i a . CHAPTER 7 TESTING aio VALIDATION CF TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS by Dr.i.Laksimi pathy 1, INTRODUCTION With fast oxpansion of transmission net-works in this country, efforts should be made towards design of economic, relfable and aesthetic towers, From the point of view of economy, franed structures are widely used Sh india and mild Steel is generally the raw-material. x 'madium size transmission tower will const st of members Bi,of the order of 500 to 1000, 2 2 i Due to the vagaries of weather, these structures are subjected to variable loadings and hence a number of assumptéons are involved in the loading conditions. The seaming of Uterature clearly indicates that there is aneed for tests ond testing procedure for structures B) iwhich are destgnad.basod on sinplifiod assumpttons to Biv check the validity, adequacy of design and relfable performance of ‘towers, In the cbsonce of standardisation sain this country, testing on random samples are not rolevant. To reduce wastage of material, prototype tests aro generally resorted to, before’ manufacture 4s token up. OF TOWER TESTING The transmission tovers are indeterminate E structures and to ensure their reliable peréorman ce in the field, typo’tests ‘ore essential. Further, at i the stage of development, to arrive at the most economical design full size tests are required. “Prototype tower tests inspires confidence not only y for the designer, but also for the purchasor or the ultimate user. Be REQUIREMENT OF TOWER TESTING STATION (Fig.1,2 & 3) 4 For conducting prototype tests, a permanent station 1s required whore it would be possible to measure applied loads ond deflect tons. A tower testing station should consist of: (1) aA tost bed to withstand bending and torstonal moments and shears, (2) Permanent anchorages of adequate capacity to take transverse, longitudinal and vortical pulls to be applied on to the test towers.(3) The arrangamants for Sat ‘pilytng any combinatiogg of given too c spacificd rate of increas (W) Lor and deflect fon ionsuring apoare Measurement of loads Load application of’ different points on the towor ‘structure is done by renote controlled cloctrif winches operated from the control room, Instruments used for recording tho are either Mechanical Spring Geuges or Electrical/ & Electronic controlled Transducers /Dynamomcters, The latter is preforred, Tho respoctive readouts. indicate the force applicd in any haulage rope. Measurement of deflect ton By Fixed Stoht of thoodolites on scales mounted dil at all transition points and cross arm, both transverd and longitudinal faces. Recording type’ instruments with Plano wire attachments or Lasor beat are also employed (5) Remote control of loading mechanisms. ($) Remote and precise reading of measuring insta (7) Arrangements for calibration of the measuring instruments, From control room,the wiriches /dynamomoters /angles Eransducers are operatéd/control ted, Control ron shail have the facility of full view of tronsversa ond Tongh tudinal testing arrangomont and test towr,. All togetsd electrically operated machines and instrumants are connected and controlled from the control centre. They electrically operated winches are also controlled fro control room, j 4. TEST PROCEDURE The prototype tower 1s orected on the test bed aff all the arrangements necessary for applying loads are Completed, The tower ts examined carefully, all its bolts and nuts are properly tightended, thé tower 1s made truly plumb ond. square ond all its mambors ore checked for freodom from visibla dafacts,. Gratuated mtallic scales ara fixed on both the transverse and longitudinal faces, Reacings on these scales with feference to the plumb line in the contre of the towers are taken froin the theodolite stat tonsrs: 902 (Part 111) = 1973 (11 Gods of practice for sq of structural stee ahead Transmission Line ows rs — equi rene nts regarding testing oF owerhcod transiission lina towers. sooo eee of the sam is given in (Enclen es TL). An Oxteact 1S" genoratly followed to tose, Tove. f {nat gcnous supply. For export ordares the code Ho.652 199578) tiLoading tests on overhead thansinission TINe (972 issued by International & les trotechnical LOWS on (IEC) 1s generally adopted. There is no corr aterorence betwosn the twos Howsver the Indian molefremones are mre stringent ad Hence if a tower {s tested to confor to T g:q02, it will more then mot the IEC requiremnts. pefore procseding with the test propery the bolt take up test 1s done. The procedure afopted 15 to apply gradually first the vertical Toads at the peak and eof the working loads. cs Meeecarns From O to 100 porcen Crunsvorse loads are also app! Simultencous ly gradually at ho peck and the cross-orMs, the loads Boing raised to 1007 of the wor Fng lord. Hof lection being oe on the scale are teken at cach Sth The ; transverse and vertical Joads are then released, When the final readings with both the vertical ahd transverse oro are taken they are found to be different ent def lect ion i.2., 2 porman released, The deflection loads at from the initial readings, feobtatned ator tho loads ar 1$ Ghovto the Tight take-up 0 clearance of about 3 due Feeueen, tho bolts and the hates ENO ighout. the Lee me roe Te ts only £o alfminatoy 26, FF ES nossible, Ehis take up from the qctual Mafisetion that the bolts thts Eade ys done. For togt PUTROSes |4N° roadings EEO UP CTE ous taken afcor the Roltse11P ore taken Ms tho initial roadings. a 5 DETAILS OF TESTS th simiJtancous forces under norma] conditions Tost-1: Wi This tost raprossnts normal loading of the tower and js the most important test, sine during the major portion of its life, the Cronemission towor 1S under PPE ee dition, For Tengont tows, £he forces will thts COhe tran verse ond vortical at rections, But for be ond towers the longitudinal Force, also have to R the tower shall have forSfmutaced. As por T.e, Rules be Sctor of sofety of 2 under this condition. Vertical Toads cquivatont to, 100 percent of the working load are First applied, Transverse Jonds are t then applied From 0 to 109 percents deflect ions oF then eebr boing noted for every 25 percent increase wr Gad. (Those intermediate loads ore maintained for in jnutes). Thereafter, both the vertical londs and 2 minutes yrgo londs are incrcased to Sho ule imate the gs, namely 200 percent in steps © sore lained cbove. Tha uitinate To Teh wil] Ro maine 35 OK ATs inimuces, Tho tower wi)l 9 ‘observed for s cay visible sign of fatlure. The Joads are thencompletely relcased, With zero load, the deflection readings are again taken, The residual deflect ion is noted Gown, The tower should stand the hove test without aay Sign of crippling or deformation of its mombors, The destruction test fs also done with normal condition loads. This tost represents the loading of the tower under broken conductor or carthwire and hance Fopresents a calamitous case as far as Vine 1s concerned, Since this type of loading 1s an cbnomnal 44 one, often towers are not designad for this, Based of this philosophy, in countrics brow, rectangular based towers ‘arc designed for use at’ suspension pointd Such towor aro hover tested for broken condition 10 However Re self supporting towers uscd in India should met to the requiromants of 1S: 902 which stipulates tests on towers with broken wire Toads. This bpse jopresents losing of tower tn the longitudinal and transverse cic ctf as with vorticald loads applic’ to mot the requirsiants of its specificattuns with a foctor if safety of 1. transverse and vertical |aods First rois the required value and maintatie longitudinal loads: aré gradually inctonsed fre: 150 percent of the working Inacy 8 noted both for cross arm and t.tior for avery 25 f dncrease in load, After redding the deflection « full test load, f.o, 150 percent of the working losddl the longitudinal loads are gradually reloasod andl brought down to 100 percent readings betng talon intervals, After this, all tho loads (vertical, longitudinal ond transverse) are released anil the readings with zero load noted, The tower should stand this test without showing any. sign of cr ipping or permanent deformation of 4s menbors, Test-3 Test_to Destruction After the above tests, tho tover 1s loaded as in Tost No. (H.C.Tost), ALI the N.C, loads are uniformly increased in steps of 5 to'10 percent as Fixed by mutual agreement between the purchasor and the ‘supplier, till failure occurs, The point of failure is casily detected from the reloas of load on the dynamoneter. This release, incidentally, Gan be utilised to stop furthar londing so that complete collapse of the tower can be avoi dad.Normally, destruction test is conducted under N.C, loals. The ruction test shall be conducted un ns of the sa9s tost applied on the toucr, 7 be oF tear for 9 certain type oF tower, Hovver, in 6.19 che tyee Ts under 10, Yes live, deséruction his comtition. view of tho fact th for a major portion of 4s also conducted under & st Tt ig not desinable to re-use any me cower subjected to destruction test, as thoy might have suffered strain beyond the Slastic Vimit, The cntire E tate tower has to be scrapped. However, if the tower rose ceed! upto withstand lors only, 16 can be re-used, If the number of towers of @ particular type are uch 1985, (as in the caso of angle and deat! end towers), destruction test may not be required. Such a test to destruction gives ‘valuable infor~ The F.0.5. upto mation from design point of viows eee etower had withstood the loads in thy destruction test, can be utilised #n tho uprating of the lines, The teste Sar oF the cower undor destruction test can be y behaviour PE gnosing certain probloias encountered during the useful life of tho tober. ‘RTS 6. PREPAFATION OF TST RE the test on 9 tower 13 over; a the verlous tower was subjected vo thoss will be As soon provisianal test report listing o Vonditions of the test to which the ond the responses of the structur: issued. 5 A final robort incorporating all the rosults of E> che comlote tast along with the photographs of tho Tee coe very stage of loading shell be prepared bythe in-charge of the cowr testing Stations As per 1.8. 802, a typical report shall include the . Following. a) The type of tested towr 8) the nam and address of the tower manufacturer ¢) The name and address of the client @) The dates and location of testing 3 The names of porsons present during the tests } h vist of various assembly and shop drawings Tolating to the tower tested, including chy modification of the drawings referred to. g) A dimensioned Tine diagram of the tower’ Browing the vor fous. load points, and. direct ions SF loading to be applied and table with the specifiad loads. h) Biagrom showing the rigging arrangement used to apply the test 11) Bricf description of ¢ the nutsher, location, cherts or eqhles of avery weer, Se yeTl as the accuracy OF tira Gnutpinant use to monsure the test lenis. f) bee table per cose, shoving the loods roasired at the various points on the structure and for the various loading stays. k) One table per test showing the various values which may have been recorded, 1) In the case of failure . 4) a table showing the maxiinuin Tonds 9 plied id to the structure, just before the coll.pseg 41) a bricf description of tho failures ond 7 G11) the dimonstonai and mechanical character! i of the failed eloments. i m) Acettain number of photographs, showing the tingle of tho structure and, possibly, dete of the failure. eB certified steel producer test roports and; physical test roports for Koubors used in test fowers shall be furnished as specified by the purchoser. ay Tost reports of coupons (if se de: tho purchaser, coupons shall be cut froin fower monbors’ ond tested in a Ishoratory) shall also be furnistad. 4 Ts RIALYSIS OF CAUSES OF FATLURES DURTIG TOWER TESTU The various couses of failures identified ag Vistod below and discussed in the following’ paragr; 1. Failure originating from Inadequate quol ity material. a) Use of sub-stondard material ib) Rusting of members « Failure related to design fa) Single bolt connection for bracings to le 5) Pattern of redundant bracings ¢) Indeterminate frame a Indeterminency at waist level Lateral stiffness of menbers ) High deflection of tower g) Effect of wind during testing 3, Fallure related to fabrication a) Fabrication errors of tower b) Use of straignt mombers 4, Follures related to erection a) Improper stub-setting b) Overtightening of bolts ¢) wingonal ix d) Verticality of tower axes.5. Fatluros rented to t sting procedure 2) Sequence of foating of tower b) Stayos of loci €) Increwont of load d) Application of wind Toad at the Tower reaches of touer-cnre to be exercised c) Destruction test FAILURES ORIGINATING FROM INADEQUATE QUALITY OF MATERT AL : 1.5, Use of Sub=standard mater tal The steal sedtions provided in the IST hendbook for Structural Engineers are not tailored for teansmigstor: towers alone and hence there is the Tikelihood of using som heavier sections on towers in the absence of the required’ sections. On. accdunt, of this prcblem, often the towor manufacturers resort to use of re-rolled sections 4in order not to have unduc waste material, thoroby saving material. Thé ‘ro-rolled sect tons suffer from Various disadvantages such as inadequate Strongth (unioss it 1s tested quality), geometrical properties varying from standard soction, stress concentration on account of sudden change of profile etc. Vibs Rusting mombors The prolonged exposure of tho tower was to such an oxtent that the.rust which 1s formed in E omy Of the mapbers could be scon feeling off from Bac the monbor, This results in considerable reduction BS tn geometrical properties such as foment of Inertia, Modiles, of section ote, This results in reduction in strength against buckling, It is thorofore ‘Polutely necessary thot unrustedymmbers are used for towers. Golyanising and painting the sectton Soon after rolling would be following methods against rusting. 2, Fatlures Related to Design 2ay Single Bolt Connection for Bracings to Legs 5 when the neutral exes of two bracings members do not intersect on the same point, there 1s on gecentricity introduad in the tower lug, Honbers foving high slendornoss ratio may not result in fetiure on account of the Teg, which 1s between the two.bracing menbers masurec on the neutral axes of fhe leg. But when the ki/r ratio is small as 1s the case vhon a nunbor of radundent members are Used, there 1s couse anxicty as this pert of the 4 Neg ember has to be designed far dircet strossy fii bending stross ond shear. Such a chock should therefore, be tarde where bracings arc connected as. inant ton2.b. Pattern of Redundant Bracing In the case of certain towers, it was found that for reducing tho slenderness: ratio of main— bracings, redundant in the foria of delta as ‘shown in Feigeh are connected, As con bs scan, tits inoy hot be a suitable pattern of redundants, as these are not connected to any point of high stiffness. The capability of redundants to mintain o member in {ts original position is, to a'great extent, dependent upon their rigidity, as these are connected’ to points on bracings which may undergo translation when loaded, The capability of ‘delts-connacted redundants to maintain the shope of members depends on the stiffness Of main members on which these are connected. 2ecy Indeterminate frame In the case of a 69 KV tower, with extension as much a8 the basic tower height, a’ eruss p-ttern of fran work was used to replace a Single inomber From economy 4 point of view, Failure of the web mombers of this frome work approximately at the centre of the tower 4 on the transverse face under syimetricnl load conditions with high transverse loads ad comtatively small longitudinal loads, was obscrved. However a rational approach which warranted increas in slzc of these ers was not iande aval lable, 2.d. Indeterminecy at the Yaist Level Hony causes of failures had been observed at waist level, Tho calculations revealed that the maubors had adequate strength, This sort of failure say be due to indeterminacy "at" the cross—arin level. The large Variation in stiffness between the vertical phase ond portion below the vertical portion of the tower in the case of barrel towers was not taken for the design! as the towers are not designed for stiffness, Another reason can be overlooking of the extra load on the horizontal members of the tower at this section.where Ghange of profile tekes place, on account of vertical loading. The bracing members Just below this level will have loads if the horizontal belt at this section 1s i Not adequate in size, If the horizontal belt 4s adequet those bracings will have superimposed component of vertical loads, This has to be accounted for in the tower design. 2sc. Lateral Stiffness of Members It 1s desirable to have sufficient stiffness of mombers in a direction lateral to their axes, as in this cose only, we can ensure tho integral action of all menbers in’ sustrining the external loals acting on the tower.Certain purchasers Insist thot tho towor mombers should be design:d for sustaining the wight of aman with tools without any considoreble: deflection. This, to som oxtunt, ensures the stiffness of monbers in the Ictatal dircction also. However, a chock shoitd be dona to ensiire the lateral stiffness of maabers so that integral action of the members is ensured, 22f, High deflection of the Towor A failure had been observed on_a tower on its bottom leg though leg Imattbers were found to have cdequate strength on calaulation, But the towor had high deflection during testing, When the failed part was roinforded, failure took pince inthe noxt higher panel. When the log noabor was roplicad to noxt highor size) it withstood a yery high loal during destruction tost with loss deflection. 2g. Effect of Wind during testing The prototype towor testing is basically an’ outdoor test and hence. the vagarics of weather arc likely to affoct the test, Tho host prominent one is the wind Toad acting on the tower at the time of testing, but naturally it. cannot be considered in design, This may be considerable in the cose of tall towers and hence it would be-advisable to have an cnemometer installed so.that the records obtained from this instrument (the velocity of wind) could be calculated and allowances indo for the saa, If this. is done somo of the tower Failures which may bo just tqrginal can be donee, to be successful tests if the margin of load, short of whjch the toxer has failed is less than the wind Joad at the time of test. 3, Failures related to Fabrication Sle, Fabrication errors of tower It should be ensured during. fabrication, that all the merbors are exact to size, No extra tolerance Yn bolt holes should be allowed, A properly erected tover will.be-symmotrical with respect to the contral vortical axis. A proper chock with crected tower with regard to the shape of tts mombers 1.c, whether monbers are bent, will holp tg dind out the fabrication errors tO some extent, This could also be seen by the orectors at. the time of tower crection, as woll fabricated monbors will not pose any problem during erection, However, the lengths are to bo checked before commencement of the erection and remedial measures taken whenever necessary. 3.b, Use of straight marbers The straightness of the members should also be ensured as the performance of tho bent members would be similar to the one due to the fabrication error.Wi, Failure Related to Erect fon las Improper Stub-setting Stub-setting 1s one of the most important sts in tower erection, It ts acvi “le to use the stu tomplate for stub—sotting instand of resorting to humerous megsurcmants involved ottitrisc. Further, Bon Gn spite of using the template it should be secon that after the stub is sot, the hoot distance of the four faces of the tower are equal and the two Glagonais ore also equal. Only in this cose if con be ensured that the towr is well sot. 3 liby Over tightening of Bolts When black towrs are tested and 1f the bolts are tightened too mich, there 1s en unequal clamwtog ache joints. whon such o tover is londed, noise 15 produced indicating resetting of the mmbers. This Posetting widely varying fro. usar to tieiber, can Jntroduce Conditions which connot bo provided Tor Indesign. A sudden relonse of stressing of som of | a Uo mentors also disturb the halenced sharing of loods between the moxbors, This will bo more so, if spring washers aro net used with ty? oIock towers. High 4 blasting Tike sound heard during test 1s on indicating OF the unhealthy behaviour of the towr during testingy Use of galvanized tower with bolts having Tine threads would reduce the unbalanced sirzssing of wabers and intensity of noise prety st, Usc of torque wrenches may not be quite pr Hovavor, this 1s Suggested wherewer possible. Thooret ically, plan bracings are not required at jevels other than the cross-ari levels and olovatlon oF changes of slopes, but provision of diagonal member St certain intervals Wi11 help in maintenonce of, shape) SF the tower ond also to ensure that tho diagonals are @qual at various levels, It 1s advisable to provide jf plan bracings from this point of view. Alternative lyg hlan bracings could be provided at, various elevations | faring erection (if possiblo plan knoo-bracing cen be, used in this ease) and ofter the tower is properly Grected, these could be dismentled before final tighteningr Aids Verticality of the tover axis It should be ensured during orection that the noutral vertical oxis of the turer is truly vertical though a tolerance of 1 in, in 30 ft. (1 in 360) fs allowed,5. Fallures related to testing procedure re s no stage, during the process © than deserve: ton test) the load on a icber of a Sexe tower should excced 2 is sucha regraphs. srain tiie folluwing p the design load, Som: crscs wi possibility are discussed in ¢! Sequence of Loatling of tower The effect of oxtcrnal leads acting at various Jevels of the tower as regard bracings on the sloping rop-ion would bo ctfforant (compressive or tensile). This is. very much pronounced in the case of forcus due to cantilever loads on ground wire peak. The load at the poak of a barrel tower may have a ncggfive {intercept on leg produced while the loads at the ~ peak of a barrel tower inay have a negative intercept bn leg produced while the loads at tho waist level have ‘a positive intercopt, Therefore, if tho tower is loaded from the bottom to top there 1s 2 stags when the bracings*all the lorlings. In this case, 1f the Bracings are critically designed there 4s a chance of fai lure of the bracings, This can be avoided by loading the tower from top to bottom, The sequence of loading for a 0,C, tower could be as follows: + On the sloping region may be overloatod before concluding. 1. Ground wire 22 Top conductors 3. Middle conductor 4, Dotto ao nductors But white rolcasing the locds,: those at the upper Teaches should be roleascd in the’end, if similtancous release is not possible. However, this causes the following problem, When the load in a rope is reduced the other ropes get loaded. This 1s more pronounced in the case of Topes above the one which gets unloaded, Tf similtencous relonse cannot be done for want of operatéos, loads can be released partially so that in n: crsa the applied load would be exceeded during unloading. Bib. Stages of loading The halting time at various stages of loading does not have much effect except for the fact that when loads are increased, somewhere around the crest value the dynamic offect of the loads may set up Vibrations on the tower which may cause failure Specially whon loading on the tower is quite high in magnitude. Therefore, all what is necessary to be ensured, 13 to apply the load without causing vibrations. This can bo donc by having 2 stage considerably below the crost velucs and then applying loads continuously from this point up to the crest-value, This will have a significant cffect for lightly loaded towers as maghitude of the load for given porcentage of loadWIT] be very sunt] in such eases, applicntion of load will be high. would be proforable to lord the & channel rather than sisuleansously 9s affect would be Tess pronounced in this case. Sick Incrownt of Load ‘fhe increments in loads froin stage to stage sholf be gpalicd continuously, Loading by inching should bef avoided as mich as possible. Sid. Application of Wind Le Tower-Care to be exercised, The wind Toads vhtch are to be applied at the lower reaches of tho tower, prescnt some problans. Th concontration load has to be properly divided betwer: the two foces wacther it is initial load, ineronent Jox! of Final load. Further, the lacd applied should be transmitted to the logs ond all the bracings whicty are supported to boar the lod simiitencously and uniformly, This requires that the load applied should be through single channel and should be divi at the point of application of lord, meaning that smooth and frictionless pulleys have to be usod, forg dividing concentrated lorl, applied by the equipment; amang the two faces, The rigging shoutd bo done such; that both the front’ and rear legs should have one Fourth oF eho We vusly. Great core should be cxcretsed in apilying thisgl lond as diwonsi tower At this clevatioy would high ond flexibility of the manbers more thang hat of othurs. Any unequal siaring between the two. faces causes loading of the other two faces. : ch showing the suggested method of application is given in Figure 5. 5.@. Destruction test An instance was observed in which tower withstood successfully all tie Toads; but failed before attaining the withstand load during destruct test. This led to 9 lot of discussions. If was decided that a piece cut from the Tailed member’ should be tested for tensile strength to sco whether the tower failure was duc to fatigue, The test shoved that the munber hes unde Another prototype of change from the previous. oF destruction -test only. successfully and the tower fai ved nofhial cuntithon Te-cing (against of 290 percent), proving thet tlywos duc to fatigue resulting from repcoted nunb.r of tests, Hence in such casos the purchaser ny consider giving 9 ralax:ticn and deci the tower to have passed the tosts, 8 CONCLUSION The prototype test, though fulfils the requiremonts as per thi’codes, becomes a costly proposition, When a test 1s carried out, duo to some Foason or the othor, 1f tho conditions Of requirements are not fulfilicd, the entire tower has to Scrapped. Instead’ if _a model testing is first, taken at a very much less cost the Inadequectes with respect to design, Impropeeounter bracing, improper secondary bracings,(a) Test tower eadagapetion icune 4 j eva, meee