e YOUR ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE ISSUE 8

Greater Energy
Efficiency
in Electronics
rswww.com/electronics 08457 201201
 You should expect more from a
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© 2011 Agilent Technologies, Inc.

 Cy
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Hello and welcome to the latest edition of eTech from RS Components,

bringing you the latest developments and trends in electronic INSIDE eTech
technology, components, design and support products.
04 iSay
The increasing pervasion of electronics into almost every aspect of our lives makes for an
interesting exponential term within an equation that balances the Earth’s power resources. 05 RS NEWSlINE
Not only does it help keep us engineers in our careers, the relentless thirst for technology 06 gREaTER ENERgy EFFICIENCy
by industry and consumers alike is also focussing our attention on the efficiency of new IN ElECTRONICS
and old products alike. It is clear that those products that do the same or more than their
competitors with less power input will have an advantage in the market…and consequently 10 PRODUCT NEWS
an advantage for all of our businesses and bank balances! 12 DESIgNINg WITH
ENERgy-EFFICIENT
So, until we successfully manage to harness the power of nuclear fusion, we will remain MICROCONTROllERS
focussed on making electronic products more efficient. In this issue our main theme is
indeed energy efficiency in electronics, discussed in the article on page 6. Amongst other 16 THE BaTTlE HaS BEgUN
feature articles, we focus on power supply, microcontroller, BETWEEN FlaSH & FRaM
capacitor and RF technologies, considering their contribution
to smarter, more efficient products of the future.
19 CONTINUOUS EVOlUTION OF
ElECTROlyTIC CaPaCITORS
Terms and conditions: Terms and FOR SMaRT SOCIETy
conditions of sale set out in the current I hope you enjoy this issue of eTech!
RS Catalogue. This issue is valid from
October 2011 to December 2011.
22 algORITHM-BaSED DECISION
MakINg FOR aUTONOMOUS
Published by: RS Components aUTOMOBIlES
Limited. Registered office:
Birchington Road, Weldon, Corby,
Northamptonshire NN17 9RS.
24 NEW ZERO POWER
Registered No. 1002091. RS RF TECHNOlOgIES
Components Ltd 2011.
RS are trademarks of RS
Components Limited. An
Glenn Jarrett 26 DESIgN TIPS : SOlaR CHaRgER
Head of Electronics Marketing
Electrocomponents Company.
30 OPEN SOURCE :
ENERgy-EFFICIENT &
RENEWaBlE TECHNOlOgIES

34 ElECTRONICS ExTRa

for Tablet
36 ROBOTS TO THE RESCUE

40
Place FSC
logo here DESIgNSPaRk.COM

42 STORINg gREEN ElECTRICITy

aS NaTURal gaS

ELE_0033_1011 eTech - ISSUE 8 03

iSay
HARRY MOORE
MANAGING DIRECTOR
PULS UK SAYS:

EFFICIENT
POWER SUPPlIES
make economic & environmental sense
Using high quality energy efficient power supplies doesn’t just make environmental
sense; it makes economic sense as well. let’s face it, the cost of energy is unlikely
to go down anytime in the near future, so why when designing a system to last
many years do we not take this into consideration?

Most engineers are aware that much of the rhetoric coming from
politicians does not in any way represent joined up thinking, with ...a top quality unit
the emphasis being on generating renewable energy rather than
reducing consumption through better design.
delivering 96% efficiency
To put this into context, let’s assume energy costs are 10p per
would only lose 52W,
Kwh and we are operating a control system using a 1000W equating to a £174
a year saving and a
(1Kw) power supply. If this power supply is only 80% efficient
this would mean a wastage of 250W, whereas a top quality
unit delivering 96% efficiency would only lose 52W, equating
to a £174 a year saving and a corresponding reduction in CO2 corresponding reduction
emissions. It would only therefore take 10 units to
make a total saving of £1740 over one year!
in CO2 emissions.
Other savings can be made if the unit no longer has a high PULS power supplies are built with the customer in mind, with
inrush current. If the unit only takes 5 amps at start up (instead of a huge range of products available including AC/DC single
anything from 30-60 amps) then the wiring used can be thinner. and three-phase power supplies, DC-DC converters, DC-UPS,
In addition, if the system is mission critical then the UPS system buffer modules, MOSFET and redundancy systems. All provide
can be smaller. outstanding efficiencies and feature super compact, lightweight
housing to meet the needs of the most demanding systems.
Our chief design engineer is famous for sending new designers Products extend from 5V to 72V outputs with power ratings from
back to start again if they have used any small capacitors. He 15W to 960W, with extensive approvals available on many units
believes that in the context of power supplies, small capacitors including ATEX, GL, CE, CSA and many more.
are the first point of failure with any unit and if they are in
the control circuitry you will not find this out until something
bad happens. How many systems out there no longer have
overvoltage or reverse voltage protection and their operators
are not aware of it?

OK so let us assume you have designed your mission critical

system, used an N+1 array of power supplies, chosen them
carefully, used diode protection on the outputs only to single fuse To see the full PUlS range visit rswww.com
all the inputs to the power supplies. It amazes us here at PULS and search for ‘PUlS’
how often there is a single point where failure could bring
down the whole system.
What do you think?
Size and efficiency are interdependent. Designers of some
Share your opinion on the economics of
of the cheaper power supplies try to compensate for low
using energy efficient power supplies at
efficiency by adding large heat sinks; but really this is just
www.designspark.com/etech
inefficient bad design.

04 eTech - ISSUE 8
 RS
NEWSlINE

Introducing a new series

of free schematic symbols
and PCB footprints
RS Components and accelerated
Designs introduce component libraries for
STMicroelectronics and Microchip, as the
first in the range to be released.

The new series of component libraries provide customers

with schematic symbols and Printed Circuit Board
(PCB) footprints for an extensive range of products
from STMicroelectronics and Microchip.

RS Components supports
the relocation of elephants
in Sri lanka
During the dry season in Sri lanka, elephants wander
the local rice fields at night destroying all the crops;
this has significant repercussions on the livelihood
of the local people.
Professor Nobert Bartos and his team at the polytechnical university
in Vienna offered to help. A solution of using a fence system that
rang an alarm when elephants entered the rice fields was developed.
Engineers created a neuronal network that identified the language of
the elephants that was able to send signals to tell the elephants to
stay away from the fields.
This system consists of a microphone, various amplifiers, a
microcontroller and various other electronics parts. All of the
components for the two prototypes were sponsored by RS
Components Austria.
Thousands of PCB footprints and schematic symbols
are available for free download in a vendor-neutral format
from RS’ online DesignSpark electronics design community
and resource centre, and can be exported to virtually any
EDA and CAD/CAE system using Accelerated Designs’ Ultra
librarian (UL) translator software, thus saving the design
engineer valuable time and effort in the CAD design process.
The UL Reader also supports RS’ free DesignSpark PCB
design tool that offers powerful schematic capture and
PCB layout software.
The free Ultra librarian soft ware, including footprints
and symbols, is available now for download at:
www.designspark.com. Bill of Materials (BOM) reports
can be generated and prices quoted using
RS’ free Online Quotes tool.

RS Components, Elektor and Circuit Cellar

announce new Design Challenge Competition
The competition in partnership with Microchip is focused on energy (TBC)
and will be launched officially in November at Elektor live.

Utilising the new Digilent ChipKIT3 MAX32
based on a Microchip PIC32 core, the Design
Challenge will offer Engineers the chance to
acquire 1 of 1000 free boards we are giving
away, to develop an innovative shield using
DesignSpark PCB, RS Component’s free
award winning PCB design software.
boards can be easily realised. The challenge
will be to develop the most innovative and
novel solutions in an specified area (TBC).
The Competition will conclude in March
2012, where the winners will be
announced at Circuit Cellar Live.

The MAX32 board offers an open source For more information go to

solution where add-on ‘shield’ or expansion www.designspark.com

eTech - ISSUE 8 05
 e a ter Ene rgy
gr
cien
Effi nicscy
in Electro

06 eTech - ISSUE 8
 according to publicly available statistics from the International Energy
agency (IEa), the intergovernmental organisation, the world’s total
consumption of fuel in 2008 was estimated at more than 8400 Mtoe
(Million tonnes of oil equivalent), up from approximately 4670 Mtoe,
almost doubling over a 35-year period.
And gross energy production increased
by 10% over a four-year period (2004 to
2008) with a corresponding increase
in annual CO2 emissions, while the
world’s population only increased by
around 5%. Additionally, worldwide
energy consumption is predicted
to increase, on average, by 2%
per year up to 2030. This level of
increase will lead to annual energy
consumption doubling every 35
years. According to some recently
available statistics, energy
consumption actually climbed by
5.5% in 2010, but this followed a
1% decrease in 2009, a blip, or
a glitch perhaps, in the overall
trend caused by the recent global
financial and economic crisis.
Although widely known
international efforts are being
made to decarbonise the electricity
sector and reduce the dependence
on fossil fuels, with a combination
of renewable energy technologies,
nuclear power and fossil fuels,
combined with CCS (Carbon Capture
and Storage), no one seems to be
predicting that global demand for
power is going to slow down anytime
soon. In fact, all the evidence says that we
want still more personal smart gadget type
things to tell us exactly where we are and
how we really ought to be somewhere else
five minutes ago; in addition to more prosaic
concerns, such as having warm homes.
It should be abundantly clear why energy efficiency is
becoming an increasingly important factor in our lives,
even if there remain levels of scepticism in our societies
about climate change, global warming, CO2 emissions, et al.
Dwindling energy resources – or at least those easily available
at relatively low cost, energy dependence on foreign countries,
and sharply increased fuel costs overall, should be more than
enough to concentrate anyone’s mind on the issue.
So what is energy efficiency? To quote the intergovernmental
organisation, the IEA: ‘Something is more energy efficient if it
delivers more services for the same energy input, or the same
services for less energy input.’ Well, that sounds easy, like playing a
musical instrument, as explained by J.S. Bach: “All you have to do
is touch the right key at the right time and the instrument will play
itself.” Of course we know implicitly that things are never so simple.
New technologies are certainly making significant ground in finding
better use of already available energy through improved efficiency,
such as better insulation or replacing all the incandescent lighting
in our homes with CFL (Compact Florescent Light) bulbs, which use
less energy to produce roughly the same amount of light.
But the real challenge, especially given tight cost constraints and
ever increasing demands to deliver cutting-edge performance,
is for engineers who are designing and developing the next-
generation electronic products and systems in a myriad of diverse
fields, such as mobile consumer devices, PCs, communications,
lighting, industrial automation, home entertainment, automotive
and medical electronics, among many others. The pervasiveness,
if not ubiquity, of electronic devices is becoming an increasingly
significant contribution to global power consumption. So, it is
becoming more and more crucial that power management moves
up the list of design priorities, at least taking its place at the top
table with those other famous design ‘P’s - Performance and Price -
if not even becoming the most critical factor.
...home entertainment, for
example, such as HDTVs
and set-top boxes, power
consumption is also playing
a major role, especially
so when the box is in
standby mode, which is
potentially the majority
of the product’s lifetime.
Accordingly, the vast majority of global electronic product makers
have realised the importance of low power design for sometime
now, and for any number of reasons, not least of which is national
governmental and international energy-efficiency regulations. New
legislation is continually evolving and being passed, demanding
ever greater power efficiency, such as the US Environmental
Protection Agency’s (EPA) Energy Efficiency Level V, which specifies
for not only full loads, but also the no-load condition or standby
mode of electronic products.
Additionally, consumer demand is clearly growing for low power
consumption or ‘energy light’ products – most patently in the
mobile gadget sector where battery longevity is a major factor;
and also a highly significant feature for manufacturers to push to
Continued page 08 >
eTech - ISSUE 8 07
 < Continued from page 07
their customers. And in home entertainment,
for example, such as HDTVs and set-top
boxes, power consumption is also playing
a major role, especially so when the box
is in standby mode, which is potentially
the majority of the product’s lifetime. Box
makers are now looking to chip and system
makers to provide exceptionally low standby
power consumption figures and then deliver
leading-edge performance to ‘wake-up’
the product in a timely manner, ready for
viewer operation.
In semiconductor chips – the devices that
lay at the heart of any modern electronic
product – manufacturing process-technology
geometries are continually shrinking, in
line with the famous Moore’s Law. Roughly,
this law states: the number of transistors
that can be placed cost-effectively on a
given area of silicon will double every two
years. This process, driven by demands
for lower power consumption, lower
cost and higher reliability in
modern electronics goods,
has enabled the increased
integration of logic and
control functionality into
‘single-chip solutions’,
enabling engineers to
use perhaps just one
central controlling
or processing chip
in their design,
where previously
they had no other
option than to
use a number of
discrete chips.
Today, the latest
cutting-edge
complex System-
on-Chip ICs, ASICs
(Application-Specific ICs)
and microprocessors now
integrate hundreds of millions
of transistors with feature sizes
as small as 32nm (or 32 billionths of
a meter) and below. However, this level
of integration can bring a whole host of chip
design issues because of the significant
increase in leakage power from the ever-
smaller transistors. This has led to chip
designers needing to use every technique
they know to manage power consumption,
which fundamentally are based around the
central tenet of turning off those elements
of the chip that are not absolutely necessary
to overall chip functionalityat any specific
operating point in time.
System partitioning for highly complex chips
08 eTech - ISSUE 8
is one weapon in the designer’s armoury to
reduce power, making the trade-offs between
performance, cost and power consumption.
Depending on the constraints of the end
application or product, this could be
implementing frequently used computational
processes in hardware to deliver the required
overall performance, while choosing other
processes to be run in software, potentially
saving silicon die area.
Other more advanced techniques to reduce
on-chip power could include supplying the
minimum voltage or changing the operating
frequency in certain areas of logic circuitry,
but bringing the penalty of significantly extra
complexity into the design.
At the system or board level similar choices,
working again with the trade-offs on price,
performance and power, will also need to be
made. For example, selecting system-level
devices such as ASICs or ASSPs (Application-
Specific Standard Products) or deciding
to use general-purpose ICs such as MCUs
(microcontrollers) or DSPs (Digital Signal
Processors), or possibly even FPGAs (Field
Programmable Gate Arrays).
To reduce overall power consumption,
it’s increasingly clear that designers will
need to take the holistic approach for
low-power system design, selecting the
right components to do the job, obviously
within the required performance and cost
constraints.
RS Components works closely with
manufacturers from across the industry
to stock energy efficient technologies
that save power in new designs.
See the latest introductions
at rswww.com/electronics
Share your views...
developments that can further reduce
energy requirements in new designs
at www.designspark.com/etech
Where innovative products are
just the beginning.
Molex is known for technical
innovation. In the last five years,
we have secured 2,000 patents
and contributed to numerous
global standards. From highspeed
to sealed solutions, to
microminiature and power
interconnects, the expertise
gained in the development of our
broad range of products gives us
www.rs-components.com/molex
a unique advantage in the pursuit This drive to find new ways to
of future solutions. meet customers’ challenges is
what Molex is all about.
But Molex innovation goes far
beyond products. Our efficient
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you seamless service, support
and distribution, anywhere
in the world.
PRODUCT
NEWS

Texas Instruments Evaluation Board

MSP-EXP430FR5739 Experimeter Board
n The MSP-EXP430FR5739 Experimenter Board is
a development platform for the MSP430FR57xx
devices, supporting the new generation of MSP430
microcontroller devices with integrated Ferroelectric
TE Connectivity 1.5mm AMP Random Access Memory (FRAM).
Mini CT Connector Series RS Web search term: 740-1116
Miniature wire-to-board and
wire-to-wire connectors

n Similiar to the standard AMP CT connector series,

these connectors are tailored for improved harness
productivity and feature a compact design with contacts
on 1.5 mm pitch. Wire-side connectors can be used to
produce a variety of harness styles by fully automatic
high-speed assembling machines.
RS Web search term: mini-CT

Harwin M20
2.54mm Pitch Connector
DRV8412 Motor n A comprehensive range of 2.54mm pitch
Driver Evaluation kit connectors for board-to-board and cable-to-
Includes a C2000 Piccolo board applications, with twin-leaf phosphor
F28035 MCU control card. bronze contacts.
RS Web search term: Harwin M20
n With its highly integrated and robust motor
control and driver it will speed the development
time for brushed and stepper motors.
RS Web search term: 739-8048

Bourns Transient Blocking Unit (TBU)

High-Speed electronic current limiter protection

n The TBU device provides blocking protection for

both power cross and lightning. Benefits of the
TBU device includes overvoltage and
overcurrent protection in one,
offering high speed performance
and precise output current with
high bandwidth.
RS Web search term: Bourns TBU

10 eTech - ISSUE 8 See more online - Over 5,000 new products are
 product
NEWS

iWatt, AC-DC controller

Digital PWM Current-Mode Controller
for Quasi-Resonant Operation.

n iWatt’s AC-DC controllers are the first in the industry
to bring cost-effective digital control techniques to
AC-DC power conversion.Digital PWM Current-Mode
Controller for Quasi-Resonant Operation. Reduces
number of components and cost.
RS Web search term: 739-8152
EAO Series 51 Stop Switch
Features a monoblock design with a built-in contact
block, to set a mounting depth of less than 19mm
n The Series 51 is a universal stop switch which can be
adapted to almost any type of application, but is particularly
suitable for handheld remote controls, narrow control panels
and newer electronic applications where behind-panel space
is restricted. Compatible with operating voltages
from 10μA/100μV up to 250V/5A, and there
is a choice of connections including
solder/plug-in, solder, or universal
(Plug-in, Solder, PCB).
RS Web search term: 737-7041

Freescale, K60 Kinetis Tower System Kit

Evaluation boards, tools and runtime software

n The TWR-K60N512-KIT is part of the Freescale Tower

System, a modular, reusable development platform.
RS Web search term: 726-9146

Atmel, Q Matrix Touch Sensor

QProx™ QT60248
ADEUNIS RF, ARF50 I/O Module
Wireless Digital & Analog I/Os Modules n “24 KEY QMATRIX™ IC, individually adjustable for sensitivity,
response time, and many other critical parameters.”
n The ARF50 is an I/O module that can RS Web search term: 696-3190
acquire digital or analogue states from
sensors, dry contacts or counters, in order
to control remote equipment.
RS Web search term: 736-9233

added at rswww.com/electronics every month eTech - ISSUE 8 11

Designing with
Energy-Efficient
Microcontrollers
Dr William Marshall, RS Components

The increased use of embedded microcontrollers

in electronic equipment coupled with a world energy
crisis will force electronics engineers to look at hitherto
ignored power-saving features of these devices.

12 eTech - ISSUE 8
Historical perspective
Back in 1976 a new computer was launched:
the Cray 1. At the time it earned the title
‘Supercomputer’ because of its incredible
processing power of 160MIPs at a clock rate of
80MHz. Computing power wasn’t its only record-
breaking feature: the Cray 1 required a 115kW
power supply and was packaged in a case not much
bigger than a UK telephone box. To stop it melting,
a powerful Freon-based refrigeration plant was
incorporated in the structure. For comparison with
technology available today, consider the Parallax
Propeller microcontroller; it’s a 32-bit bus machine
compared to the Cray’s 64 but it too manages
160MIPs with an 80MHz clock. The significant
difference (apart from physical size) is in the power
required to achieve that performance. The Propeller
has an average power consumption of just 1 watt
and many newer devices can do a lot better than
that. The 64-bit dual-core Intel Atom-based PC I’m
typing this on consumes so little power that the
current-sensing mains socket expander it’s plugged
into fails to notice it’s been switched on…..
The coming of VLSI led inevitably to computers with
a much better processing power to supply power
ratio. Early NMOS chip technology gave way to
CMOS which promised even lower demands on
the power supply. A characteristic of CMOS is that
significant current is only drawn when a logic device
changes state. This means that the faster it is
clocked the higher the average current consumption
for a given microcontroller. So a particular MCU will
have two contributions to the power budget: static
and dynamic.
Static voltage reduction
Energy is consumed by the device through leakage
even if the clock is turned off. In newer devices
individual circuit elements are being packed
closer together reducing insulation resistance and
requiring a drop in the supply voltage. Logic able
to operate at +1.8V is quite common now, with
some working with a supply as low as +0.9V. For
example the Microchip nanoWatt XLP� range of PIC
microcontrollers can operate over the voltage range
+2.5 to +5.5V up to a maximum clock frequency of
32MHz. If you can make do with 16MHz, then the
supply can be dropped to +1.8V providing peripheral
devices will also work with this low voltage.
This produces a drop in both the voltage and the
frequency dependent power consumption.
Static frequency reduction
If no special power saving modes are available
then always consider using the lowest clock
speed possible compatible with getting the task
completed in the time available. For something
as simple as a TV remote control for example, a
‘watch’ crystal frequency of 32kHz is often used.
Dynamic voltage scaling
In more complex situations, these fixed or
static solutions may be unsuitable because the
processing load may vary and high-speed operation
is maintained ‘just in case’. In these situations a
technique called Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS)
may be used where software analyses the
processor demand and causes the clock speed and
supply voltage to be varied accordingly. However
the savings calculations are complex and many
factors such as memory usage must be considered.
Dozing and Sleeping
Early micros had no special operating modes to
save power: probably because their processing
power was so low that applications allowing the
processor to ‘doze off’ were deemed unlikely! The
invention of the battery-portable digital instrument
changed all that. Mobile phone design requirements
have since driven development in both energy-
efficient MCUs and battery technology. One of
the first MCUs to feature an Idle mode was the
Intel 80C51. New devices have introduced a whole
menu of power saving modes most of which
consist of shutting down functions when they are
not needed. Most microcontrollers are now used
in ‘real-time’ control situations requiring bursts of
activity followed by perhaps complete inactivity for
long periods. The TV remote control is an extreme
case where the processor can be completely shut
down until a button is pressed. The average current
consumption can be little more than the self-
discharge rate of the battery.
Increasingly, real-time systems are moving away
from the single central processor model to a central
high-level controller fed part-processed data from
‘intelligent’ sensors.
The MCU attached to each sensor device will
be probably taking analogue samples at fixed
intervals, performing some DSP operations and
then transmitting the result on a serial bus. In this
case the sensor MCU is ‘woken up’ by a timer at
each sampling interval. Now things get interesting:
should you select a simple 8-bit microcontroller or
fast 32-bit type, say based on a Cortex M0 core?
Logically, the 8-bit MCU seems more efficient
because it’s cheap and will be fully committed for
most of the available processing time. In fact, the
32-bit device might be better in terms of average
current consumption because it can complete the
task quickly and then go to sleep (Fig.1).
Continued page 14>
eTech - ISSUE 8 13
< Continued from page 13
Even this technique has to be used with
caution: there will be an optimal clock speed
and not necessarily the maximum. In other
words completing the task in the shortest
possible time with the fastest clock won’t
always yield the lowest average current
consumption. Fortunately much of the speed
improvement over the old 8-bit device will
be down to a more powerful instruction set
featuring single-cycle 32-bit multiplication
for example. But don’t despair if an old
8051-based design needs to be improved
while retaining software compatibility: the
8051 core has seen dramatic improvements
in execution efficiency (fewer clock cycles per
instruction) as well as big increases in overall
clock speed. The Silicon Laboratories range for
example, provides single-cycle instructions at
up to 100MIPs.
When using the sleep modes an important
consideration is the Wake-up time. Oscillators
can take milliseconds to produce a stable
output and this represents wasted time and
power. With short duty-cycles the MCU might
have barely woken-up before the next wake-up
call arrives!
The Microchip nanoWatt™ MCUs feature
a ‘Doze’ mode which allows the processor
clock to run more slowly than the peripheral
clocks. This works in situations where the
peripheral device must work at full speed, but
the processor doesn’t have a lot to do while
waiting for a peripheral interrupt.
Cutting power supply wastage
You’ve designed your microcontroller system
for lower power consumption, but what about
the power supply itself? If you’re an old-hand
you might just go for a trusty 78xx series
linear regulator, but these are now considered
completely obsolete if still popular. Although
more expensive, always go for
a newer low dropout
(LDO) type.
14 eTech - ISSUE 8
Full clock speed
Supply
Current
Idle/Sleep
Average Supply Current
Fast 32-bit Processor
Supply
Current
Average Supply Current
Figure 1. a more powerful MCU consumes less dynamic current.
A 7805 +5 volt output regulator has a dropout
voltage of 2 volts which means that it needs
a minimum of +7 volts on the input. At the
maximum current of 1 amp at least 2 watts
are wasted as heat and a heat sink will almost
certainly be needed. An LDO type cuts the
dropout to perhaps 300mV. Now that means
a lower voltage mains transformer can be
used cutting the waste. Better still, use a
switching regulator for even greater efficiency.
However, remember that the PSU must be
rated for the peak current consumption
– not the average.
Finally, include pull-ups on all unused I/O
inputs. Random noise on a floating input can
switch internal circuits and even if the resulting
signals are blocked and cause no spurious
operation, it all adds to the total dynamic
current. Some devices feature internal ‘weak
pull-ups’, but opinion seems to be divided on
their efficacy and many developers stick to
using external resistors.
Conclusion
Energy costs are top of everyone’s agenda
at the moment and as electronic equipment
continues to proliferate in the domestic
market, design engineers must assume that
power consumption will be a critical factor in
their projects. Fortunately the need for low-
power devices in battery portable equipment
started the process of energy-efficient chip
design some years ago. Now this new chip
technology combined with energy saving
software will help reduce wastage in
mains-powered equipment as well.
Time
8/16-bit Processor Time
References
[1] Power Management and Dynamic Voltage Scaling: Myths
and FactsDavid Snowdon, Sergio Ruocco and Gernot Heiser
http://ertos.nicta.com.au/publications/papers/Snowdon_
RH_05.pdf
[2] EFM32 Introduction White Paper
http://cdn.energymicro.com/dl/pdf/efm32_introduction_
white_paper.pdf
[3] The New ARM Cortex-M0 Processor
http://ics.nxp.com/support/documents/microcontrollers/pdf/
arm.cortex-m0.iq.pdf
[4] Practical Applications of Low-Power Design
with nanoWatt XLP™
ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/DeviceDoc/Future%20
XLP%20Article.pdf
[5] Silicon Labs Pipelined 8051 Microcontrollers
www.silabs.com/Marcom%20Documents/Resources/
MCU_Catalog.pdf
[6] PIC Microcontroller Low Power Tips ‘n Tricks
ww1.microchip.com/downloads/en/DeviceDoc/01146B
chapter%202.pdf
FIND IT:
go to rswww.com/microcontrollers
to see the full range of micros
available on RS, and use our advance
comparison search to find the right
device for your application.
Share your views...
What do you think are the best
performing microcontrollers for
managing power consumption?
Tell us your views at
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NEW! RECOM’s most efficient and
compact 1A switching regulator
Introducing the next generation of the popular R-78. Over 5 million sold!

Very high efficiency - up to 96%

Ultra wide input range - 5 to 42Vin (>8:1)
Low profile case- 11.6x10.4x8.5mm
1Amp continuous output current
Low standby current (1mA)
-40°C to + 85°C Operating Temp.
3-year warranty
SIP3 package compatible to TO-220 footprint fig. actual size

RECOM, the inventor of the R-78 switching regulator

replacement for linear regulators, releases the next generation.
The R-78C series. The existing features of the standard. R-78 series
(high efficiency, small case size & pincompatibility with 78-series
linear regulators) have been improved by adding a much higher
input voltage range of up to 42VDC and double the output power
in the same size case.

This means that the R-78C series can offer 15W of power
in a case volume of only 1cm³. The ambient operating
temperature covers the full industrial range of -40°C to
+85°C, conversion efficiency is up to 96% making heat-sinking
unnecessary and the output is fully protected
against overloads and short-circuits.

Applications for the R-78C include industrial controls,

batterypowered devices, hand-held equipment, avionics,
fancontrollers and embedded designs, but this versatile
switching regulator module will find uses in every branch
Increased input voltage of electronics.
range: 5 to 42VDC!
The Battle has begun between
FLASH & FRAM
New embedded systems and applications are continually demanding the
development of highly robust microcontrollers (MCUs) that deliver higher
performance and lower power consumption.
A key element of this drive is the
development and integration of new
embedded non-volatile memory
technology. Currently, the dominant
non-volatile memories used in
microcontrollers are Flash and EEPROM,
but there are a growing number of
alternative technologies that offer the
same basic functionality.
An Introduction to FRAM
One of these competing memory
technologies is Ferroelectric Random
Access Memory, or FRAM (other
widely used acronyms include F-RAM
or FeRAM). As the ‘RAM’ part of the
name already suggests, FRAM behaves
similarly to DRAM – it allows random
access to each individual bit for both read
and write operations. Unlike DRAM,
FRAM is a non-volatile memory like
EEPROM or Flash memory – so it does
16 eTech - ISSUE 8
not lose its content when power
is removed.
FRAM is also similar to DRAM,
operationally, but has a cell capacitor that
uses a ferroelectric material, typically
lead zirconate titanate (PZT), to deliver its
non-volatile properties. Very basically, an
electrical field can be applied to polarize
the material by moving the Zirconium
atom in the PZT crystal structure and
forcing it into an up or down orientation,
therefore storing a ‘1’ or ‘0’ data bit. Note
that the term ‘ferroelectric’ does not
mean that FRAM contains iron (Fe), nor
does it imply that the memory can be
influenced by magnetic fields.
Key Advantages
FRAM has several key advantages
over Flash or EEPROM technologies
including speed, significantly higher write-
erase cycle lifetime, and lower power
consumption, primarily due to its much
lower programming voltage. Additionally,
FRAM does not require a special
programming sequence to write data.
In terms of speed, the actual write time
to an FRAM memory cell is less than
50ns, approximately 1000 times faster
than EEPROM or 100 times faster than
Flash. Additionally, unlike EEPROM where
two steps are required to write data – a
write command, followed by a read/
verify command – FRAM’s write memory
function happens in the same process
as read memory. So, there is only one
memory access command, one step for
either reading or writing.
Then there’s low power consumption.
Writing to the FRAM cell occurs at
low voltage (around 1.5V) and very
little current is required to change the data,
whereas significantly higher voltages (10 to
14V) are required for EEPROM and Flash.
FRAM’s low voltage translates into low power
usage and enables more functionality at faster
transactions speeds.
And reliability? Because only a small amount
of energy is required, all the necessary power
for FRAM is ‘front-loaded’ at the beginning of
data writing. This avoids ‘data-tearing’, which
is a partial write of the data that can occur, for
example, when EEPROM-based smart ICs
are removed from the RF field power source
during a write cycle. Additionally, FRAM
delivers more than 100 trillion (1014)
read/write cycles – far exceeding those
of Flash and EEPROM.
FRAM is also uniquely flexible as it offers the
ability to use the same unified block to function
as memory for both program code and data.
Designers can dynamically partition the
memory depending on the current stage of the
user’s development cycle. This feature allows
faster time-to-market and simplified inventory
control – one single device can be dynamically
configured into various memory configurations.
The technology also offers additional security
and robustness compared to Flash and
EEPROM. As FRAM is crystal-based, rather
than charge-based, its terrestrial Soft Error
Rate (SER) is below detection limits and is not
susceptible to radiation. Additionally its ultra-
low power requirements and high speed make
FRAM data read/writes virtually undetectable
to unauthorized ‘sniffing’ or ‘data profiling’.
New Microcontrollers
with Embedded FRAM
One semiconductor manufacturer in particular,
Texas Instruments, is seeking to advance
this technology in embedded applications
with the integration of FRAM memory into
its MSP430 family of ultra-low-power
16-bit microcontrollers.
The new MSP430 devices with embedded
FRAM are cutting the industry’s best active
power consumption by half, achieving sub-
100μA/MHz. Read and write requires just 1.5V,
so it is able to operate without a charge pump,
unlike Flash and EEPROM. This lowers power
consumption and minimizes physical footprint.
In a typical application test case (8MHz CPU
speed with both memory options capped at
12kB/s throughput), FRAM consumes 9μA,
whereas Flash consumes 2200μA, a factor of
more than 250 times less power.
In addition to lower power performance, FRAM
can also maintain unmatched data throughput.
The MSP430 is capable of 50ns access times,
enabling speeds of up to 1400kB/s. Embedded
memory is no longer the system bottleneck,
as FRAM can write more than 100 times
faster than flash, while consuming less power.
In a typical application test case (8MHz CPU
speed with both memory options writing 512B
memory blocks), FRAM maximum throughput
is 1400kB/s at 730μA, with Flash maximum
throughput at 12kB/s at 2200μA.
FRAM’s virtually unlimited write endurance
of 1014 cycles offers longevity and endurance
that existing memory technologies cannot
match. Again, in a typical application test case
(8MHz CPU speed with both memory options
capped at 12kB/s throughput), FRAM will last
for 6.6x1010 seconds, while Flash memory will
last for 6.6 minutes, so around one billions
times longer than Flash. This increased write
endurance is particularly ideal for data logging,
digital rights management (DRM), battery-
backed SRAM and many other applications.
Find new Flash and FRAM devices
at rswww.com/semiconductors
Share your views...
Tell us your thoughts on the battle
between Flash and FRAM at
www.designspark.com/etech
eTech - ISSUE 8 17
Radiall TestPro Cable assemblies
Best in class for VSWR and for
insertion loss/phase stability

Test and measurement cables Radiall TestPro test bench cables

Test cable assemblies are intended for daily use in
components and assembly shops, test labs and automatic
test equipment applications.
They differ from standard cable assemblies in the fact that they
are especially designed for applications that require repeated
connection/disconnection procedures, strenuous flexing
situations and applications where cable and connector wear
becomes an issue.
Radiall TestPro phase stable cables are test bench measurement
cables. They combine electrical advantages and integrated
protection system. These rugged assemblies offer excellent
durability while remaining exceptionally flexible.
Unique connector attachment system and strong cable structure
provide high tensile stress resistance to the whole assembly.
Radiall TestPro 4.2 offers the best cost per measurement.
TestPro 4.2 test bench cables have superior electrical stability,
higher resistance to torque and flexure stress than standard lab
cable assemblies. They are dedicated to lab and production test.

www.rs-components.com
Continuous evolution
of electrolytic capacitors
contributes to cutting emissions
High-efficiency power-conversion technologies are becoming increasingly
important in the drive towards a low carbon economy. Intensive developments
are taking place in next-generation semiconductor devices, based on
materials such as SiC (silicon carbide), for use in power inverters and
converters. In addition to this, work is ongoing in improving other indispensable
electrical components such as aluminum electrolytic capacitors – making
them smaller with higher withstand tolerances and greater reliability.

Continued page 20 >

eTech - ISSUE 8 19
 < Continued from page 19
Low-emission future?
Ignoring political or socioeconomic issues for a moment, in
terms of the production, transmission and localised use of
electrical energy, there are three principal
ways to realise a low-carbon-emission and
smart-energy-based society:
1. The creation of electricity via low-carbon-emission
energy sources such as solar and wind power.
2. Moving away from petroleum-based engines
to the use of alternative energy sources, such
as those used in EV/HEV (Electric Vehicles/
Hybrid Electric Vehicles) applications.
3. The improvement in the operating
efficiency of existing electrical devices.
Motors consume majority of power
There are conversion technologies for connecting
energy-generating devices to commercial power
lines, such as power conditioners and grid-connection
devices. And there are next-generation regenerative-
braking, motor- and battery-control technologies being
designed for use in EV/HEVs. However, to improve
the efficiency of common electrical and electronic
devices, it is important to take a closer look at the
devices that consume the majority of the power.
People might imagine that electrical power is fully
converted to light energy for lighting, heat energy
for heaters, kinetic energy for motors and actuators.
In reality, of course, not all the applied energy is
converted into its intended type. In fact, much of
it becomes unnecessary heat energy that warms
the planet. In this sense, computers and other IT
devices are nothing more than generators of heat.
Of all components, it is motors that consume
the most power. Clearly, motors are used in an
exceptionally wide range of devices including
industrial equipment and household goods such
as washing machines and vacuum cleaners, in
addition to compressors of air-conditioners
and freezers.
The number of motors being used today is
20 eTech - ISSUE 8
staggering and the worldwide motor market is estimated to be
more than six billion units per year. Data is also available that, for
example, indicates motors actually account for approximately
50% of the total energy consumed in Japan*. So, enhancing
motor efficiency is an important objective in improving electrical
efficiency overall.
Inverters and converters
To realise the low-carbon-emission and smart-energy society,
we will need to develop new power conditioners and grid-
connection systems, new drive and regenerative-energy
technologies in automotive applications, better battery control
for a range of devices, and certainly the improvement of
motor efficiency.
Although these may appear to be completely unrelated, a
common factor becomes apparent upon taking a closer look:
All of these involve the conversion of power from AC to
DC, DC to DC, or DC to AC. So, one can make a case that
the development of inverter and converter technologies will
ultimately determine our success or failure in developing the
low-emission smart-energy society.
Motors require some further explanation: The rotation speed
of induction motors, used primarily in industrial devices, is
determined by the power supply frequency. For this reason,
dampers and valves are installed to adjust the pumping or wind
flow rates delivered by motors. However, electrical power is
proportional to the cube of the rotation speed of motors. And
as the efficiency of motors can be drastically improved if the
speed is changed using an inverter (for variable frequency),
manufacturers are increasingly adopting the use of inverters
in motors.
Electrolytic capacitors
Inverters and converters for converting electrical power
are relatively high powered and can handle large voltages
and currents. At the core of these devices are a power
semiconductor (as the switch), a large inductor, and a large
capacitor. Although the development of low-loss and high-
tolerance devices based on SiC is becoming increasingly
important in the field of semiconductors, there is also ongoing
development of new technologies for inductors and capacitors –
and aluminum electrolytic capacitors are not exempt.
Engineering requirements demanded for aluminum electrolytic
capacitors used in inverters and converters are: smaller size,
high withstand characteristics, high ripple current compatibility, improved
charge/discharge tolerances, and increased resistance to environmental
factors such as temperature and vibration.
Size and withstand characteristics
The most highly demanded features are smaller size and higher
withstand capabilities. These devices, when used in inverter or converter,
take up the majority of the surface area, and higher withstand voltages
are necessary for photovoltaic power generation conditioners. Although
smaller sizes can be achieved while maintaining the same capacity, by
basically making the dielectrics thinner, this can be difficult due to the
trade-off with the withstand characteristics.
To cope with this problem, manufacturers are: increasing the electrical
capacitance per unit-surface-area of the electrode using high-powered
electrode foils; developing electrolytes with high withstand voltage
capability, while maintaining the equivalent resistance of conventional
electrolytes; and improving the charge rate by reassessing the overall
structure and specific structural components, for example, creating
thinner separators while maintaining withstand voltage characteristics.
As a result, standard ratings that were previously between 400V and
450V have now expanded to include 500V and 700V.
Size : Ø63 x 150L Ø63 x 115L 63 x 100L
Series name : NX NK NC
Ripple : 14.4 Arms 12.8 Arms 16.5 Arms
Advancement in shapes and rated ripple current
Example shown: 400V/3900uF (nichicon) product
High ripple current compatibility
In addition to the flow of high ripple current in capacitors in inverter and
converter circuits, there is also high ripple voltage. Resistance, such
as ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance), impacts upon the life of these
circuits as the ripple current causes heating of the capacitors. Although
the main factors of resistance for aluminum electrolytic capacitors
are electrolytes, separators, electrode foils and connectors, many
products are being introduced with higher allowable ripple current than
conventional products. Efforts in this area include: the development
of electrolytes with improved long-term stability; the use of highly stable
and high-capacity electrode foils such as electrodes that use amorphous
film as the dielectric film; the use of low-density high withstand
voltage electrolytic capacitor paper; and the reassessment of
thermal discharge structures.
In motor-installed devices, there is also major fluctuation in the applied
voltage. In this case, malfunction resulting from a short circuit may
ultimately occur from a partial drop in withstand voltage, due to local
stress on the electrode foils during charge/discharge (especially
during discharge). Such risks are avoidable using high-ripple
compatible products.
Highly vibration-resistant structures for automobiles
Inverters installed in automobiles and industrial devices are exposed to
harsh environments, including high temperatures and vibration.
Additionally, manufacturers have developed unique technologies to meet
demands for expanded temperature ranges and a higher service life for
aluminum electrolytic capacitors. As a result, there are products that
now guarantee 105°C for conventional use and up to 125 or 150°C for
use in automotive. However, installing an inverter in a location exposed
to strong vibrations such as in the transmission, or gearbox, of an
automobile also means major vibrations for the aluminum electrolytic
capacitor. For these applications, there are also technologies that can
withstand vibration of up to 20G.
Aluminum solid electrolytic capacitors
While aluminum electrolytic capacitors are becoming smaller in size and
have improved withstand characteristics, ripple, charge-discharge and
environmental resistance, there is also advancement in the development
of aluminum solid electrolytic capacitors. New devices are now using
PEDOT (polyethylenedioxythiophene), instead of electrolytes as a
conductive polymer, and offer high withstand capabilities for use in
small-to medium-sized converters. Like aluminum electrolytic capacitors,
aluminum solid electrolytic capacitors are small in size and have a large
capacity. They do however have many advantages including longer
service life, small ESR and, due to the solid electrolyte, no concerns
about fluid leaks or transpiration. Previously, the application of these
capacitors was limited, due to the withstand voltage of conductive
polymer which was around 40V.
However, aluminum solid electrolytic capacitors also have many features
not found in aluminum electrolytic capacitors using electrolyte. This
has resulted in an increase of market share in the high-voltage area: for
example, in converters used for operating LED backlighting on flat-
screen televisions. Capacitor manufacturers are also trying to solve the
ferric-ion issues associated with withstand capability, by developing
conductive polymers that offer superior withstand characteristics,
in addition to optimising the elemental structures of separators and
dielectric film. As a result, even 100V products are now being seen in the
market. The reliability of these products is also high, guaranteeing 3000
hours of operation in high-temperature environments up to 125°C.
* Investigation concerning the present and near-future trends of power
consumed by electrical devices. (Fuji-Keizai, March 2009)
FIND IT:
Compare the full range of electrolytic capacitors
available from RS at rswww.com/capacitors
Share your view...
Got a view on how electrolytic capacitor
technology needs to develop in the future?
Share it at www.designspark.com/etech
eTech - ISSUE 8 21
low-Cost Route to Research
algorithm-based Decision Making for autonomous automobiles
Whether it’s reading novels
or going to see blockbuster
Hollywood films, no doubt
we’ve enjoyed our helping of
science fiction over the years
and its many visions of what
tomorrow might look like.
It’s a subjective issue, of course, but for many
perhaps the really thought provoking ideas are
those that offer predictions of technologies in a
nearby future.
So, if we plead indifference for a moment to
Orwellian-style dystopian visions and wildly-
out-of-control AI-based computers and consider
those predictions of future technologies that have
potential for improving our daily lives, today,
then one idea that has cropped up repeatedly in
sci-fi over the years is the fully autonomous or
computerized vehicle. Admittedly, sometimes
vehicles in sci-fi futures are driven by androids:
but this is essentially the same idea. The belief,
presumably, is that people might somehow feel
more secure being driven by a computer that
looks a bit like them!
22 eTech - ISSUE 8
automotive Revolution
But how close is this idea of a driverless car to
reality? What sort of research and development
is required and how can it be tested? Certainly,
over the last decade, new technologies and ideas
have revolutionized the automotive industry.
Driver-assistance technologies such as ABS
and electronics-based stability control are long
established. Image processing and sensor-based
advanced driver-assistance safety systems, such
as lane-departure warning, pedestrian detection
and forward-collision detection are becoming
increasingly common, at least in high-end cars.
And automatic parking technologies are now
more or less out of their infancy and beginning
to mature. All of these are just some of the
components within the full suite of technologies
that will be needed to bring the autonomous
car to realization.
Increased Safety and Efficiency
The theory goes that autonomous vehicles will
be significantly safer than those driven by us.
For example, new technologies will be able to
keep these new and intelligent vehicles at a safe
distance from other vehicles and also eliminate
common driver mistakes such as excessive
braking. And, its not only greater safety that’s
being promised: there are potential benefits in
traffic control and reduced congestion, in addition
to significantly improved vehicle energy efficiency.
Obviously, there are number of obstacles
yet to be overcome. Market acceptance is
not a given and we can only begin to guess
at the legal issues involved. However, we
are now starting to see the go-ahead being
given in the US for the development of
rules and regulations for driverless cars.
So it may not be too far away, and perhaps
within just a few years.
Research Issues
Clearly, there are also problems that need
to be addressed to undertake research into
autonomous vehicles, such as cost and
the risks associated with use of full-size
vehicles, including all the legal issues.
Several major car companies in Europe and
the US, in addition to a global technology
powerhouse or two, already have ongoing
programs for prototype driverless cars.
But, of course, these are companies that
have superior resources and easy access to
vehicle test facilities.
low-cost autonomous Driving R&D
However, an alternative lower cost
approach is being taken at the University
of Bristol. The university’s electronic
engineering department has developed a
low-cost autonomous driving system based
on a comparatively small remote-control
model car. The use of a reduced-size model
immediately removed all legal issues and
reduced costs by an order of magnitude.
This innovative system has been used by a
group of undergraduate students for their
final-year projects to research into the key
technologies required for autonomous cars:
software algorithms, in conjunction with
the necessary control, image-capture and
computational-processing hardware.
algorithms
Each student developed an algorithm and
implemented it on a specific digital signal
processor (DSP). These algorithms enabled
an extensive list of functionality, including:
‘real-time obstacle detection’, using
stereovision (using a Texas Instruments
DM648 DSP); ‘lane detection and tracking’;
‘alternative speed measurements’, based
on image processing; and ‘night-time
lead-vehicle-following’, based on tail-light
recognition. The project car was tested
with one DM648 and three DM6437 video-
processing boards from TI, in addition
to other basic components. These video-
processing platforms were capable of
simultaneously processing images and
sending the results to the ‘decision-making’
subsystem for aggregation.
System Framework
The system framework comprises the
chassis from a remote-control model car,
modified to accommodate the required
hardware. This includes: a video camera
for image acquisition; the decision-making
subsystem, implemented on a low-cost
Pandaboard platform; and a control
and safety subsystem, implemented on
an open-source Arduino single-board
prototyping platform. All the subsystems
communicate via Ethernet technology,
which also makes it easy to integrate
additional devices that support either
Ethernet or Wi-Fi. For example, processing
units could easily be added or removed
to deliver the right balance of low power
consumption and high computational
performance. Additionally, the system
was also made resilient to both software
and hardware errors via the duplication
of critical components.
Standard Solutions
Crucially, the use of standard software and
hardware and the well-defined interface
between components, in conjunction
with first-class support delivered by
Texas Instruments and RS Components,
has enabled this innovative project to
be implemented within a very limited
timeframe. In this field at least, innovation
and widely available standard components
has meant the development of future
automotive technologies is not
confined only to the domain of the
large corporations.
FIND IT:
Search the TI and arduino range of
products, with full supporting technical
information at rswww.com/ti and
rswww.com/arduino
Share your views...
got an opinion on the Bristol
University project? Share it at
www.designspark.com/etech
eTech - ISSUE 8 23
New Zero Power
RF technologies
enable innovative designs
and applications
The RFID industry has been developing
integrated circuits which are gathering their
energy from an external RF emitter called
RFID reader, able to remotely energize, and
communicate with those chips with read and
write attributes. They have been used for years
in identification, access control, contactless
payment and asset tracking applications,
and are unique in the sense that they allow
a system to remotely communicate with a
number of RF devices, while those devices
operate at no on-board battery power cost.
The main advantage over RF technologies
such as Bluetooth and wifi is cost and power
consumption, while the drawback a shorter
range, within a few feet.
Those devices could be categorized as short-
range zero-power RF products. They are made
of a non-volatile memory, most commonly
EEPROM technology, and a passive RF
interface featuring a built-in communication
protocol such as ISO15693. Over the years,
chip manufacturers have been drastically
improving their power consumption, in
order to drive their RF performances up.
Now, a new type of RFID products is
emerging enabling system designers to
integrate this technology into their boards,
and to communicate with those chips from
their embedded MCU using a standard
serial interface. Those devices, such as
STMicroelectronics’ M24LR64, are dual
interface memories.
24 eTech - ISSUE 8
The good thing about those devices when
embedded onto PCBs is not only they can
operate in RF with or without on-board power,
but -because they are optimized in power
consumption- their I²C interface will operate at
about 10 times lower consumption than regular
EEPROM devices!
Those devices can be embedded into a large
type of electronic products, and enable a whole
new range of use cases and applications.
The less visible, but which can be used
across all applications, and which can certainly
generate cost savings is logistics: using long
range industrial RFID readers will allow last
minute parameter update or personalization.
No need to open the box or break the
package’s seal. Your customer finally needs
to ship their electronic products to Germany
instead of Spain. The RFID reader will access
the content of the memory of each device, and
will change the language settings from Spanish
to German. When the system boots up, the
main CPU will read the language settings value
and will display German.
Thanks to RF transceivers such as ST’s
CR95HF chip, stand-alone RFID readers can
be designed easily, or embedded into main
units at limited cost. This enables the main
unit to download all of the data logged in the
memory by the sub-unit’s MCU. Applications
such as portable healthcare/wellness devices,
industrial sensors, loggers, event-recorders,
but also tech gadgets can benefit from this
technology, enabling extremely power efficient
systems, with reduced user interface costs,
possibly water-proof products with connector-
free designs. At the same time engineers
can design user friendly applications inside
the main unit, which will process, analyze the
information it downloaded from the sub-unit.
Users can change their product’s parameters
on-the-go, as well as download and display the
information logged in it.
This is only the tip of the iceberg.
Manufacturers such as STMicroelectronics
are preparing new versions of dual interface
EEPROMs, with more innovative features. And
the NFC technology, which is soon to be widely
embedded into cell phones, is compatible with
the RFID technology. As such, consumer cell
phones will soon be able to communicate with
those dual interface memories, enabling even
more applications.
Share your views...
Got an opinion on how to get the
best out of RFID? Share it at
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NaTURal
SElECTION

Easier, faster, clearer.

Our new website is evolving to make
finding products simpler than ever.

rswww.com
 IN aSSOCIaTION WITH
DESIgN
TIPS

SOlaR CHaRgER
Portable energy for people on the move
by Martin kiel (germany)

With renewable energy high on the agenda, this little project will appeal to
everyone who would feel better charging their mobile or PDa from solar sources.
a lithium-ion cell stores the sun’s energy in between charging sessions. Smart
circuitry in the solar charger monitors the battery voltage and protects the battery
from overcharging and deep discharge.
The concept of recharging portable gadgets from the sun is by no means
new [1]. On holiday any undetermined AC grid voltages and alien-looking
power outlets would pose no problem, whilst we would also be able to
recharge these essential gadgets even in places where there is no mains
electricity.The only disadvantage is that the daytime, when the sun in
question is available, is also when we most need to use mobile phones
and PDAs. So the aim of this project is to capture and store those sun
rays during the daytime so that we can put them to use at night for
charging our gadgets. To keep this circuit as portable as possible, making
it useful on a long walking tour for instance, the energy store chosen is a
single lithium-ion cell of the lithium-polymer (LiPo) type.

Circuit
The solar charger consists of two modules: the charge regulator for the
lithium-ion battery and a DC-to-DC converter for raising and stabilising the
battery voltage (of between 3.0 and 4.15 V) to a higher value (Figure 1).

The heart of the circuit in Figure 2 is an ATtiny13 microcontroller from

Features
• Internal Lithium-Ion battery for storing solar energy
• Versatile: your choice of batter and solar panel sizes
• Direct charging/operation of USB devices.
• Two switchable charging outlets:
- constant voltage output (5 V, max. 500mA)
- constant current (max. 150 mA)
• Battery management for internal battery:
- Overload protection
- Under-voltage protection with hysteresis regulator
and load dumping
• Watchdog dropout protection
• Compact dimensions
• Complete firmware with source code downloadable
from the Elektor website
Atmel, which monitors the battery voltage and controls the output of the
solar cells. The solar charge regulator is arranged as a shunt regulator,
which short circuits the solar cell if the battery voltage gets too high.
As solar cells are short circuit-proof this arrangement does not pose
any problems and offers the bonus that the current flowing through
the feeder leads is not cut off abruptly. An economic advantage of this
scheme is that T1 can switch without the need for an additional driver
stage. A MOSFET IRF7413 is our choice for T1, which is definitely a bit of
overkill for this application (IDmax = 13 A) but assures reliable activation
by TTL level voltages without any problems. Acceptable activation is
possible even at a reduced battery voltage of 4.1 V.
The charge voltage reaches the battery from the solar panel via diode
D1. The choice of this diode comes down to the solar panel used and
the prototype used a 1N4007. However it is better, based on the voltage
produced by the solar panel, to use a Schottky diode (e.g. BAT85), since
these exhibit a lower voltage drop, raising the overall efficiency of the
circuit.The battery in turn feeds the boost converter, which is equipped
with an LT1302 from Linear Technology. The buffer choke L1 used has an
inductance of 10 μH.
In standby mode and with the DC-to-DC converter enabled, the circuit
draws barely 30 mA of current. Despite this you have the option of
removing jumper link JP1 to disable the DC-to-DC converter altogether.
On the ground side the boost converter (and thus the output) is

26 eTech - ISSUE 8
 DESIGN
TIPS

separable by a further IRF7413 MOSFET, then passed to an LM317 linear regulator,

meaning that the battery can be disconnected which provides an output voltage of close
from the output for the sake of deep discharge to 7 V and also limits the charging current solar panel
protection (load dumping). [4]. Using a value of 3.3 Ω for R17 we get a
charging current of approx. 150 mA, which solar charger

Since mobile handsets do not all exhibit the should not be exceeded, in order not to
same charging characteristics, the boost overload the boost converter LT1302 [2]. charge
controller
converter can be operated in two different Li-Ion
battery
modes, selected by a switch (S1). The first Programming and regulation
of these modes delivers 5 V to the USB Overall regulation of the circuit is handled DC-DC
connector, so that any devices that are by a microcontroller. The scheme uses two converter
charged from the USB supply can be charged regulators with an interrupt-driven program;
in this way. The LT1302 is equipped with one looks after the charging terminal voltage
internal overload protection and switches off and the other controls load dumping. The MP3 Player, mobile, PDA etc...
automatically if it overheats [2]. All the same, complete program flow is controlled by an
you should not allow the charge current for interrupt occurring once every second. At Figure 1. Functional diagram090190
of -the
12 Solar
the USB device to exceed 500 mA. All devices the start of each interrupt LED D4 (yellow) is Charger. Current from the solar panel is
that conform to the USB standard fulfil this illuminated. Following this the existing battery stored in a Li-Ion battery.
requirement without exception [3]. voltage is compared against the stated limits
The second mode of operation is intended for over and undervoltage states. Afterwards a panel works, simplified by assuming that the
for devices that require a constant current new A-to-D conversion is initiated and LED D4 value of the current never varies. The blue
source for charging (for example some Nokia extinguished. curve represents the battery voltage. As seen,
handsets). The author uses a Siemens BenQ the charging current flows until the maximum
S68 and this model requires a charging voltage Charging LiPo batteries permissible battery voltage is reached. At this
of approx. 7 V to start the charging process. The regulator for overvoltage short circuits point the solar panel is shunted and the battery
Subsequently it expects a constant charging the solar panel via T1 when the predefined voltage drops again.
current, until the mobile’s battery reaches a maximum voltage of 4.15 V is reached and
voltage of approx. 4 V. At this point the handset thus prevents overcharging the lithium-ion At the next analogue-to-digital conversion the
disconnects the charge automatically. cell. To protect the battery from destruction controller checks that the voltage of the battery
the voltage of the cells must never exceed is below the maximum permitted and allows
This charging mode is achieved by a further 4.2 V. For this reason the terminal voltage for charging current to flow once more. The battery
stage that follows the boost converter. The charging is set at 4.15 V. Figure 3 clarifies the voltage rises again now, occasionally even
output voltage of the boost converter is raised circuit of the charging system. The red curve above the permissible limit, since the controller
across R6 and R8 to 11.75 V. This voltage is shows how the charging current of the solar can measure the battery voltage only within
the time windows defined. As the charge state
IC3 of the battery drops, its voltage decreases
VBATT VCC VBATT +11V75 LM317LD
+5V
constantly during the off-period of charging,
D1 R14 so that the intervals between times
K4
ADJ
when current flow is permitted again are
240R

JP1
LL4007G 1
R9 R10 R12
K3
K1 K2
constantly increasing. In practice the battery
220R

USB-A
22k

22k

POWER_SAVE
8 7 6 5 R15
1 1 1
T1 VBUS
is completely charged when LED D3 (red)
1k2

T3 C7 2
8 4 MOBILE D-
3 T2 R16 3
2
7 IRF7413
3 2 1
100R
R17
PHONE
SUPPLY 100n
R11 R13
4
D+
GND
remains on all the time.
1
6 Solar Panel LiPo 3V7 C8 C9 D5
5
BC847
22k

22k
3R3

4 2000mAh
BAT
IRF7413 BAT
100n 100n green
Deep discharge protection
by load release
PANEL_OFF

VBATT VCC VOUT

The second regulator, for load dumping, takes
L1 MBRS360T3G

C2 C3 10uH C6 C5
the form of a two-position controller with
C1
R1 D2 R6
hysteresis. If the lowest permissible voltage is
270k

100u 16V 100n 100n 100u

4M7

BAT 100n
16V
crossed during discharge of a lithium-ion cell,
8 6
K5 VIN the DC-to-DC converter is disconnected from
MOSI 4
2 1
3
MISO 6
SCK 7
PB1
IC1 PB4
3
3
SHDN
IC2
SW
7 the battery by T2. The battery voltage then
PB2 4 SELECT
6 5 RST 1
5
PB5/RESET
2
2
VC
FB
IT
5
OUTPUT
VOLTS
+5V
recovers slightly until the next interrupt occurs.
PB0/OC0A PB3
ISP ATTINY13V-10SU
LT1302CS8 S1
If the load is now reconnected immediately,
GND PGND
R4 4 R2 R3
R5
1 8 then the charging process sees the exact
22k

reverse scenario: the battery voltage would

220R

220R
82k

R7 R8
+11V75
D4 D3 C4
drop constantly, taking with it the charge
560k
1M5

yellow
BAT
red 10n
state of the battery.
090190 - 11

Figure 2. Circuitry of the Solar Charger. An ATtiny microcontroller

monitors charging and discharging of the buffer battery.
Continued page 28 >

eTech - ISSUE 8 27
DESIgN
TIPS
< Continued from page 27
I,
U voltage is raised again until the green LED lights
t 090190 - 13
Figure 3. The charge regulator short-circuits
the solar panel and cuts out the charging
current (red), as soon as the voltage
at the battery (blue) reaches the
permitted maximum.
Lithium-ion batteries must not be discharged
too deeply, as this causes permanent damage.
For this reason the terminal voltage during
discharging is set here as 3.0 V. When this
is reached, the hysteresis regulator for load
dumping waits until the battery voltage is again
at a higher level (e.g. 3.5 V) before load dumping
is deactivated again.
Construction, commissioning
and calibration
The PCB of the solar charger (Figure 4) uses
predominantly surface-mount components
(SMD devices). All of these are installed on the
upper side of the board apart from up to four
resistors. The software for the microcontroller,
including source code, can be downloaded
from the Elektor website [6]. If you don’t feel
inclined to program the ATtiny yourself, a ready
programmed controller can be bought from the
Elektor Shop.
As with any other project, a functional test is
the next step after construction. This consists
primarily of testing for effective protection
against overvoltage, undervoltage and deep
discharge. For this you will need a programmable
power supply, which is connected in place of
the Li-Ion battery.The voltage is first set to 3.5 V
and the function of the DC-to-DC converter
checked (output current and voltage). After this
the voltage is raised slowly until the red LED D3
begins to light. T1 should now short circuit the
solar panel. Now the voltage is slowly lowered
until the green LED D5 goes out. For this
Table 1. Battery voltage limits relative to microprocessor internal reference.
The exact value must be determined by calibration (see text).
4.15
Ubatt [V] 3.50
3.00
28 eTech - ISSUE 8
exercise switch S1 in the DC-to-DC converter
should be in 5 V (USB mode) position. With this
load dumping test carried out successfully, the
up. The data sheet of the Atmel controllers gives
the internal reference voltage of the controller as
from 1.0 V to 1.2 V, meaning that the controller
needs to be calibrated for the exact voltage limits.
The software provides three variables for this
(SolarCharger.h):
• MEAS_BATT_MAX: gives the maximum Figure 5. Cabling of the four solar
battery voltage for overload protection. modules, which are connected
• MEAS_BATT_MIN: gives the lower voltage in parallel.
limit for load dumping.
• MEAS_BATT_MIN_MAX: gives the upper
limit for reconnecting the load.
Benchmark values for these limiting values are
given in Table 1 and are calculated as follows:
The A-to-D converter of the ATtiny has a
resolution of 10 bits, i.e. 1024 separate values.
The internal voltage source is indicated as a
nominal 1.1 V. Using the given values of the
voltage divider R1 and R2 and a maximum
battery voltage of 4.72 V, the A-to-D converter Figure 6. Schottky diodes ensure that
will deliver a value of 1024. From this we deduce no reverse current can flow through
that one bit of the converter corresponds to a module that is in shadow.
4.6 mV. In this way we can calculate all values
for the voltage limits. The values in Table 1 do
not correspond to the exact value, however, on
account of variance in the reference voltage.
For this reason during the functional test it is
important to note at which voltage each limit
is reached. The correct value for the respective
voltage limit can be calculated as follows:
Utarget
Limit new = × Limit actual
U actual
Figure 7. Solar module arrangement
in the author’s prototype charger.
Solar panel and battery sizes
The prototypes used Kokam brand LiPo cells
with 2 Ah capacity. These batteries, widely
used by aircraft modellers, have the advantage
of being flat and thus space-saving. Their high
performance and discharge current make them
relatively expensive, however. As high currents
are not involved in our application we can get
Uref [V]
1.0 1.1 1.2
Figure 8. Internal view of the
990 900 825 first prototype. The PCB is
835 759 696 connected directly to the
solar modules here.
716 651 596
 DESIGN
TIPS

away with more economical batteries, for instance the type 18650 round
cells used in laptop batteries. Component List
Resistors RS Stock No.
The size of battery used in the charger is determined chiefly by the load SMD0805, 0.125W, 1%, if not shown otherwise)
created by (in other words the capacity of) the mobile phone battery to be R1 = 270kΩ565-958
recharged. The latter varies between 600 mAh (e.g. Siemens BenQ S68) R2 = 82kΩ566-755
and 1.6 Ah (e.g. Apple iPhone). R3,R4,R9 = 220Ω566-913
R5,R10–R13 = 22kΩ566-226
If we start with the assumption that the boost converter of our solar R6 = 4.7MΩ679-1500
charger has an efficiency of 80% and the battery has adequate capacity, R7 = 1.5MΩ679-1058
R8 = 560kΩ566-777
then in order to fully recharge a 1.2 Ah mobile phone battery the charger
R14 = 240Ω679-1125
battery needs to have a minimum capacity of 1.44 Ah. Taking this further,
R15 = 1.2kΩ565-926
accepting that the battery in the solar charger will not always be fully R16 = 100Ω566-907
charged, this means that a 2 Ah battery would be a safe choice. Whatever R17 = 3.3Ω721-8523
these values, it is clear that the storage battery in the solar charger must Capacitors RS Stock No.
always have greater capacity than the one in the device being recharged. C1,C3,C6–C9 = 100nF (SMD0805, 10%) 648-0979
C2,C5 = 100µF 16V, 10%, tantalum, SMD 496-3646
The capacity of the battery will then determine the size of the solar panels. C4 = 10nF (SMD0805, 10%) 264-4371
In the prototypes the solar panel was assembled from four solar modules Inductor RS Stock No.
wired in parallel, giving a nominal voltage of 5 V at a nominal current of L1 = 10 uH, 2.7 A, 0.053 Ω, 20 %, ferrite core  724-5297
81 mA. This is a common size in trade catalogues. Semiconductors RS Stock No.
D1 = 1N4007 (MELF), e.g. LL4007G or BAT85 (see text) 652-7466
D2 = Schottky diode 3A, 60V 545-2096
In Figure 5 you can see how we wired the four solar modules at Elektor
(e.g. MBRS360T3G, On Semiconductor)
Labs. Each of the positive connections was connected to the common
D3 = LED red, 25mA, SMD1206 490-1569
+ve bus via a 200 mA Schottky diode (BAT85) arranged to permit current D4 = LED yellow, 25mA, SMD1206 486-0496
flow from the module to the bus (see close-up photo Figure 6). These D5 = LED green, 20mA, SMD1206 486-0531
diodes block any backward current flow through individual modules when T1, T2 = IRF7413 (International Rectifier) 543-2468
they are in shadow or are delivering a reduced voltage to the others T3 = BC847 SMD (e.g. BC847CLT1G, On Semiconductor) 545-2765
for some other reason. This set-up provides a total charging current of IC1 = ATtiny13V-10SU (Atmel), programmed 629-2198
324 mA, meaning that the 2 Ah storage battery should be fully charged IC2 = LT1302 (Linear Technology) 545-6559
in six hours (in theory). These diodes were omitted in the author’s original IC3 = LM317LD (e.g. from ST Microelectronics) 714-0795
prototype (Figure 7 and Figure 8), which differs in a few details from the Miscellaneous RS Stock No.
K3 = USB-A connector, SMD (e.g. Lumberg 2410 06) -
Elektor version presented here. The reverse current through an obscured
S1 = Micro slide switch, 2-pole changeover 702-3564
(or underperforming) module is not really critical but it will reduce the
K5 = Connector strip 6-pin, twin-row, 2.54mm spacing 681-2947
output current and hence the performance of the solar panels. The JP1 = 2-pin pinheader  717-6589
Schottky diodes block the reverse current but also introduce a permanent JP1 = Jumper, 0.1 in. lead pitch 251-8569
loss in performance on account of the voltage drop of about 0.4 V at 80 LiPo battery 2000 mAh, 15C, 3.7V,  615-2444
mA, equivalent to around 8 % at maximum output of the solar modules ASI-OEM solar panel 4.8V/80mA or 5V/81mA or similar -
used here. Nevertheless Elektor Labs recommend using these diodes. Schottky diodes BAT85 for parallel connection of the panels 300-978
PCB, order code 090190-1  www.elektor.com/090190
In principle larger solar modules, as described in [1], can also be used, for
example those with a voltage of 12 V. The controller ensures that the voltage
does not exceed critical limits and thus protects the battery. All the same, a
panel of such large size would never be able to deliver full performance, as
the voltages will always be well below the optimal operating point.
Literature and Links
[1] Portable Solar Panels – Portable Energy On The Move, Elektor June 2009

[2] D
 ata sheet LT1302, Linear Technology
http://cds.linear.com/docs/Datasheet/lt1302.pdf

[3] Universal Serial Bus specifi cation, Revision 2.0, 27 April 2007,
www.usb.org

[4] Data sheet LM317, Linear Technology

http://cds.linear.com/docs/Datasheet/lt0117.pdf

[5] Data sheet Attiny13(A), Atmel

http://www.atmel.com/dyn/products/product_card.asp?PN=ATtiny13A
Figure4. The PCB of the Solar Charger uses mainly surface-mount
components that are easy enough to solder. Four of the resistors are [6] Project page with software download and ordering
located on the underside of the board. details atwww.elektor.com/090190

eTech - ISSUE 8 29
 ENERgy-EFFICIENT
aND RENEWaBlE
TECHNOlOgIES
By andrew Back - Co-founder, SolderPad

Open source techniques are being employed in the development and

provision of access to an increasingly diverse range of technologies. In this
article we’ll take a look at two comprehensive open source projects that
incorporate elements of mechanical, electrical and software engineering.
One that is concerned with building a hydrogen fuel cell electric car, and
another with making wind turbine designs freely available to all.

a highly energy-efficient vehicle

Riversimple is a UK-based company that was founded with the
aim of producing highly energy efficient vehicles for personal
transport. In 2009 they unveiled a technology demonstrator for
the Hyrban, a two seat car with a 240 mile range that achieves
an energy equivalent of over 300 mpg. One year later securing a
deal with Leicester City Council to deliver 30 vehicles as part of
a pilot scheduled for 2012. With ambitious plans to have 84,000
cars in use across the UK by 2020.
The Hyrban is built around what has been termed a “network
electric platform”, consisting of a hydrogen fuel cell power
source, a bank of ultracapacitors, 4 in-wheel electric motors
Open Source
opted for open licensing and the IP is held in trust by a non-
profit organisation. Setting up the 40 Fires Foundation for this
purpose, and operating it as a separate legal entity with a board
of trustees that is two thirds independent.
Riversimple’s open source approach allows them to focus on
innovation, leads to simplified commercial relationships
and encourages the creation of an ecosystem
of parts, or even whole cars. Indeed their
distributed manufacturing model
is based on a network of small-
scale factories, that will lead

and a control system. Regenerative breaking is employed and to greater resilience to

recaptures around 50% of the energy that would have been deal with fluctuating
lost as heat. This is stored in the ultracapacitors and provides in demand and provide
the order of 80% of the energy required for acceleration. increased flexibility
Thus allowing the car to have a much smaller fuel cell than to enable vehicle
would otherwise be required in order to to cope with peak customisation.
energy demand.

The novel approach that Riversimple have taken extends

beyond their choice of technology and to their business
model and Intellectual Property (IP) strategy. Resolutely
focused on reducing the environmental impact of
personal transport, they have decided that the cars
will not be for sale and will only ever be leased.
In selling a service rather than a product they are
motivated to build cars that are low maintenance and
with a long operating life, in addition to being highly
efficient.

Rather than taking the usual route of seeking to

secure exclusive rights via patents, Riversimple have
Image ©Rive
Image ©R rsive
imrsim
ple LL
pleP LLP

30 eTech - ISSUE 8
Open renewables
UK-based non-profit organisation Onawi was
founded by a team with a background in open
source software and open knowledge. Its stated
aim is to “directly contribute to a just transition
towards climate change mitigation by making designs
of wind turbines freely available to all”. In support of this it
has partnered with Danish research and development and
technology transfer organisation, the Nordic Folkecenter for
Renewable Energy. Entering into an agreement that will see
Onawi release specific Folkecenter designs for 150kW
wind turbines

This “medium sized” class of wind turbine is of particular interest due to

its suitability for manufacture and use in low and middle income countries.
Since the technology selected was developed in the 1980s it does not
require advanced materials and difficult to manufacture components.
Furthermore, time has proven it to be low maintenance and reliable,
with turbines operating in the field for over 20 years.

Onawi plan to release the designs under an open licence such as those from
Creative Commons or GNU. Working with distributed teams and commercial
and community partners, to develop transferable in-country skills. Fostering
collaboration across projects and driving participation in the further
development of designs.

Image ©Nordic Folkecenter

for Renewable Energy
Image ©Preben Maegaard

Continued page 32 >

eTech - ISSUE 8 31
 < Continued from page 31

Ima
ge
©R
iver
sim
ple
LLP

Conclusion
Open Source

Riversimple are using open source as a means of facilitating
a novel approach to manufacturing that will lead to business
agility and reduced risk, whilst enabling external participation in
the design process. Open source software has demonstrated
how participation and a sense of shared stakeholdership
drives the creation of technology platforms. As these grow
and an ecosystem is established benefits accrue in the
form of complementary technologies, shared maintenance
overheads and reduced costs. Trust is fundamental to platform
development and the creation of the 40 Fires Foundation will
serve to build this.
a strategy of technology transfer that is underpinned by open
licensing, online collaboration and the development of in-country
expertise and manufacturing capabilities.
If successful Riversimple will create a new marketplace and will
occupy a key position within this. Onawi have an opportunity to
effect positive change on a global scale and in a manner that will
provide the maximum benefit to local economies. In both cases
a radical and potentially disruptive approach to a significant
environmental challenge is being adopted.

Onawi represents a new breed of non-profit that is working to

address global problems in a truly sustainable manner. With

Share your views...

got an opinion on how Riversimple are using open source techniques to develop energy efficient applications?
Share it at www.designspark.com/etech

32 eTech - ISSUE 8
 Saving Energy, Saves Our Planet, Saves Your Money
Upgrade to EC fan systems using our Energy Saving Calculator

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but also the environmental benefits with reduction in CO2 emmissions and carbon savings (tonnes).

To download this app go to www.rs-components.com/ebmpapst or via the App Store

 Electronics
Extras

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Kinder for the environment than
alkaline equivalents

n A comprehensive range of sizes and capacities, plus

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RS Web search term: rs nimh battery

Weller Energy Efficient Soldering System

Antistatic touchscreen, intelligent sleep mode and
multi-language display - the WX 2 from Weller has been
designed from customer suggestions.

n High capacity power supply allows two irons to be used

simultaneously. Robust touchscreen operation which is chemical
and temperature resistant. Automatic stand by mode is activated
by sensor in handle of iron which saves energy and prolongs life
RS Web search term: Weller WX

ESD Tool Kit

6-piece anti-static kit for use
in SMD assembly

n Kit contains five types of SMD tweezers

including sickle shaped, 30°, 35°, tip angled
and straight and a pair of mini side cutters
housed in an ESD safe plastic case
RS Web search term: 725-2703
Eco-logic freezer
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RS Web search term: 733-5322 and 733-5328

34 eTech - ISSUE 8 See more online - Over 5,000 new products are
 Electronics
Extras
EcoWire
Environmentally friendly hook up wire

n Alpha Wire’s EcoWire hook-up wires use flexible

Noryl insulation to provide an environmentally-
friendly alternative to PVC thats fully recyclable and
helps manufacturers meet WEEE requirements.
RS Web search term: ecowire
Dymo Rhino 5200 label printer
With pre-programmed symbol library

n Quickly create crystal-clear, professionally formatted labels

for wires and cables, terminal blocks, 110 blocks, electrical and
patch panels, shelves, racks, equipment machinery and more.
RS Web search term: 686-8118

LED Beacons
Low profile LED beacons from
warning specialists Moflash

n Incorporating 12 ultra bright surface

mount LEDs this beacon range offers an
economic solution for a wide range of
general signalling applications. AC and DC
options available, flashing or static operation
and choice of four colours available.
RS Web search term: LED80

Fluke 115 multimeter

Compact true-rms meter for electrical
and electronic testing applications

n Designed with electronic troubleshooting in mind,

with a wide variety of measurement parameters,
including frequency and capacitance.
RS Web search term: 616-1454 S7-1200 PLC Starter kit
All you need to start designing using
Siemens latest compact PLC platform

n The S7-1200 PLC is an evolution of Siemens’

popular S7-200 family and takes compact PLCs to the
next level, and using this starter kit is the quickest
and most cost effective way to begin developing with
this next generation PLC system.
RS Web search term: 668-3131

added at rswww.com/electronics every month eTech - ISSUE 8 35

Robots
to the Rescue
Dr William Marshall, RS Components

Say ‘Robot’ to anyone and an image will flash into

their minds of a humanoid machine, intelligent and
capable of performing any human task, only better.

Image
©iRob
ot

36 eTech - ISSUE 8
 An older generation will think of ‘Robbie’ in the film
Forbidden Planet. Somewhat younger people will
remember C3P0 from Star Wars and more recently the
army of domestic robots in I, Robot, or ‘Data’ in Star Trek:
The Next Generation. What’s the common factor here?
Obvious really: they aren’t real, they’re science fiction.

The Reality Gap

Robots occupy a special place in the minds of most
people: unfortunately most of what they know has its
origins in Hollywood. It is easy to imagine what a robot
should be able to do, but making it happen is rather
more difficult. Let’s look at an

Development of humanoid
example: a recent episode of
a TV crime drama featuring a

robots has got as far as brilliant university professor

machines that walk, run,
dance, climb stairs, kick
a ball about and get up if
they fall over. Not a lot of
who uses mathematics
to solve crimes. This story
involves a train wreck with
passengers trapped in a coach
partly crushed by a tanker
full of poisonous chemicals.
Our maths professor just
happens to have a set of

use in a disaster zone. intelligent swarming robots

programmed to search for
survivors and map a route to
them through the debris. Of course we don’t actually
see these 6-wheeled toy-sized marvels moving around
amongst the devastation, co-operating to bridge gaps,
recognising pathways, climbing over obstacles and
sending video back to the laptop computer outside. The
fact is, these little buggies with a
ground clearance of 10mm would
get hung up on the first piece of
bent metal they encountered.
We forget just how flexible
a machine the human body
is, coupled with an ability to
process information from a
huge range of sensors and make
decisions based on a massive
database of past experience. Trying
to imitate ourselves in metal and
plastic is proving to be a challenge
of immense proportions. However, a
‘real’ robot must have some advantage
over humans in dangerous situations and
the recent Fukushima nuclear power plant
disaster in Japan provides an ideal testing
ground for non-fictional hardware.

The Disaster Scenario

The Fukushima site suffered from two natural attacks: an
earthquake followed by flooding from a tidal wave. To
the hazards of damaged buildings with flooded corridors
and rooms partially or completely blocked with rubble,
must be added radiation in levels ranging from lethal to
tolerable for short periods. If this wasn’t bad enough, the
reactors were unstable and even undamaged control
and monitoring equipment was inoperative because all
outside electrical power to the site had been lost and the
standby diesel generators were flooded out.

Continued page 38 >

eTech - ISSUE 8 37
 < Continued from page 37
Robots to the rescue….or not
Robots should be able to make a major contribution
in each of these areas:
1. Reconnaissance to assess the type and
scale of the tasks.
2. Rescue of survivors.
3. Repair of critical systems to render
the situation stable.
4. Recovery of victims.
5. Rebuilding the facility as necessary.
Currently there are no robots available that could
perform all these tasks and in fact they have only
been any real use in the first, reconnaissance
role. Powerful, intelligent humanoid robots like
the fictional ‘Data’ from Star Trek would be ideal.
Development has got as far as machines that walk,
run, dance, climb stairs, kick a ball about and get up if
they fall over. Not a lot of use in a disaster zone. What
we have got are tracked vehicles designed for military
use disarming terrorist bombs such as Packbot from
iRobot and Talon built by Foster-Miller. This type of
vehicle can at least climb over reasonable amounts
of rubble and even use an arm to clear debris to a
limited extent while providing a TV picture to the
operator. These machines have little ‘intelligence’ and
are best described as Remotely Operated Vehicles or
ROVs. They must be heavy and strong to withstand
falling debris, but this means they cannot move in
confined spaces and might cause further injury to any
survivors they come across. At Fukushima they must
be shielded against intense radiation as well, because
electronics is just as susceptible to damage as human
flesh. This makes the machine even bigger and
heavier. These working conditions even make radio
control difficult as anyone
who runs a WiFi network
in a building with thick
walls will testify. The
‘swarm’ concept may
provide a solution to the
communication problem
with many vehicles
acting as relay stations
for the signal.
There is another class of
robot that can be used
in the reconnaissance
role: the Unmanned
Aircraft System or UAS.
Thanks to microelectronics providing the computing
power for real-time control systems there are micro-
helicopters bristling with cameras able to fly around
inside a building. Possible candidates for disaster
monitoring include the Honeywell T-Hawk Micro Air
Vehicle. Once again though, it was developed for
military use, comes with a high price tag, but could
38 eTech - ISSUE 8
still run into trouble in a high-radiation environment.
Research is underway to use multiple UAS in a
swarm specifically for the purpose of reconnaissance
and communication in a disaster zone. Fortunately
this is one area of research where the hardware
necessary to test out ideas does not have to be very
expensive: the AR.Drone is a quadricopter fitted with
cameras and some pretty sophisticated electronics
aimed at the entertainment market.
Conclusion
The brutal fact is that robot technology has a
long way to go before it catches up with public
expectations. In the list of five areas for robotic
help in disaster rescue we are still on item 1. One
reason for this is that most research is military-based
and there is only a limited overlap with the needs
of disaster rescue teams. As long ago as 2001 the
Japanese were developing a robot [6] for measuring
radiation levels in a damaged nuclear plant but even
this doesn’t seem to have progressed much beyond
a radiation-hardened tracked vehicle with a camera.
The world-wide RoboCup competition [7] initially set
up to encourage development of a robotic football
team has a parallel contest for rescue robots. All
participants are required to disclose technical details
of their designs in order to push the technology
forward in this badly neglected area of research.
References
[1] Tracked robots for military and safety applications
www.irobot.com/gi/ground/
[2] Unmanned systems and vehicles
www.qinetiq-na.com/products-unmanned-systems.htm
[3] Honeywell T-Hawk Micro Air Vehicle
www.thawkmav.com/
[4] Swarming Micro Air Vehicle Network (SMAVNET)
http://lis.epfl.ch/smavs
[5] AR.Drone flying video game
http://ardrone.parrot.com/parrot-ar-drone/uk
[6] Remote Surveillance Squad
http://www.jaea.go.jp/jaeri/english/press/2001/010314/index.html
[7] RoboCup Rescue competition
http://www.robocuprescue.org/index.html
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got an opinion on what’s needed to push
forward robot technology? Share it at
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40 eTech - ISSUE 8
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eTech - ISSUE 8 41
INDUSTRY
NEWS

Storing Green Electricity

as natural gas
By Marion Horn

Scientists have devised a new way of storing energy. They convert

electricity generated from the sun and wind into gas and store the
energy in existing pipes and gas holders.

Wind and sun are sources of clean energy. But the wind
cannot always be relied on to bow, nor does the sun always
shine. Energy stores are needed because when it’s blowing
a gale, wind power plants deliver more electricity than the
power grid can handle. High-capacity storage systems – such
as redox-flow batteries and pumped-storage power plants –
can then supply energy during windless periods.
A partnership between business and research has found
a new way of keeping energy on tap by storing surplus
electricity generated by wind turbines and photovoltaic
systems as climate-neutral methane – a natural gas
substitute. Natural gas has traditionally been converted into
electricity, but now the cooperation partners are taking the
opposite route. Using a new process, the research scientists
are converting electricity into a synthetic natural gas.
Well-known technologies newly
combined: hydrogen electrolysis
and methanization
The process was developed by the Center for Solar Energy
and Hydrogen Research Baden-Württemberg (ZSW) in
cooperation with the Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy
and Energy System Technology IWES. The Stuttgart-based
partner company Solar Fuel GmbH is currently preparing
its industrial implementation. “With the rapid expansion of
renewable energy, the demand for new storage techniques
is increasing sharply. We see a very big market here,
because the long-time storage of renewable energy is the
key to the expansion of wind and solar power”, explains
Managing Director, Dipl.Ing. Gregor Waldstein. A
demonstration system built for Solar Fuel in Stuttgart
is already running successfully. Construction of a
much larger facility, in the double-digit megawatt
range, is scheduled to commence in 2012
So how does the process work? Dr. Michael
Specht from ZSW explains: “Our demonstration
system in Stuttgart uses electrolysis to split
water from surplus renewable electricity,
producing hydrogen and oxygen. A
chemical reaction of the hydrogen with
carbon dioxide causes methane to form
– which is the same as natural gas, only
synthetically produced.” For the first
time, the technologies of hydrogen
electrolysis and methanization are
being combined. The gas can not
only be stored, but can also be
used as fuel or for heating
and refrigeration. Liquid
fuels such as gasoline and
kerosene can also be
produced from it.

Share your views...

Got an opinion on the viability of green electricity conversion?
Share it at www.designspark.com/etech

42 eTech - ISSUE 8
 Panasonic New V-FT series
Low ESR SMD Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitor

Panasonic introduces the latest LOW ESR SMD Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitor. This product disposes of high capacitance and low
resistance values combined with a smallsized case. The outstanding performance of the new V-FT series is achieved by highcapacity
electrode foil and sophisticated Panasonic Low resistance technology.

Compared to the leading low ESR Panasonic series (V-FK and V-FP) and to comparable competitor products, the new V FT series is miniaturized by 1 case size
with same CV values and Low resistance. The V-FT series corresponds to future market needs requesting high performance components in small size ratio.

Features compared to V-FK series Applications Technical Data

• Miniaturization & weight reduction = Down-
sizing by up to 60%
• Stable operation & high efficiency = ESR
reduction down to 50%
• Ripple current increase up to 1.4 times
• High reliability & long lifetime = 2000h at
105°C
• High temperature lead-free reflow soldering
• Switching Power Supplies • Voltage range 25 VDC to 50VDC
• DC/DC converter • (6.3 VDC to 16VDC will be available from Q4
• Automotive equipment 2011 onwards)
• Industrial electronics • Capacitance range 10 uF to 820 uF
• Digital devices • (10 uF to 2200 uF will be available from Q4
• Telecommunication, e.g. Base stations 2011 onwards)
• Smart Meter • Temperature range -55°C to +105°C
• New designs for high efficiency and • Endurance 2000h at 105°C
miniaturisation • Size B to G case size (Ø4 to Ø10mm)
• Soldering Peak temperature 260°C (Ø4 to
Ø6.3mm) / 245°C (Ø8 to 10mm)

www.rs-components.com/panasonic
IN LLIGENT
INTELLIGENT SOLUTIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL MACHINERY.
WE’RE IN IT.

RZ Relay PT Relay SR6 Relay

www.rs-components.com/teconnectivity

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