change from cool to warm and humid climate is considered to have prevailed during this period in Kashmir. The invertebrate fossils reported from the Gangamopteris Beds are: Prognoblattina columbiana, Gondwanablatta, Kashmiroblatta marhomensis. The vertebrates are Amblypterus kashmirensis, Paleoniscus, Archaeogosauurus ornatus, Actinodon risinensis, and Chelydosaurus marhomensis, ‘The first Gondwana insect from India, Gondwanablatta reticulata was reported from Gangamopteris Beds of Khunmu by Handlisch (1906-08). Assam ‘The Permian Gondwana outcrops in Assam are scarce and localised at Singrimari in the Goalpara distict. The area is to the north of Dolungmukh in Dhemaji district, where the Misi Formation of Lower to Middle Palaeozoic age is exposed. The Gondwana part is considered to be of Lower Permian age. ‘Some Gondwana rocks are supposed to be present all along the Himalayan foothills, from Arunachal to North Bengal, in the thrust belt north of the Siwalik, and their equivalents, These conld therefore be easily present in Assam in lock-faulted troughs within the basement areas buried under the Upper Mesozoic to Holocene sediments. 135 m of continental Permian sediments encountered at a depth of 1598 m in ONGC’s Barapathar Well in the Dbansiti Valley probably represents subsurface occurrence of the Gondwana. The palynological assemblage indicates a Late Carboniferous to Permian age. ‘GonpWwatia stiPéKGROUF on Arunachal Pradesh ‘An east-west tending belt of discontimous outcrops of the Gondwana rocks is seen between Kameng in the west and Siang in the east, The Cenozoic Siwaliks inthe south and Barly Palaeozoic metasediments in the north, along prominent thrust planes, bound the Gondwana belt. The continental Facies of Gondwana Group in Arunachal Himalaya is made up of sandstones, siltstones, shale and impersistent coal lenses. The shale bas yielded rich floral assemblages represented by Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Vertebraria etc, and are commonly recorded in the Kameng and Subansiri districts. In Subansiri district, highly vesicular and amygdaloidal basalt is observed in association with the Gondwana rocks, pointing to a basic volcanic event during the Lower Permian inthis part of the Himalaya. Associated withthe sandstones are highly weathered nodular shales, diamictite that have yielded well preserved marine invertebrate fossils such as brachiopods, gastropods, cephalopods, exinoids, bivalves and bryozoans ‘of Lower Permian age. The brachiopods show dominance over other groups of fossils while the bivalves have maximum variety of forms. ENVIRONMENTS OF DEPOSITION When tillites and striated pavements were discovered indicating glacial action during Lowest Permian (Asselian), it was generally presumed that these ‘may be the results of continental glaciation, similar to features left over by the retreating lobes of Pleistocene glaciation in northern parts of North America and Europe. However, later detailed studies showed thet the Talchir glaciers ‘were derived from ice caps on certain highlands. The initial glaciogene deposits were those left by retreating glaciers, The massive tillites were those brought in by meltwaters. All these are usually close to the then existing highlands. During this period, certsin sections had intermixture of sandstone, siltstone and shale resulting from fluvial agency, while in others, not many though, there were marine intercalations, which contained a few important invertebrate fossils, which had relatively short geological rango, thus aiding fixation of age Of the associated sediments, The green shales of Talchir were followed by ‘ross-bedded channel sandstone locally associated with carbonaceous shale. Figure 7.10 shows a possible scenario of the depositional environments as Interpreted in the formations from Talchir to Supra-Panchet, ‘The Gondwana basins expanded spatially. The sedimentation is to be confined to three major belts of Koel-Damodar, Son-Mahanadi and Pranhita: Godavari basins. The sediments were essentially fluvial deposits. The geometry and lithological content of the strata indicate that they were essentially river channel sand bodies, floodplain and over-bank deposits. Ibis the developmentws oxtacr of 0 | conan nance 7 | ‘f peat swamps in protected and low-lying areas of abandoned floodplains that | ultimately gave rise tothe coal seams. The multi-storey sandstone bodies denote | position in braided river environment characterized by channel avulsion and incision of pre-existing floodplains. There are, however, many variations in the thickness of the sedimentary bodies and coal seams. This is attibuted to |

You might also like

• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  From Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (5795)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

  From Everand

  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  Brené Brown

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1090)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

  From Everand

  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (838)
• • Magazines
  • Podcasts
  • Sheet music
• Principles: Life and Work

  

  From Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (599)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1713)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  From Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (895)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1103)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

  From Everand

  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (588)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

  From Everand

  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (537)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  From Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2104)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  From Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (345)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  From Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (474)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  From Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1016)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  From Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (821)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1839)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  From Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (271)
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  From Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (121)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  From Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (440)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Tóibín

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (1937)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

  From Everand

  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (400)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  From Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2259)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (4610)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (4200)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  From Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (1929)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

  From Everand

  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (98)
• Steve Jobs

  

  From Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (806)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

  From Everand

  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (266)
• Yes Please

  

  From Everand

  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (1891)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  From Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (2322)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

  From Everand

  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (231)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  From Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (234)
• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  From Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (738)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (3811)
• John Adams

  

  From Everand

  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (2409)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  From Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (74)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars

  4.5/5 (789)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

  From Everand

  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (45)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (792)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  From Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (104)
• Gems and Geology (Colored - Diamonds)

  

  Document342 pages

  Gems and Geology (Colored - Diamonds)

  Sonal Mevada

  67% (3)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

  From Everand

  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Rating: 3.5 out of 5 stars

  3.5/5 (137)
• Little Women

  

  From Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Rating: 4 out of 5 stars

  4/5 (104)
• Unit 1 Meaning and Kinds of Reasoning

  

  Document14 pages

  Unit 1 Meaning and Kinds of Reasoning

  Sonal Mevada

  No ratings yet
• Early Cretaceous Flora From The Pranhita-Godavari Basin (East Coast of India) : Taxonomic, Taphonomic and Palaeoecological Considerations

  

  Document20 pages

  Early Cretaceous Flora From The Pranhita-Godavari Basin (East Coast of India) : Taxonomic, Taphonomic and Palaeoecological Considerations

  Sonal Mevada

  No ratings yet
• Ppx... Principles of X-Ray Crystallography

  

  Document46 pages

  Ppx... Principles of X-Ray Crystallography

  Sonal Mevada

  No ratings yet
• 0 Aa 1

  

  Document17 pages

  0 Aa 1

  Sonal Mevada

  No ratings yet
• BiostratigraphyANReddy Pathashala

  

  Document14 pages

  BiostratigraphyANReddy Pathashala

  Sonal Mevada

  No ratings yet
• Cauvery Basin, South India

  

  Document16 pages

  Cauvery Basin, South India

  Sonal Mevada

  No ratings yet
• Crystal Structures Imp

  

  Document18 pages

  Crystal Structures Imp

  Sonal Mevada

  No ratings yet
• GIS Basics (S K Pathan)

  

  Document15 pages

  GIS Basics (S K Pathan)

  Sonal Mevada

  No ratings yet
• L3 Weathering Processes

  

  Document57 pages

  L3 Weathering Processes

  Sonal Mevada

  No ratings yet
• Text Book of Geology (Girija Bhushan of Mhapatra)

  

  Document192 pages

  Text Book of Geology (Girija Bhushan of Mhapatra)

  Sonal Mevada

  100% (2)
• Internal Structure of Earth

  

  Document1 page

  Internal Structure of Earth

  Sonal Mevada

  No ratings yet
• GPS and Its Applications

  

  Document15 pages

  GPS and Its Applications

  Sonal Mevada

  No ratings yet