The Library

Architectural
Analysis II

Dipl.-Ing. H. Apelt
Dipl.-Ing. H.H. Yegenoglu
TU/e | 2011/2012
 Introduction

Dipl.-Ing. Haike Apelt, Dipl.-Ing. Hüsnü Yegenoglu

004 Public building types: The library 005

 Architectural Analysis II
The method of the typomorphological analysis, which is used
in the course Architectural Analysis II, combines different
analytic approaches in order to understand and descibe
architecture in the most complete possible way. While the
British approach focuses on the relationship between plot
and object, the Italian approach concentrates on history and
building type, the French approach on space and power. In
combining these very different concerns (form - type - scale
- time - social structures) the typomorphological analysis
used in the course aims to develop an alternative method
in understanding architecture within its spatial, historical
and societal context. During the last years the tool of the
drawing by which to exercise the analysis was perfected
suiting domestic building types. For the first time now, the
course deals with public buildings, which does not only
pose new aspects of the analysis but also makes it necessary
to adapt and further refine the method of drawing the
typomorphological analysis.

In the current edition of the course we study the architecture

of libraries. As one of the oldest public building types the
library is still, or yet again (much to surprise for those who
predicted the end of the printed medium) a very vital and
meaningful building type that seems to adapt to different
spatial and cultural conditions. We selected ten buildings in
different western countries which were constructed within
the past ninety years. In drawing, text and scale-model
the students investigate key questions such as: What are
the leading spatial themes of the building? What are the
general spatial themes that seem to be consistent in the
development of a building type? In what way does the
public character of the building become explicit? What is
the relationship between presentation and representation?
Does the development of the media influence the design
approach and with it the development of the building type?
Parallel to the study of the architectural objects a series of
general architectonic questions are investigated such as: the
role of decor, the meaning of transparancy, the system of
proportions and the experience of sequence. The final essay
explores the relationship between the development of the
printed medium and the architectonic space.

006 Public building types: The library Introduction 007

 Essays

008 Public building types: The library 009

 03. Transparency

Dave Al, Daniël Brorens, Guus Gielens, Bob L’Heminez, Ricardo Ploemen

024 Public building types: The library Essays 025

Layers of Transparency
‘Transparency’ is generally circumscribed as the quality
of transmitting light so that bodies lying beyond are seen
clearly. This first level explanation of transparency is
1
often used in architectural practice, e.g. “the glass window
allows the building user to see passersby on the outside
of the building”. Besides this visual dematerialization
– paradoxically glass is called a material, though
dematerializes at the same time – it should be added that
the material barriers of glass do isolate the other senses. As
Richard Sennet puts it: “Fully apprehending the outside
from within, yet feeling neither cold nor wind nor moisture,
is a modern sensation which produces a complete visibility
without exposure of the other senses”. 2
The aforementioned first level explanation does not seem
to satisfyingly cover the complete usage of the term, since
deeper meanings can provide additional insights in relation
to architectural design. A first attempt to develop a theory
about the concept of transparency forms the main part
of Transparency: Literal and Phenomenal , by Rowe and
3
Slutzky, and provides a broad explanation of how spaces
can be demarcated by a building’s formal structure. For
this purpose they distinguish literal from phenomenal
transparency. The former shows us that glass windows,
which are perceived as being transparent and enable the
action of seeing through, remain tangibly present. In
contrast, the latter refers to the simultaneous suggestion of
different spatial locations within the same space, as a means
of spatial ordering. The word ¬phenomenal in this sense,
refers to the way users perceive these spatial implications in
their own way.
The origin of transparency is sought in the art, and more
specific in the Cubist movement from the beginning of the
twentieth century. Rowe and Slutzky derived this notion
from Swiss historian and architectural critic Sigfried
Giedion’s theory on transparency, who compares Cubism
and architecture in his magnum opus Space, Time and
Architecture (1941). In addition, this book also provides
the fundamentals of transparency, like the notion of
‘Durchdringung’ and the ‘space-time concept’. Giedion
Fig.1 Architectural Analysis, Theo van Doesburg(1923)
026
constructs a periodization of architectural history in which
he distinguishes three different conceptions of space.
For the subject of this essay the third conception is most
relevant, since, according to Giedion , this ‘space-time
4
conception’ is set in at the beginning of the twentieth
century with the optical revolution. This new way of
perceiving spatial compositions formed a major contrast
to the single viewpoint of perspective, as it was implied in
the architectural practice until that time. The way in which
Giedion relates this new architectural conception of space
not only to the application of new materials and a new
consciousness of social responsibility, though to a larger
extend to cubist painters, is most interesting. This notion of
modern space is then described by ‘the essence of space’ as
“its many-sided, infinite positionality for relations within it”
. Cubism views objects from several points of view, no one
5
of which has exclusive authority as they are seen from all
sides. This notion can be derived from the cubist painting
6
by Picasso. Giedion furthermore explains his concepts with
buildings by architects Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier.
Gropius’ Bauhaus building from 1926 is described by
Giedion as the “only large building of its date which was
a complete crystallization of the new space concept” and
consequently shows similar overlapping spatial planes when
compared to the aforementioned cubist painting.
The aforementioned theories that are reflected on the term
‘transparency’ throughout history – literal transparency,
phenomenal transparency and space-time concept – will
be discussed more elaborate in this essay by providing a
chronological development of transparency in relation to
architecture, and consequently provide a strong fundament
for the analysis of two distinct libraries. The Viipuri Library
(1935) and Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library
(1958) were designed and built for different purposes.
In addition, the divergent political situations in both
periods of design and construction have had their strong
influence on libraries in general and more specifically on
the theme of transparency as we find them in the formerly
mentioned institutions. After elaborating the main
transparency theories, they will be put into practice by
Fig.2 Cirque du Palais Royale, Paris, (1786)
answering the research question “In what way are the main
transparency themes applied in the analyzed libraries and how
do they contribute to the way these libraries are perceived and
experienced by the user?”. The second part of this question
will mainly be answered in the typo-morphological analysis
that will follow in the chapter ‘03. Viipuri Library and
Beinecke Library’.
Public building types: The library
Layers of Transparency
Glass architecture: a chronology
The first applications of transparency in the building
industry date from the nineteenth century and were
initially named ‘glass architecture’. The precursors of
glass architecture were the early 19th century passages
and shopping galleries that appeared in the Parisian
neighborhood of the Grands Boulevards. At that time
Paris was considered to be the capital of modernism of the
world which enabled the development of these luxurious
passages and galleries. Initially the material was applied for
pure functional reasons, to allow the public to commerce in
excellent conditions. The prototype of those passages is the
Galerie du Palais Royal (Fig. 2) that was built in 1786. This
structure was a large glass canopy that created a covered
street with stores and opened up to one side. The oldest real
passage, indoor and shops on both sides, was the Passage du
Caire 1798 (Fig. 3).
Due to technical progress in the 18 and 19 century,
th th
materials like cast iron, wrought iron and cast plate glass
became available for building purposes and consequently
enabled innovative transparent applications in architecture.
The first extensive application of large amounts of glass
is seen in greenhouses. Also in this case the application
was purely functional considering the thermal advantages
and the possibilities to showcase exotic and outlandish
vegetation, at the time evidence of great wealth. One of
the earliest examples of the typology is the Palm Houses in
the Belfast Botanic Gardens (1840) (Fig. 4). More famous
is the Palm House in the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew
(1848) that showed the first large-scale structural use of
wrought iron, with hand-blown panes of glass. With the
invention of the cast plate glass method in 1848, it became
possible to produce glass in larger sizes and surfaces but at
lower prices. The Crystal Palace in London (1851) (Fig. 5)
can be considered as the first application of glass for spatial
expression. The wish for interaction between the exterior
and the interior, to showcase the goods, was the reason
for the architect to apply the reasonably new material. The
design and realized building contained the largest amount
of glass ever seen in a building at that time, it astonished
Fig.3 Passage du Caire, (1798)
Essays
visitors with its transparent walls and ceilings that made
artificial interior illumination superfluous.
New materials additionally provided greater transparency in
interior design. An interesting example for the interpretation
of the section in the building is the ‘grand magasin’ of the
National Library (Fig. 6) in Paris, built by Henry Labrouste
between 1862 and 1868. The building consists of five storey’s
and is covered with a glass roof, but the interpretation of the
transparency of materials evolved into a new application of
it. To allow daylight to pass through all floors, Labrouste
made the floors of cast iron grid elements, which resulted
in an unprecedented spaciousness and transparency. It can
be considered as the first known application of the later
described ‘phenomenal transparency.‘
In 1914 the German Futurist writer Paul Scheerbart
published a book titled ‘Glasarchitektur’ that elaborates on
all sorts of possibilities for glass as an alternative to traditional
building materials such as brick and wood. He believes
innovation in architecture is necessary to evolve culture. As
he stated that “our culture is in some sense a product of
our architecture. If we want our culture to a higher level,
we are forced to transform our architecture. And so we will
only then be able, if we deprive the spaces we live in from
the closed character. The new environment that we create
should bring us a new culture.” Elaborating on this topic,
7
he envisions a utopian world in which glass is used wherever
possible. Considering Scheerbart’s mentioned advantages:
non-flammability, increased hygiene and transparence are
a few of many,he believes his utopian world should be
composed of glass: glass houses, glass furniture, moveable
glass walls, new means of glass and entire cities which are
to be composed solely of glass. The consequences of this
glass architecture are forecast, as the closeness of rooms
will disappear because the admittance of light through the
previously solid walls. This new environment would then
evolve or even replace the culture of the time.
Scheerbart’s visions were first realized in the famous glass
pavilion (Fig. 8), designed by the young German avant-
Fig.4 Palm House Botanic Gardens, Belfast, (1840)
garde architect architect Bruno Taut. Scheerbart and Taut
were friends and ‘Glasarchitektur’ was dedicated to Taut.
His temporary exhibition pavilion for the Glass Industry
was shown at the ‘Werkbund Exhibition’ in Cologne in
1914. The building consisted largely of glass, and was
crowned with a glass dome. Although the pavilion was
demolished afterwards, it is still notorious and published
in books on modern architecture because it is considered
as the first real architectural application of transparency.
Taut released his book Alpine Architektur in 1919, in which
he publishes drawings that show mountain scenery in the
Alps, embellished with utopian designs for large glass
palaces. At the same time Taut started an exchange of
letters named ‘die Gläserne Kette’ which included German
architect Walter Gropius. Unsurprisingly, the topic was the
future of glass architecture. With this exchange leading into
a discussion Gropius managed to translate Taut’s Avant-
garde architecture in pragmatic designs.
Gropius had already gained experience in glass architecture
when designing the Fagus Factory (Fig. 7) in Alfeld an der
Leine, built in 1911, with walls consisting almost entirely of
glass. This factory is one of the first examples in Germany of
the ‘Neue Sachlichkeit’. In 1919 Gropius’s became director
of the Bauhaus in Weimar. When the Bauhaus moved from
Weimar to Dessau in 1926, Gropius designed the new
building that became a new peak in the glass architecture.
In Giedions and Rowes opinion (Transparency: Literary
and phenomenal) this building is considered to be the
ultimate example of ‘literal transparency.’ Gropius was
the first architect to penetrate the corners of the building
and dematerialize these with glass. Another important
innovation is the application of the predecessor of the
modern curtain glass walls in Europe.
The successor as the director of Bauhaus of Gropius
was for one year Hannes Meyer, though Ludwig Mies
van der Rohe’s contribution should be considered more
important (1930-1933). Mies has played a major role
in the development of glass architecture with his design
for a glass tower on Friedrichstrasse in Berlin in 1921
Fig.5 Crystal Palace, Joseph Paxton, (1851)
027
Layers of Transparency
and a glass skyscraper (Fig. 9) in 1922. Because of his
contribution to the subject, it is noteworthy and possibly
odd that he is not mentioned in the book of Rowe &
Slutsky. The fluent and infinite concept of the floor plans
heavily contributed to the topic. The absence of internal
separation and the dematerialization of the façade can be
considered as a predecessor of phenomenal transparency.
Mies was influenced by the ideas of the art movement ‘De
Stijl’, which were introduced to the Bauhaus by Theo van
Doesburg who visited Weimar in 1922.
Van Doesburg, also absent in Rowes writings, made several
axonometric drawings (Fig. 1) which proved to be important
for architecture, due to their open, transparent and spatial
concepts. In 1924, Van Doesburg’s new architecture was
explained in the essay Tot een beeldende architectuur (1924),
which called for a replacement of the traditional closed
volumes by open and transparent architecture. The plea for
8
transparency by Van Doesburg was circumscribed as “The
new architecture breaks through the wall and thus nullified
the separation of inside and outside. ... This creates a new,
open floor plan, totally different from the classic, as the
inside and outside spaces interpenetrate” Again it was an
9
attempt to break classicist rules in architecture and innovate
with culture. Except this time it came from a background of
the expressive arts instead of literature as Paul Scheerbart
did in his ‘Glasarchitektur.’
Taut, van Doesburg and Gropius presented architecture with
new explorative ideas for transparency. New fundamental
discoveries reached their peak concerning ‘Glass
Architecture.’ The practice of these concepts consequently
led into new theoretical developments. Giedion realized the
theoretical developments were necessary to evolve the topic
to a higher level. Consequently, he published a new vision
of space and time in the 10th paragraph: “Space and time. -
The new architecture does not solely take space into account,
but also focuses on time as the accent of architecture. The
unity of time and space provides a completely new and
completely visual aspect the architectural appearance:
4-dimensional, time-spatial imagery aspects”. 10
Fig.6 National Library, Paris, Hardy La Brouste, (1868)
028
Durchdringung and the Space-Time-concept
The German term ‘Durchdringung’, literally meaning
‘interpenetration’, originates from Hungarian painter and
photographer László Moholy-Nagy. His theoretical work
Von Material zu Architektur (1929) had a major influence
on new transparent space-concepts, and more precisely on
the concept of Durchdringung. Giedion used Moholy-
Nagy’s Durchdringung as a key expression to describe the
qualities of the ‘new architecture’ and did these in different
connotations, of which the most important would be the
description of spatial configurations. Some examples would
be spaces that are created by the penetration of volumes by
smaller ones, the spatial effects caused by partial absence
of floor parts, and the fading of interior and exterior by
the use of transparent walls. In Architecture and Modernity
Heynen describes Giedion’s fascination which “arose from
the sensation of motion and from the experience of an
intermingling of spaces. … Exterior and interior spaces
are as a result constantly related to each other, to such an
extent that in the end one cannot make any clear distinction
between the two. This new kind of spatial experience
is fundamental in the ‘New Building’ … For Giedion,
Durchdringung thus refers to an essential characteristic
of the new architecture: its capacity to interrelate different
aspects of space with one another.” 11
Giedion used the theory of Durchdringung to explain
the design of the Bauhaus building (Fig. 10). Here we
see that blocks are positioned close to each other and are
interrelated. Due to their subtle penetration, the boundaries
of the different volumes become obscured. As Giedion puts
it, “buildings were no longer visually rooted in the ground
but seemed to float above it while their different volumes
interpenetrate each other instead of being juxtaposed. Glass
was used because of its dematerializing property.” 12
The Space-Time-Concept was the subject of part VI of
his book Space, Time and Architecture (1941), generally
considered as the canon of modern architecture. The concept
can be describes as “the idea that modern architecture is the
embodiment of a new space-time continuum. A conception
Fig.7 Fagus Fabrik, Alfeld an der Leine, Walter Gropius, (1911)
in which space and time are no longer seen as independent
dimensions, but as interrelated phenomena. The new space
concept entails, according to Giedion yet unseen way for
time as the fourth dimension expression. The experience
evoked by this architecture has a ‘time-spatial’ character:
it is not determined by the static qualities of a fixed
space, but by the uninterrupted interplay of simultaneous
experiences of varying spatial qualities, experiences
that, traditionally speaking, could only be perceived one
after the other. Modern architecture is characterized by
simultaneity, dynamism, transparency, versatility, a game
of liquefaction and suggestive movement. “ 13
For Giedion
this new concept was the most typical feature of the ‘new
architecture’. It was the product of technical and artistic
discoveries. “Space-time was a new vision of space that was
not based on perspective, that emphasized simultaneity
(the depiction of an object from different viewpoints at the
same time), and that also stressed dynamics, focusing on
the movement of objects and attempting it in painting.” 14
These features were brought together with a plentiful of
glass - a material that according to Giedion was primarily
15
used because of its dematerializing qualities and which had
the effect of making interior and exterior spaces appear to
interpenetrate, creating the sense of a movement in space
that seems to be frozen.
Durchdringung interprets transparency as an
interpenetration of volumes and the visual connection
of interior and exterior. The Space-Time-Concept
considers transparency as the continuity of the experience
of the buildings spatial composition which allows an
intermingling conception of internal and external spaces.
These two themes where the motive for Rowe and Slutzky
to make an explorative translation. They interpreted the
concepts and evolved them into the literal and phenomenal
transparency. The dynamics of the building are described as
follows: “The eye cannot see this building complex in one
view, it is necessary to go around the building to view all
sides. ... This gives the same impression as the glass staircase
in the exhibition building by Gropius from 1914: it suggests
a movement in space that is seized and put down. “ 16
Public building types: The library
Layers of Transparency
Literal and Phenomenal Transparancy
Colin Rowe and Robert Slutzky covered the theory of
Transparency in his essay Transparency - Literary and
phenomenal. Rowe was an architectural historian, critic and
theoretician; Slutsky was a painter and art teacher. Their
approach to transparency seems to be heavily influenced
by Sigfried Giedion’s Space-time concept. Rowe and
Slutzky tested new methods for teaching and developing
architectural design skills. Through their exploration of
the common basis of modern art and architecture they
identified and elaborated on the concept of transparency
as a fundamental principle of spatial organization, beyond
the curtain wall. Their essay provided the theoretical and
didactical fundament, exemplified and illustrated by Le
Corbusier’s villa in Garches and Walter Gropius’ Bauhaus
in Dessau.
Rowe and Slutzky establish a basic distinction in the
transparency phenomenon: “Transparency may be an
inherent quality of substance, as in a glass curtain wall; or it
may be an inherent quality of organization. For this reason,
one can distinguish between a literal and a phenomenal
transparency.” 17
Their feeling is that literal transparency
seems to derive from two sources whereas phenomenal can
be designated to one specific source: “from cubist painting
and from what is usually designated as the machine
aesthetic. Phenomenal transparency probably derives from
cubist painting alone; and a cubist canvas of around 1911 or
1912 would serve to illustrate the presence of both orders,
or levels, of the transparent.” 18
Rowe does not define the two kinds of transparency, but
after analyzing several cubist paintings he acknowledges
and describes the difference between the two terms: “Literal
transparency tends to be associated with the trompe d’oeil
effect of a translucent object in a deep, naturalistic space.
Phenomenal transparency seems to be found when objects
are frontally displayed in a shallow, abstracted space.” 19
In plain words, literal transparency refers to translucent
properties of materials like glass, the condition of non-
opaqueness, while phenomenal transparency is the result of
Fig.8 Glaspavillon, Cologne, Bruno Taut, (1914)
Essays
spatial ordering. It occurs at the simultaneous perception
of different spatial locations within the same space, like in
an optical illusion. Just as in Cubist paintings, the observer
defines what is to be seen.
In general, architectural critics usually exclusively associate
transparency with transparency of materials. Rowe
argues that literal transparency can easily be applied in
architecture, but that phenomenal transparency is harder
to achieve. According to Rowe the Bauhaus, his example
for literal transparency, contains a succession of spaces but
lacks a contradiction of spatial dimensions. He derived the
literal transparency from their believes but he is confident
transparency doesn’t end here: “He may enjoy the situation of
looking through a glass wall and thus perhaps be able to see
the exterior and the interior of the building simultaneously,
but in doing so he will be conscious of few of those equivocal
sensations which derive from phenomenal transparency.” 20
Therefore Rowe has sought to find the spatial milieu in
which phenomenal transparency becomes possible. To
define this milieu he makes an analysis of Le Corbusier’s
entry for the competition for the Palace of the League
of Nations in Geneva in 1927. To experience the layers
of phenomenal transparency the observer has to make a
‘promenade architecturale’ through the complex. “These
stratifications, devices by means of which spaces become
constructed, substantial, and articulate, are the essence of
that phenomenal transparency which has been noticed as
characteristic of the central postcubic tradition. They have
never been noticed as characteristics of the Bauhaus, which
obviously manifests a completely different conception of
space.” 21
In general transparency arises wherever there are locations
in space which can be assigned to two or more systems of
reference: “In the League of Nations project Le Corbusier
provides the observer with series of quite specific locations:
in the Bauhaus he is without such points of reference”. 22
But the conception of this concept can be interpreted in
several manners as Rowe concluded in his analysis of the
Fig.9 Glas Hochhaus, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, (1921) Fig.10 Bauhaus, Dessau, Walter Gropius, (1927)
buildings of Le Corbusier and Gropius. Gropius exploits
the translucent properties of glass (literal), where Le
Corbusier’s transparency is about the planar qualities of
glass (phenomenal).
Bernard Hoesli reacted by writing a more concrete
commentary in 1968 on the subject. He describes it as a
twin concept of actual and apparent transparency, which
distinguishes between ‘essence’ and ‘appearance’ and refers to
the relationship between content and form in architecture.
He is able to elaborate on literal and phenomenal
transparency by analyzing and comparing historic designs
like Hadrian’s Villa and buildings by Alberti, Palladio and
Michelangelo, with more contemporary examples by Frank
Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe. As Mies is
omitted in Rowe’s essay, Hoesli’s remarks on Mies’ concept of
fluid space are interesting: “The reduction of space-defining
elements on freestanding walls and the dissolving of spatial
borders between interior and exterior space encourage
literal transparency. Transparency in the figurative, also
phenomenal, sense is impossible in the space between the
floor and ceiling slab as it would be in a Moholy Nagy
painting, where partially transparent formal elements hover
in a continuous space, dividing and activating it, but where the
spatial relationships nevertheless remain clearly readable. “ 23
In his final conclusion Hoesli comments on developments
in architecture that happen after Rowe’s text was written:
“Between 1950 and 1965 a threshold was crossed. Since then
it seems hardly possible to hold fast to an idea of continuous
linear tradition in the architecture of the 20th century. The
examination of the concept of transparency in architecture
belongs to the numerous symptoms announcing the end of
‘Modern Architecture’.” 24
The discussion concerning transparency was erected due
to the utopian plans of Paul Scheerbart. He inspired
architects like Taut, Gropius and Mies to elaborate on the
topic and apply this theme in their buildings. Giedion,
and later Rowe and Slutzky, felt the urge to found the
architects innovative findings in new architectural theory
029
Layers of Transparency Layers of Transparency

to inspire new architectural developments and realize
cultural changes. Colin Rowe reacted upon Giedion and
finally summarizes the development of transparency in
the 20 century in two basic principles called Literal and
th
Phenomenal transparency, in his work ‘Transparency.’ In
doing so strongly referring to the principal ideas of Sigfried
Giedion described in Space, Time and Architecture. Now, 50
years after these developments, we are still referring to and
building upon these same principles.
Social and Cultural Context of Transparency
According to Heynen, Durchdringung has more meanings
associated with the word and as a result a relation is created
between the new concept and the social environment:
“Durchdringung stands for the weakening of hierarchical
models on all levels – social as well as architectural.
Architecture is no longer concerned with representative
façade; instead, its aim is to design new relationships based
on structural logic.” 25
Giedion states that there is a gap between thought
and feeling in the present state of culture that can be
overcome: “Giedion sees the possibility of a synthesis in the
development of a new awareness of time and space. A new
sense of space and time prevails in contemporary architecture
and in painting just as much as in science.” 26 He further
argues that the impulse for transparency in architecture was
derived from both new technical progression in materials
and from a consciousness of social responsibility.
Hilde Heijnen continues with Giedion’s notion of ‘modern
architecture’ in her book ‘Architecture and modernity’ and
provides a social and cultural context. The book discusses the
relationship between modernity, dwelling and architecture.
that modernity is determined by the opposition between
capitalist civilization and its cultural, modernist counterpart.
“The discussion of modernity is inseparably bound up with
this problem of the relation between capitalist civilization
and modernist culture. … Architecture operates in both
realms: it is a cultural activity, but it can be realized only
within the world of power and money.” 28
The contradiction between capitalism and culture plays a
role in the founding of the two libraries that were subjected
to our analyses. The Viipuri Library was created as a public
institution that was accessible to everyone. Obviously the
intention was the emancipation of the citizens, which
originated from the socialist ideal of exaltation of the
population. Yale University is a private institution and may
be regarded as the capitalist counterpart. The Beinecke
Library is founded to manage a large collection of rare
books and manuscripts. The building is not open to the
public, only students and university employees have access
to the collection.
The social aspects of transparency in architecture are
explored by Walter Benjamin in the 30s of the 20th century.
“Benjamin was convinced that this architecture of steel
and glass fulfills the promises that are inherent in modern
society, because it is an authentic expression of the ‘poverty’
that is typical of this civilization, thus foreshadowing the
realization of a transparent and classless society.” 29
‘Transparency’ in Aalto’s Viipuri Library and
Bunshaft’s Beinecke Library
The spatial concept of Aalto’s Viipuri library (Fig. 11) is
related to Giedion’s notion of Durchdringung, as the
design is a composition of interpenetrating volumes
of the Space-Time-Concept. The large glass surfaces that devices, and therefore books will be replaced by computer
surround the stairs in the entrance hall are clear examples screens in the near future. It is obvious that this compelling
of Rowe’s literal transparency, while the phenomenal development induces a radical change in the present
transparency does not occur in Aalto’s design. development of the library topology.
In Bunshaft’s Beinecke Library (Fig. 12) the literal
transparency is only present at the level where the building
is accessed from the Plaza. It is obvious that the amount
of literal transparency in the storage areas is kept low in
order to protect the precious book collection against the
damaging effects of UV light. Some characteristics of
phenomenal transparency are assignable to the Beinecke
Library. First, the routing from the public space towards the
core of the function lead the visitor by a forced movement
through the various spaces of the building. While entering 1 The New Oxford American Dictionary
the building the visitor can simultaneously experience 2 Sennett (1992), p. 108.
the perception of different spatial locations, though these 3 Rowe & Slutzky (1997)
belong to the same space defined by the main volume. 4 Giedeon (1977), p. 237
Second, the building is designed as a box in a box in a box, 5 Giedeon (1977), p. 435
creating different transparent layers which can be perceived 6 Giedeon (1977), p. 436
7 Scheerbart (1914), 1st paragraph Fig.11 Viipuri Library, Vyborg, Alvar Aalto (1930)
at different spatial levels.
8 Heynen (2009), p. 138
9 Heynen (2009), p. 138
10 Heynen (2009), p. 138
Conclusion
11 Heynen (1999), pp. 31-34
The notion of transparency is extensively researched by
12 Giedion (1954), p. 362
theoreticians like Giedion and Slutsky. The formerly
13 Heynen (2009), p.258
introduced concepts ‘Durchdringung’ and ‘Space-Time’,
14 Heynen (1999) pp. 39-40
are used by the latter to define two more or less similar 15 Heynen (1999) p.40
expressions. Slutsky’s Literal transparency is a kind of an 16 Giedion (1954), p.362
anology of the visual aspects of Giedion’s ‘Durchdringung’, 17 Rowe (1997), p. 23
and Slutsky’s phenomenal transparency is strongly related 18 Rowe (1997), p. 24
to Giedion’s Space-Time-Concept. Both authors used the 19 Rowe (1997), p. 32
same examples to explain their ideas: The cubist paintings, 20 Rowe (1997), p. 43
Gropius’ Bauhaus building and Le Corbusier’s design for 21 Rowe (1997), p. 52
the Palace for the League of Nations. As Giedion wrote 22 Rowe (1997), p. 52-53 (Commentary by Hoesli)

The subject is approached from the perspective of critical instead of volumes that are simply juxtaposed. Also the fact his book 15 years before Slutsky, it’s evident that Giedion is 23 Rowe (1997), p. 71 (Commentary by Hoesli)

theory (Frankfurt School) and it modifies positions within
critical theory by linking them with architecture. First she
provides a definition: “Modernity is what gives the present
the specific quality that makes it different from the past and
points the way towards the future.” 27 She further argues
that he manages to make individual spaces which are an
intermingling experience and confuse the visitor about its
position in the system of the building, add to the notion of
durchdringung. To a lesser extent the floating effect of the
building not rooted to the ground, one of the characteristics
24 Rowe (1997), p. 83 (Commentary by Hoesli)
the key player in the architectural discourse of transparency.
25 Heynen (1999), p.35
The typology of libraries has evolved over centuries and
26 Heynen (1999), p.39
thousands of libraries are built all over the world according
27 Heynen (1999), p. 9
to this type. However, due to technical changes, knowledge
28 Heynen (1999), p. 11
is no longer printed on paper but stored on digital memory
29 Heynen (1999), p. 96 Fig.12 The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, New Haven, Gordon Bunshaft (1960)

1848 Cast plate glass

1857 Modern Float glass process
1858 Modern Steel making
1864 First Glass Curtainwall
Technology

1928 Bauen in Frankreich, Sigfried Gideon

1924 Tot
een beeldende architectuur, Theo van Doesburg
1919 Alpine Architektur, Bruno Taut 1964 Transparency, Literal and Phenomenal, Colin Rowe
1914 Glasarchitektur, Paul Scheerbart 1941 Space-Time and Architecture, Sigfried Gideon

ArchitecturalTheory

1927 Palais de Societé de Nation, Geneva

1851 Crystal Palace, London 1921 Glass Tower, Berlin(unrealised)

1848 Palm House, Kew 1914 Glass Pavilion, Cologne 1927 Bauhaus, Dessau
1786 Gallerie du Palais Royal, Paris 1840 Palm House, Belfast 1868 National Library, Paris 1911 Fagus Factory, Alfeld an der Leine 1930 Viipuri Library, Viipuri 1960 Beinecke Library, New Haven
1927 Villa Stein-de Monzie Garges
Buildings

1790 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

030 Public building types: The library Essays 031

 Literature

Books Figures
Giedion, S. (1954). Ruimte, Tijd en Bouwkunst. Amsterdam: Fig. 1 http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Theo_van_
Wereldbibliotheek. Doesburg_Architectuuranalyse.jpg

Heijnen, H. (1999). Architecture and Modernity. Cambridge, Fig. 2 http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:Cirque_palais-

MA: MIT Press. royal_1788.jpg

Heijnen, H. , Loeckx, A., De Cauter, L. & Van Hercke, Fig. 3 http://photos.linternaute.com/photo/1389286/

K. (2009). Dat is architectuur. Sleutelteksten uit de twintigste
eeuw. Rotterdam: Uitgeverij 010.
Oxford Corpus (2008). The New Oxford American Dictionary,
second edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rowe, C. & Slutsky, R (1997). Transparency: Literal and
Phenomenal. Basel: Birkhäuser.
Scheerbart, P. (2005) Glasarchitectuur. Rotterdam: Uitgeverij
010.
1166909743/1936/verriere-du-passage-du-caire/
Fig. 4 http://theartofmemory.blogspot.nl/2008_09_01_
archive.html
Fig. 5 http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:Crystal_
Palace_Great_Exhibition_tree_1851.png
Fig. 6 http://blog.goo.ne.jp/gooogami/e/36a3f4bc3ec8ab
413b49e7b8e66bb42f
Fig. 7 http://archrecord.construction.com/inthecause/
onTheState/images/gropius1.jpg

Fig. 8 http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/bruno-taut?
before=1329242796

Fig. 9 http://www.deutsches-architektur-forum.de/
forum/showthread.php?t=2021

Fig. 10 https://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/AxHm-
949p2qQkf7qJediy9MTjNZETYmyPJy0liipFm0

Fig. 11 http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_AdSgFmn7lu0/
StueMAAEmvI/AAAAAAAAAB0/Qf4WXTa2Eg8/
s400/viipuri6.jpg

Fig. 12 http://ad009cdnb.archdaily.net/wp-content/
uploads/2010/06/1277331967-beinecke-7.jpg

032 Public building types: The library Essays 033

 03. Viipuri Library - Alvar Aalto
Beinecke Library - Gordon Bunshaft

Dave Al, Daniel Brorens, Guus Gielens, Bob L’Heminez, Ricardo Ploemen

424 Public building types: The library

Content
Viipuri Library,
Alvar Aalto
Typo-morphological analysis
Beinecke Library,
Gordon Bunshaft
Typo-morphological analysis
426
1. Project description 430
1.01 General information 430
1.02 Axonometric projection 431
1.03 Plans 432
1.04 Sections and elevations 433
2. Context 434
2.01 Situation 434
2.02 Plot structure 435
2.03 Morphology 436
2.04 Relation 437
2.05 Access 438
3. Exterior 439
3.01 Volume 439
3.02 Access 440
3.03 Threshold 441
3.04.3 Façade composition | Symmetry 442
3.04.4 Façade composition | Depth 443
3.04.5 Façade composition | Transparency 444
3.05 Façade materials 445
3.06 Ornaments 446
4. Interior 447
4.01.1 Routing axes 447
4.01.2 Routing 448
4.01.3 Public / Private 449
4.02 Logistics 450
4.03 Construction 451
4.04 Use of spaces 452
4.05 Types of spaces 453
4.06 Sequences of spaces | 2d 454
4.06 Sequences of spaces | 3d 456
4.06 Sequences of spaces | 3d 458
4.07 Threshold between spaces 460
4.08 Order of spaces 461
4.09 Spatial hierarchy 462
4.10.1 Daylight access 463
4.10.1 Reverbaration time 464
4.11 Interior elements 465
4.12 Architectonic details 467
5. Conclusive drawings 468
5.2 Organized along axes 468
5.3 Volumes and entrance hierarchy 469
5.4 ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’ 470
1. Project description 474
1.01 General information 474
1.02 Axonometric projection 475
1.03 Plans 476
1.04 Sections and elevations 478
2. Context 479
2.01 Situation 479
2.02 Plot structure 480
2.03 Morphology 481
2.04 Relation 482
2.05 Access 483
3. Exterior 484
3.01 Volume 485
3.02 Access 486
3.03.1 Distant threshold 488
3.03.2 Close threshold 489
3.04.1 Façade composition | Depth 490
3.04.2 Façade composition | Transparency 491
3.04.3 Façade composition | Repetition 492
3.04.4 Façade composition | Symmetry 493
3.04.5 Façade composition | Variation 494
3.05 Façade materials 495
3.06 Ornaments 496
3.07 Architectonic details 497
4. Interior 498
4.01 Logistics 498
4.02.2 Routing 500
4.02.3 Public / Private 502
4.03 Construction 504
4.04 Use of spaces 506
4.05 Types of spaces 508
4.06 Sequences of spaces | 2d 510
4.06 Sequences of spaces | 3d 512
4.07 Threshold between spaces 516
4.08 Order of spaces 518
4.09 Spatial hierarchy 520
4.10.1 Daylight access 522
4.10.2 Reverbaration time 524
4.11 Interior elements 526
4.12 Architectonic details 528
5. Conclusive drawings 530
5.1 Sequences 530
5.1 Sequences 532
5.1 Book typology 535
Literature Literature 537
427
 Viipuri Library, Alvar Aalto Typo-morphological analysis

428 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 429
1. Project description 1. Project description

1.01 General information 1.02 Axonometric projection

The Finish architect Alvar Aalto won the competition
for the Viipuri Library design in 1927 with a strongly
classical proposal. A delay in the design and building
process was caused by an economic recession. During
his design he had several different approaches due to
the changing architectural context. It was. at the time, a
transitional moment in architecture in establishing a new
architectural style, International Modernism. Eventually,
Aalto turned the building into a represention of this new
style International Modernism in 1933.
into a overall neglect and abandonment of the building.
It got stripped and reapolstried, in doing so losing it’s
original elegance and charm. Nowadays it is undergoing a
renovational process to reestablish this character.
As can be seen clearly in the axonometric drawing, the
library consists of two rectangular volumes, that gain
different architectural expressions and functions within the
total composition. The higher volume contains the reading
rooms and book storage, and has a strong introverted
character.

The library has undergone a varied history in which its

ownership and way of use drastically changed. The changes
of ownership were caused by the 2nd World War which
redevided the land and made Viipuri part of the Sovjet
Union instead of the former Finland. A differing political
system and adjoining public morals and values translated

Fig. 1 Lecture room

Fig. 2 Main entrance Fig. 3 Main library hall

430 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 431
1. Project description 1. Project description

1.03 Plans 1.04 Sections and elevations

Plan roof level | S 1:500 Section A-A’ | S 1:500 Section C-C’ | S 1:500

Section B-B’ | S 1:500

Northwest elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500 Southeast elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500

432 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 433
2. Context 2. Context

2.01 Situation 2.02 Plot structure

The Viipuri Library building is located in Vyborg, originally

located in eastern Finland, though as a result of World
War II the city was ceded to the Sovjet Union in 1944.
The library forms the main part of the park that makes a
swing in the grid structure. of the city. This park follows the
strong city grid and connects north and south. After WWII
the building was abandoned for a decade and nowadays the
building is being renovated gradually.

Baltic Sea
Viipuri Library

City plan | S 1:5000 Site plan | S 1:500

434 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 435
2. Context 2. Context

2.03 Morphology 2.04 Relation

The structure of the different components that are added The realtion map clearly shows the way Aalto decided to
to each other to create the urban pattern, is shown on this follow the present plot and street grid. The building was
page. For this purpose, a subdivision is made into ‘street placed in the existing park. The chosen position for the
pattern’, ‘site pattern’, and ‘building pattern’, of which the library building can be seen as an important one in the
street and site pattern both show clear orthogonal grid. urban context.
Aalto designed his building, as all other buildings, on these
city axes and in this way embeded it into the park and city For the building volume, it is assumable that Aalto directly
pattern. related the library to the neighbor church. The centrelines
and different radiuses intersect the library and church at
fixed positions; the entrance at the north façade refers to
center point of the church, whereas the main staircase and
elevator shaft - the heart of the library - refer to the main
church entrance.

Currently this relation vanished, since the curch has been

demolished in the period after WWII by the new Russian
‘owners’. Site pattern

Street pattern | S 1:10000

Site pattern | S 1:10000

City plan | S 1:5000 Building pattern | S 1:10000 Site plan | S 1:2000

436 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 437
2. Context 3. Exterior

2.05 Access 3.01 Volume

The building plot contains different directions of

approaching, due to organically organized routes through
the park. Consequently, different entrances were created by
Aalto.

Primary access
Secondary access

Site plan | S 1:500

438 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 439
3. Exterior 3. Exterior

3.02 Access 3.03 Threshold

Aalto designed four entrances, placed on every side of the Aalto clearly distinguishes between primary and secondary
building. The main entrance connects to the main spaces of entrances; not only programmatic but also architecturally.
the library, which are the entrance hall with wardrobe and They form the point of entering the building at which a
toilets, the lecture room on ground floor, and the reading and psychological effect begins to be produced; visitors are
lending rooms on higher floors. Two other public entrances guided through an entrance zone, instead of merely entering
connect to the children’s library and a book shop, which is another space trough a door.
placed alongside the street. A fourth entrance is considered
as a private entrance that connects to the administration While the children’s and main public entrance are both
rooms on the first floor, and is also used as a fire exit. aligned on the horizontal axis, they do not connect. Also
primary and secondary spaces and routing are clearly
For all entrances Aalto designed an in-between space seperated.
between outside and inside, to provide a smooth transition.
This will be explained in depth furtheron.
Hard threshold
Third threshold
Public entrance Second threshold
Private entrance First threshold

Cross section | S 1:500 Cross section | S 1:500

'CC 'CC

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500 Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500

440 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 441
3. Exterior 3. Exterior

3.04.3 Façade composition | Symmetry 3.04.4 Façade composition | Depth

The symmetrical elements of the facade seem to originate Due to the use of different volumes, Aalto created different
from the strong axes on which the building was designed. layers of surfaces. Consequently, the building looks very
First we can see that the lower rectilinear volume different when approached and viewed from different
programmatically and architecturally ends at the horizontal directions.
axis. From the outside the remaining space which
contains the staircase is seperated by making it completely The resulting depth of the building is clearly read by people
transparent. In this way the facade as we see in the upper that approach the building and enhances the different
elevation on the right is subtly arranged along with the entrances that are formed by the smallest volumes, though
different transparant surfaces. the nearest surface.

For the main volume of the library the boxes that are shifted
introduces a symmetry in the facade that is amplified by
attaching a ‘box-like’ entrance. Also in other direction there Closest plane
seems to be a hidden symmetry
Symmetry axis
The aforementiones symmetries have an equal ‘weight’ on Symmetry plane
both sides of the centrally placed axis. Exception Furthest plane

Northwest elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500 Northwest elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500

Southeast elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500 Southeast elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500

442 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 443
3. Exterior 3. Exterior

3.04.5 Façade composition | Transparency 3.05 Façade materials

The drawings below show the transparent elements in the The main material that is used in the facade is white plaster.
façade of the library. whereas Aalto designed no windows Covering almost all of the building surfaces, it strengthens
in the façade of the main library hall, the lecture room the approachers awareness of different materials. For
and children’s library were made extremely transparent to instance, the main entrance is cladded with natural stone
the outside. With a long glass wall in the lecture room, he and in this way gets more attention and a special character.
attemted to emphasize the link with the park. The windows The windows of the building are metal-framed and designed
in the children’s library are placed on such a height that as refined as possible.
both children and adults are not able to see the horizon
when looking through; they only show the surrounding sky.

As explained in subtopic 3.04.3, one of the walls of the

stairwell of the library was made almost entirely out of glass,
allowing transparency - in a literal way and concerning the
understanding of the design. Plaster (white)
Glass
Secondary transparent plane Steel
Primary transparent plane Natural stone

Northwest elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500 Northwest elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500

Southeast elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500 Southeast elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500

444 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 445
3. Exterior 4. Interior

3.06 Ornaments 4.01.1 Routing axes

If we consider ornament as a decoration that is added Aalto organized the library clearly along two orthogonal
to embellish something, the main entrance should be and perpendicular axes. The library hall program, which is
considered to be an ornament. It is cladded with natural divided by changes in level and curtains into a lending and
stone and in this way gets more attention and a special reading room, is organized around the intersection point of
character, though has no structural meaning. the axes, the pivot. The vertical service core links the spaces
internally and penetrates every level.
Another clear example of an ornament would be the
ventilation shafts that Aalto embeded in the composition Rotated around the pivot on those levels, Aalto designed
of the façade, placed alongside the main street. different routing areas that physically connect spaces. The
most obvious axis would be the space between the main
entrance and children’s labrary entrance.

Main routing space

Ornament Pivot

Northwest elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500

Southeast elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500 Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500

446 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 447
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.01.2 Routing 4.02.3 Public / Private

Aalto clearly distincts between primary and secondary Aalto made a clear disitinction between public and private
entrances; not only programmatic but also architecturally. characterized spaces. An important element that enables
While the children’s and main public entrance are both this seperation would be the central cylindrical axis, which
aligned on the north-south axis, they do not connect. Instead, is connected to both the book storage at basement level and
the main circulation path turns sharply west underneath the the main reading hall.
main book room and rises through a sunken reading well
into the skylit space. Also primary and secondary spaces The private rooms are only accessible for employees,
and routing are clearly seperated. whereas the public rooms are intended to be used only by
visitors. From the drawings below it becomes clear that he
used strong thresholds between both types of rooms.

Routing visitors Public area

Routing emloyees Private area

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500 Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500

448 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 449
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.02 Logistics 4.03 Construction

The axonometric drawing shows the three entrances The roof of the auditorium, with its span of 17.6 metres, is
through which books pass when being delivered or lended. of reinforced concrete and is supported by steel columns.
Internally, the aforementioned pivot with its stairs and A total of 57 roof windows of a diameter of 1.8 metres
elevator enebles the connection between book storage illuminate the labrary space. Each of these windows is a
and lending or reading room. The children’s library too is hollowed out concrete cone, on which a piece of unframed
connected to the storage room through a door that can only glass rests.
be used by employees.
The walls of the higher library wing are traditional 75-cm
solid brick wall. All floors are concrete slabs. Thanks to
massive carrying walls free spans are possible in the public
functions.

Distribution of books Structural elements

Longitudinal section | S 1:500

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500 Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500

450 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 451
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.04 Use of spaces 4.05 Types of spaces

The main hall of the library should be mentioned as the most The main hall of the library is clearly the most crucial part
crucial part of the building, to which different additional of the building, to which different additional spaces are
spaces are attached. This upper level of the main volume attached and interpenetrated. This upper level of the main
supports spaces for searching, reading and studying. The volume supports spaces for searching, reading and studying.
lower level is more dived into smaller areas with additional The lower level is more divided into smaller areas with
functions, such as storing and meeting. additional functions, such as storing and meeting.

The rectilinear volume that is attached to the main one,

gives room to administration at first level and listening,
Studying
meeting, storing, refreshing on the ground floor.
Meeting
Listening
Reading Hall
Storing Room
Administrating Corridor
Searching Hallway
Refreshing Closet

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500 Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500

452 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 453
4. Interior
4.06 Sequences of spaces | 2d
The strong interpenetration of the volumes and spaces has
a strong influence on the perception of it. The approach
of the building is already dividing the different streams of
visitors. To make a more abstracted way of the conception
of the surrounding space the following drawing was made.
It consists of the sequence of the sightlines in sections while
approaching the final destination(a room or function in the
building). Several different characteristics can be analysed
in this graph such as: the space in relation to a person, the
time of every section, the time to reach the destination,
the sequence of scales of spaces etc. All these aspects are
important characteristics in buildings but hard to combine
in a single drawing. But when combined they give a quick
overview of the atmosphere of approach.
Sections | S 1:1000
454
The urban approach is through a residential area along to a
public parc.
The second fase is still through a high residential area,
The third is through a large public parc. The tranquility of
this space suits the final destination and is an addition to
the atmosphere of the building.
Fourth, the first decisive moment in the routing to approach
the building. Either one goes towards the childrens library,
the adult library or the shop.
Childrens Library
Five, through a public and open parc
Six the physical entry, means total enclosure.
Seven, one passes through a somewhat larger space.
Eight, Full overview of the end function and decision
moment to go either to the lending library or the reading
room.
Reading room,
Nine, the reading room, which offers outward views
Lending library
Nine, the lending library, which offers outward views.
Shop:
Five, one passes a public and open parc
Six, A sluice to enter the building
Seven, The function has been reached and also delivers
outward views.
Adult library
Five, six, and seven, by passing through a parc and moving
up slightly one remains views over the building and starts
approaching.
Eight, the pathway narrows down and allows the penetration
of the façade.
Public building types: The library
Nine, decision to go either to the Lending and Reading
rooms or the lecture hall. (while remaining outward views)
Lecture Hall
Ten, passing a normal internally focussed corridor.
Eleven, The lecture hall has been reached and outward
views remain possible.
Lending and Reading rooms(a closed circuit)
Ten, small and narrow stairs going upward.
Eleven, corridor offers either lending or reading room
entrance.
Reading room
Twelce, the reading room opens up and shows a large scale
space.
Thirteen, upward stairs offer possibility to go to Lending
library
03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library
Lending library
Twelve, narrow corridor withour outward views.
Thirteen, upward narrow steairs connects with inbetween
floor.
Fourteen, in between floor which offers views over entire
space.
Fifteen upward stairs allow to connection with the lending
library.
Overall it is hard to define individual volumes in the
continuous space. For additional conclusional remarks, in
the conclusional chapter the Viipuri and Beinecke library
are compared.
455
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.06 Sequences of spaces | 3d

456 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 457
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.06 Sequences of spaces | 3d

458 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 459
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.07 Threshold between spaces 4.08 Order of spaces

Aalto designed the building entrances in such a way that The section through the main library space shows that The library has a repetition grid structure (A), on the second
visitors are guided through an entrance zone, instead of different levels with different purposes float into each other floor is this different. The walls of the smaller rooms diverge
merely entering another space trough a door. In this way the and form a smooth transition between spaces. from this grid, a rhythm arises. On the first floor the big
choreography of different rooms should be considered as a volume is divided in two exactly the same surfaces, with the
continuous journey. Furthermore, since he interpenetrated main staircases as center point.
different volumes instead of creating an excessive
agglomeration, smooth transition zone are created in a
natural way. The clearest example would be the transition
between entrance hall, wardrobe and lecture room.

Although the staircase to the administartion offices

should be considered as a hard transition zone, it is made
transparent both when approaching form the outside as
when entering the entrance hall. When standing in the A
entrance hall, visitor will instinctively proceed to enter the Smooth transition zone D
main library hall by going up the stairs, due to its strong Hard transition zone C
inviting character. Hard threshold E

Longitudinal section | S 1:500

AA'

A C

A D

A C

A D

A C

A D

A
C

A
D
A
E
A

A A

A A

A A

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500 Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500

460 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 461
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.09 Spatial hierarchy 4.10.1 Daylight access

Aalto made a clear distinction between served rooms and Natural lightning is an important concern when desiging and bright spaces; e.g. the transition between the entrance
serving rooms. The axes mentioned in the routing analysis libraries. Allowing only indirect illumination ensures that area and the lecture room.
are also recognizable in the way of served rooms and serving the library books are not damaged and visitors are not
rooms. The hybrid space on the second level functions more disturbed when reading and studying. The lightning of the
or less as an inbetween and in this way gets an ambiguous library space seem to be awkward in the finnish climate.
character. In this room books are stored, but there are also Consequently, the daylight access in the main library space
tables where people can read a book. was designed in such a way, by using conal penetrations, that
disperse the light, that shadowless and diffused illuminiaton
was provided for the readers. A total of 57 roof windows of
a diameter of 1.8 metres illuminate the labrary space.

The large windows in the upper parts of the childrens

library’s walls let in daylight, but provide no direct view
to the exterior surroundings. In this way it has only an
Served rooms illumination purpose. Direct daylight access
Hybrid space Indirect daylight access
Serving rooms The flow through the building is also led by contrasting dark No daylight access

Section A-A’ | S 1:500 Plan roof level | S 1:500

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500 Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500

462 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 463
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.10.1 Reverbaration time and cladding 4.11 Interior elements

To determine the reverb time in the different rooms of the
library, we used the formula that was introduced by Wallace
Clement Sabine: T60 = V / 6A. When taking into account
the reverb time within the most essential spaces of the
library, it can be said that spaces for presentation purposes
were made less reverbarent compared to spaces for reading
and studying.
Since the reading room is in general a quit room, Aalto
did not directly consider the accoustics of this room. Own
calculations showed us that the reverberation time is about
two to three seconds.
discussions, established by a curved acoustic ceiling that was Interesting and characteristic for Aalto’s architecture is that
made out of narrow strips of pine wood. This ceiling enables he not only designed the building, though also designed
a reverb time in the room of half a second to one second. the furniture in a detailed way. The used wood was not only
From the floor behind the speaker, the pine wood strips suitable for production in big numbers, though at the same
sweep upward and continue to curve in an irrational way time pleasing to touch.
along the glass wall.
In his design for the lecture room, Aalto placed armchairs
(1) in the front of the room and tree-legged stools (3) to
the rear. This encouraged people to sit as near the front as
possible.

Opposed to this room, the lecture room is an excellent

example of how to deal with acoustics within a space 0.5 - 1.0 sec.
that refers to its use. In the long, rectangular lecture room 1.0 - 2.0 sec. Temporary furniture
Aalto created an acoustically perfect space for lectures and 2.0 - 3.0 sec. Permanent furniture

Longitudinal section| S 1:500

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500 Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level 2 | S 1:500

464 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 465
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.12 Architectonic details

The different rooms of library know are characterized by

a variety of their detailed finish. Examples for this are
the frame-like structure to open the entrance doors, the
moulded wooden handrail along the stairs, the acoustic
wooden ceiling in the lecture room, and the circular roof
windows in the reading room. In the drawing below the
moulded handrail and its precisely detailed section are
shown.

4 2

2
3

466 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 467
5. Conclusive drawings 5. Conclusive drawings

5.1 Organized along axes 5.2 Volumes and entrance hierarchy

Aalto organized the library clearly along two orthogonal
and perpendicular axes. The library hall program, which is
divided by changes in level and curtains into a lending and
reading room, is organized around the intersection point of
the axes, the pivot. The vertical service core links the spaces
internally and penetrates every level.
An interesting way of designing is how Aalto not just
combined different rooms into one building, ‘excessive
agglomeration’, though uses volumes which are penetrated
in such a way that different spaces are created, ‘informed
simplicity’. In this way, Aalto created a fluidity of the
building’s spaces. The different parts penetrate one another
as volumes of different sizes and heights, and the internal
the major mass to the south, yet both are linked by a shared
axis of circulation.
While the children’s entrance and the main public entrance
are both aligned on this north-south axis, they do not
connect. Instead, the main circulation path turns sharply
west underneath the main book room and rises through a
sunken reading well into the skylit space. The vertical axis 5

spaces open both vertically and horizontally in a clear way. of the service core links the spaces internally; wrapping
around a book elevator, it penetrates every level. At the top
The massing distinguishes two functions. One is the of this core is the control desk for the main reading space;
main reading room and circulating book rooms which are the base of the core serves the basement stack area. 1 2
elevated in a stepped windowless block above the children’s
library; the second is the rectilinear block of lecture room 12
and administrative offices. The latter surmounts a besement
7 8 9 10 11
stack area that feeds the adjacent library rooms.

6
This low, northern block is distinctly offset to the west from

3 4

Excessive agglomeration
12 elements required to create 12 spaces

1 2

12

7 8 9 10 11

3 4

Informed simplicity
Durchdringung (interpenetration) Entrance hierarchy
4 elements combined to create 12 spaces

468 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 469
5. Conclusive drawings

5.3 ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’

A strong characteristic of this particular design by Aalto is

the way he designed it. Since he considered all present scale
levels to be important in his design; he basically oversaw the
building’s totality and made a ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’ out of it.
As shown on the left, four different levels were used: urban
structure, building mass, interior elements, and furnishing.
In this way Aalto additionally shows his ability to fit the
building in its context and his craftmanship skills.

Landscape Building mass

Interior elements Furnishing

470 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 471
 Beinecke Library, Gordon Bunshaft Typo-morphological analysis

472 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 473
1. Project description
1.01 General information
In the centre of the Yale university campus(New Haven,
Connecticut) a rare book and manuscript library is
located called The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript
Library(1963). The building was designed by Gordon
Bunshaft who at the time was partner at Skidmore,
Owings and Merrill. With a total of 11.637m2 it is the
largest University rare book library in Northern America
and attracts annually more than 50,000 visitors.
The design and built process was capricious to say the least.
The intention of the client, advised by the Dean of the
Yale School of Architecture Paul Rudolph, was to host a
invited design competition. Four firms were selected and
approached, Eero Saarinen, Ed Stone, an unknown office
and the office of Gordon Bunshaft. But Gordon Bunshaft
refused to participate, as can be read in an interview by Betty
J. Blum in 1989. He strongly believed it was not the way to
Fig. 4 Lecture room
Fig. 5 Lecture room
Fig. 6 Exterior view
474
produce good buildings. “you’re given a two- or three-page
program of what the building is to be, and from that, without
talking to any of the people who are going to use it, you produce
a solution” (Blum, B.J. 1989, Gordon Bunshaft interviewed.
p2.) He was highly unfavorable over this in contextual
approach for the neglect of the users. The buildings winning
preliminary design would then be altered after interviewing
the users. Simply because the architect would realize it
wouldn’t work. These alterations make the ultimate design
a compromise and this, he believes, is not the ideal way of
producing architecture. This extensive argumentation upset
Paul Rudolph. Consequently Gordon Bunshaft consulted
the Provost of the university who after asking the Beinecke
brothers reassigned the project to Bushaft.
In the design the love for books is expressed by realizing a
exposition type of library, a treasure house. The client loved
Fig. 7 Library interior, book tower
1. Project description
1.02 Axonometric projection
his ideas and doubled the total initial investment of four The axonometric shows the visible parts of the building in
million dollars. His attention to detail is clearly shown in the urban context. Its volume, the patio, and the Plaza as its
his hunt for the ideal material. A process that took about architectonic expressive elements.
two years in total, a tedious process with countless setbacks.
In the end thin marble was the chosen material. He wasn’t
completely satisfied with the eventual result because of the
cold and severe atmosphere it radiates. But he also finds
this an intriguing aspect due to the contrasting interior
and exterior. The realized great space is dramatic and evoke
emotion and that is one of his greatest accomplishments.
“it’s going to be there a long time. I don’t know if that means
it’s great, but in the long haul a building becomes important by
the judgment of future generations.” (Blum, B.J. 1989, Gordon
Bunshaft interviewed. p2.)
Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 475
1. Project description 1. Project description

1.03 Plans

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

476 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 477
1. Project description 2. Context

1.04 Sections and elevations 2.01 Situation

The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library(1963)

is incorporated in the University campus of the Yale
University. Yale University(1701) is located in New Haven
Connecticut where it was moved to in 1716. In the map
shown, the total impact of the campus to the city is clearly
visible. The city centre consist mainly of Yale campus
buildings.

The library is located in the part ‘Cross Campus’ ans is

surrounded with solely university campus buildings to
the Woolsey Hall, Memorial Hall, the university Dinning
Hall(Commons), and Woodbridge Hall all erected between
1901 and 1902. Across the street we find the Sprague Hall,
Harkness Hall, Berkeley College North, Sterling Memorial
Library and Law school.

Cross section | S 1:500

Southeast elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500

Nortwest elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500 S 1:5000

478 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 479
2. Context 2. Context

2.02 Plot structure 2.03 Morphology

The form and scale of the building differ but relate to the The morphological composition is composed out of three are visible.
context. There is a strong diversity in scales, heights and layers: the street pattern, the site pattern, and the building
shapes present in the surroundings. Due to varity of the pattern. All these layers have a strong correlation and are The library is placed in an openness on the inside of a
surrounding the building cannot be considered an exception stongly dependent. building block(composed of three sites). The building is
nor strongly related. placed on a square surrounded by high buildings.
The street pattern surrounding the library is on a pivot point
The relationship concerning the specific site is more in the fabric of the city. A rotation in the city Grid structure
precisely implemented. There is a strong relation between is found near the building.
the scale of the square, the building and it’s surrounding. The
shape of the building is strongly rectinlinear and therefore The site pattern is closely related to the street pattern.
referring to the urban Grid structure. The surrounding Both can be considered each others consequence. The site
buildings follow the same rule but with minor exceptions structure can, in this case, be considered as the inverse of
or ornamental additions. the street pattern.

On the other hand the building pattern is executed in

different ways in the city. Some are building blocks, some
are placed individually and lots of open public spaces(parcs)

Street pattern | S 1:10000

Site pattern | S 1:10000

City plan | S 1:5000 City plan | S 1:2000 Morphology plan | S 1:5000 Building pattern | S 1:10000

480 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 481
2. Context
2.04 Relation
When zoomed in on the surrounding site the relation
between the morphology and the plotstructure becomes
clearer. The basic shape of the building looks derived from
the urban Grid structure. The visible and physical position
of the building is placed on a plaza surrounded by large
structures.
The façade of the building is setback from typical alignment
of the city. This allows for a subtle approach and an
additional layer. This additional layer is the border of the
plaza which divides the space into two public spaces, the
street with a boardwalk and the plaza.
City plan | S 1:2000
482
Public building types: The library
2. Context
2.05 Access
The purpose of the building is to serve as a center of research stop here, the spatial layout of the building is based on
for students, faculty, and other scholars(Yale-affiliated layering, the architect added borders inside the building
of not). Therefore the building is semi-private and has of urban proportion and therefore more entrances can be
a consequent routing. The primary access of the building assigned.
can be considered to be the only public entrance. There are
several more doors present but these all serve a different
purpose, emergency exits. There is a second entrance present
but that is an underground connection with the Sterling
Library which is accross the street. This entrance can not be
considered public.
But this building has a gradual approach and therefore a
broader conception of the concept entrance. Therefore we
believe you enter the building in the urban space instead
of the revolting door. First one walks the street, second one
enters the plaza, third one passes inbetween the border and Primary access
the patio and fourth is the acctual entrance. But it doesn’t Emergency exits
Site plan | S 1:500
03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 483
 3. Exterior

3.01 Volume

484 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 485
3. Exterior 3. Exterior

3.02 Access

As mentioned before the conception of the entrance is

broader than a specific door. This drawing shows the internal
entrancesof the building and possibility to penetrate all
layers. The first border is marginal, three stairs, the second
border is a tighting of space. The third border is passing
underneath a massive volume. The fourth border is a solid
revolting door which penetrates a transparant layer and
then we arrive ‘inside.’ From here on one penetrates either
the floor, the transparant tower, or the floating volume.

Access other floors

Access booktower
Access Glass structure/building
Access volume
Access plot area

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

486 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 487
3. Exterior 3. Exterior

3.03.1 Distant threshold 3.03.2 Close threshold

The building knows two clearly different threshold. Both
depend strongly on the distant of which the building is
observed at. From a distance the floating volume can be
considered as a very strong border, it is not inviting to
say the least. Also the other borders applied are marginal
considering as an urban context.
When one has approached the building, the massive floating
volume seems to cultivate the precious books inside and it
makes it more inviting. Therefore the hard urban threshold
evolves in a smooth one. Now the revolting door becomes
the new hard threshold because of its closed character. The
massive appearance is a strong sluice to filter the passing
visitors.

Smooth thershold Smooth threshold

Hard threshold Hard threshold

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 0 | S 1:500

488 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 489
3. Exterior 3. Exterior

3.04.1 Façade composition | Depth 3.04.2 Façade composition | Transparency

At first glance the marble and granite volume are the only The literal transparency of the façade is composed out of two
visible elements of the façade. These are closest to the viewer layers, a transparant and a translucent one. The transparant
and contain a subtle relief. Carrying this hard border are two layer is used to float the massive volume floating above the
consequtive columns. Behind this hard layer the transparant plaza and still keep trespassers away and climatic conditions
layer is to be found. Held up with small collumns and a optimal. The setback of this layer preserves the rare books
revolting door in its center. Then the furthest layer is the because direct sunlight is unable to penetrate.
plaza surrounding border.
The translucent layer is more ambiguous in its function.
Both the massive appearance as the lighting properties are
utilized. As commonly known the lighting properties for
libraries have to meet high standards. Therefore Bunshaft
manages to filter out the damaging UV-light by the
translucency of the material. This contrasting interior and
Closest plane exterior appearance makes for an interesting and emotion
evoking journey.
Secondary transparent plane
Furthest plane Primary translucent plane

Southeast elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500 Southeast elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500

Nortwest elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500 Nortwest elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500

490 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 491
3. Exterior 3. Exterior

3.04.3 Façade composition | Repetition 3.04.4 Façade composition | Symmetry

The façade is highly repetitive on all sides. It is interesting
to see how the repetition can be percieved in different ways.
Considering the entire façade it is obvious how the architect
framed all translucent sheets. The massive block is than
capped with and resting on a massive slab which finishes
this volume. On the corners large columns are found to
support the previous layer. Then setback, the transparant
façade with a repetitive column structure is found. This
typical composition is found identical on all four sides of
the building.
to recognise the individual element. The granite spatial As already explained the four sides of the building are
shape which, when put together, forms the entire façade identical(except the amount of horizontal repetition). Due
and allows the infills. to the repetitiveness of the façade it is also completely
symmetrical over a vertical axes. But in the urban situation it
The composition of the façade can also be read as the is even symmetrical over two axis, both vertical as horizontal
collection of a four legged star. Which in itselves is also considering the transparant layer will not be percieved.
constructed out of four individual granite elements.

If we zoom in on the individual elements which define the

composition of the massive volumes we believe different Quartairy repetitive element
approaches are possibl. First the individual square element Primary repetitive element
will be recognised, a thin translucent marble sheet with Secundary repetitive element Symmetry axis
granite borders. But when taking a closer look it is possible Tertiairy repetitive element Exception

Southeast elevation | S 1:500

Nortwest elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500 Southeast elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500

Southwest elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500 Nortwest elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500

492 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 493
3. Exterior 3. Exterior

3.04.5 Façade composition | Variation 3.05 Façade materials

Variation in the buildings façade is kept to a minimum. The façade materials can be devided into two groups: the
There is only one concrete example of this fenomenon and massive volume and the transparant layer.
that is the spacing of the column and the transparant layer.
This offset indicates the importance of one specific side. The massive volume is, as mentioned, composed of a granite
structural truss and translucent marble plates. Also the
carrying corner collumns are constituted out of pyramide
shaped granite.

The transparant layer is obviously comprised of glass panes.

These glass panes are held up by bronze windowframes.
The vertical balusters are kept to a minimum to maximize
transparency. Of course collumns are needed to support
this layer and these are, for the reason of transparency,
placed behind the façade. Bronze
Glass
Marble
Variation Granite

Southeast elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500 Southeast elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500

Nortwest elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500 Nortwest elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500

494 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 495
3. Exterior 3. Exterior

3.06 Ornaments 3.07 Architectonic details

The composition of the façade seems to be ornamental due As explained the architectonic details have a strong
to the exactness of the spatial properties of the material. relationship with the whole. The individual element
The basic shape has been transformed to form a structural which, when combined, forms the entire composition..
truss. Therefore the material has been shaped into the ideal The precisness of the shape is related back to the structural
composition. In the joints of structures the most mass is properties of the complete truss. The infill of translucent
needed and therefore the architect apllied this theory in marble, thanks to its natural properties, has a very varying
his composition. Also for the benifits of light they have appearance. The ever changing properties during the
been altered. The supporting collumns also fulfill the same originating of the material lead to individual distinctive
purpose. Again, iin the joints the most mass is needed so plates. Thanks to this individualistic character the entire
thats what the architect designed the individual elements composition doens’t look dull, but remains interesting.
for.
The translucent capacity and the natural properties make the
The drawing underneath explains the buildings ornamental experience and journey through the building an emotional
properties at first sight. entreprise.

Ornament

Southeast elevation | S 1:500

Nortwest elevation | S 1:500 Southwest elevation | S 1:500

Southwest elevation | S 1:500 Northeast elevation | S 1:500

496 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 497
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.01 Logistics

The main storage of the books is found in the glass book visitors and horizontal circulation underground to actually
tower(160,000) and the storage rooms in the underground utilise the rare books in reading rooms and offices.
part(700,000) of the Library. Due to the private character
of these spaces it is obligatory for the employees to assist the
visitors in collecting the books. The logistical distribution is
performed by elevators and stairs in a private core of the
building. These facilities connect all layers necessary for the
functioning of the building

The private underground tunnel connects the Sterling

Memorial Library to the Beinecke Library. This allows
for internal and external transportation of the books. In
addition to this it’s forbidden for visitors to take the rare
books outside the Beinecke Library.

Concluding, in the building two circulations are possible.

Vertical circulation is to retrieve and collect books for Book distribution
Cross section | S 1:500

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

498 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 499
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.02.2 Routing

The internal routing begins on the plaza as explained before.

After completing the first part of to the ‘route architecturale’
one accesses by a revolting door. After consulting the
reception desk it is possible to either go upstairs and enter
the massive volume, the formal part of the building, or go
down into the functional part of the building.

Upon arrival in the cellar a second distinction was made

which devides public and private. Reading rooms, or offices
and storage. Visitors are allowed to enter several reading
and studying rooms. But the employees have an additional
routing, a circular routing situated around offices which are
all adjeacent to a central courtyard. A third layer of privacy
is the service core behind the second reception desk which
gives employees the possibility to have an easy connection
between the different floors. Routing visitors
Routing emloyees

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

500 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 501
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.02.3 Public / Private

The division and gradual incline of privacy is due to the

implementation of several urban scaled layers which are all
to be considered as façades. This gradual approach allows for
a natural routing and feeling whilst entering the functions
of the building. There are several nuances to be made in this
approach which allow the gradual approach. Consequently:
The city, the plaza, the glass core, the booktower and the
cellar and finally the storage rooms.

Public area
Semi public area
Private area

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500

502 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 503
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.03 Construction

A buildings construction begins with its foundation. This

building is constructed from a concrete underground box.
The floors are supported by a concrete grid of columns
and the stability is performed due to the principal of being
underground and a structural core that contains routing.
Above ground the windows have their own supporting
steel collumns so does the glass booktowe. The massive
floating box is supported by large pyramide columns and
the structural core that penetrates the ground. The façade
of the building functions as one big truss to achieve the
total span.

Structural elements
Cross section | S 1:500

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

504 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 505
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.04 Use of spaces

The use of a space is stronlgy related with the type it is

intended. In this case the use is more relevant over the
type. In analyzing the plans a clear distinction became
apparent between above and under ground. Above ground
can be considered to be the formal part of the building.
Underground the more operational and informal activities
take place, the system part of the building.

Studying
Meeting
Listening
Reading
Storing
Administrating
Searching
Refreshing

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

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4. Interior 4. Interior

4.05 Types of spaces

As explained above the types of spaces support the findings

of the distinction between formal and informal/supporting
spaces.

Hall
Room
Corridor
Hallway
Closet

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

508 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 509
4. Interior
4.06 Sequences of spaces | 2d
The strong layering of the building and the introduction
of several façades has a strong influence on the perception
of space. A lengthy introduction and approach makes for
an incline in formality of the building. To make a more
abstracted way of the conception of the surrounding space
the following drawing was made. It consists of the sequence
of the sightlines in sections while approaching the final
destination(a room or function in the building). Several
different characteristics can be analysed in this graph
such as: the space in relation to a person, the time of every
section, the time to reach the destination, the sequence
of scales of spaces etc. All these aspects are important
characteristics in buildings but hard to combine in a single
drawing. But when combined they give a quick overview of
the atmosphere of approach.
Sections | S 1:1000
510
The urban approach is grand, the visual barriers are the
appearance of buildings in the surroundings. The massive
structure is already visible to the passerby.
The second fase is when entering the plaza, a fairly enclosed
character.
The third fase gives a first glance of the offices in the
underground floor.
Fourth, one encounters the building in first person. The
massive volume allows a peak underneath and the function
is revealed.
Five, the entering of the massive volume, total enclosure but
remains resonably large scaled.
Six the physical entry, means total enclosure.
Seven, still under the volume but opens up.
Eight a full glance of grand scale. This is a transitional and
decisive moment. One can decide for the formal part or the
functional part.
4. Interior
Formal: Eleven, the individual office, the first function which allows
Nine, when arriving upstairs the entire volume is still visible. direct outward views and has an outward focus.
The full scale in comprehensible and adds to the formality
of the space. Functional, Public
Ten, passing by the booktower, the endgoal. Ten, the reading rooms can be reached
Eleven, passing the narrow bridge which connects the Eleven, entering the plaza(not public)
formal space with the book tower.
Twelve, the scale of the space is drastically reduced and one
is completly surrounded in the books. For conclusional remarks, in the conclusional chapter the
Viipuri and Beinecke library are compared.
Functional:
Nine, the visitor arrives in the functional part of the building
and has a scale derived from this phenomenon. Again one
has to choose his direction (private or public)
Functional, Private
Ten, a large corridor to connect the offices
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4. Interior 4. Interior

4.06 Sequences of spaces | 3d

To be more concrete and make the drawings even more

understandable, these perspective drawings are added to
show the sequence fo the spaces. Theses perspectives follow
the same route as before but are now less abstract.

The clear application of the ‘route architectural’e and the

introduction of the several façades can be considered as a
type of phenomenal transparency.

512 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 513
4. Interior 4. Interior

514 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 515
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.07 Threshold between spaces

In this analysis the physical boundaries have been portraited

to show the thresholds when entering the building. In this
case the stairs have been shown as hard thresholds. Also the
boundaries which are set up because of the different façades
are present. In the end the building has fairly smooth
thresholds in the formal part of the building. But to enter
the functional parts and the book tower the thresholds
are much stronger to prevent unauthorized people from
entering.

Smooth transition zone

Smooth threshold
Hard transition zone
Hard threshold
Cross section | S 1:500

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

516 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 517
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.08 Order of spaces

All the spaces in the building are strongly related to each

other due to the comprehensive application of the Grid
system. Every room and space is related to the bigger
conception of the building thanks to this fact.
The more formal spaces are larger in outlay in comparison
to the functional parts of the building. Noteworthy is that
every visitor has to pass the gigantic formal scale before
reaching the destination.

A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

A A

A A

A A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

518 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 519
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.09 Spatial hierarchy

Again this analysis proves the hypothesis that above ground

the formal functions are allocated whereas the under ground
parts are more destined to serve the function. The book
storage can be considered the serving rooms, these rooms
actually allow the functionality in the building, served
rooms.

Served rooms
Hybrid
Serving rooms

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

520 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 521
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.10.1 Daylight access

The daylight is very intricatly handled because of the

preservation of the rare books. The massive volume allows
indirect daylight to reach the books, thanks to the choice
of material. The ground floor is the only floor that allows
all sides to be penetrated by direct daylight. In the cellar
the patio allows light to penetrate all the supporting central
functions.

Direct daylight access

Indirect daylight access
No daylight access

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

522 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 523
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.10.2 Reverbaration time

The reverbaration time of rooms indicates the ability to

conversate. Indirect this is also an indication of formality
of space. Look at churches for example, the echo(long
reverbartion time) makes people whisper because of respect
for the place. This analysis indicates the ability to hold
normal conversations and is based on the material and the
volume of the space.

Again the separation between functional underground

and formal above ground is easy to distinguish. The
workability of the spaces underground demand respectable
reverbaration times.

1.0 - 2.0 sec.

2.0 - 3.0 sec.

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

524 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 525
4. Interior 4. Interior

4.11 Interior elements

The furniture elements in the building are partially designed

by the architect. This permanent furniture is solely devoted
to house books: bookcases and display cases. The temporary
furniture on the other hand allows the reading and studying
of the books i.e. it allows the building to function.

Temporary furniture
Permanent furniture

Plan level 0 | S 1:500 Plan level 1 | S 1:500 Plan level -1 | S 1:500

526 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 527
4. Interior

4.12 Architectonic details

The detailling of the building culminates in the floating The translucent capacity and the natural properties make
volume. As mentioned before the architectonic details the experience and journey through the building an
have a strong relationship with the whole. The inside emotional entreprise.
and outside are detailled almost identical. With the
sameindividual element which, when combined, forms the
entire composition. The precisness of the shape is related
back to the structural properties of the complete truss. The
infill of translucent marble, thanks to its natural properties,
has a very varying appearance. The ever changing properties
during the originating of the material lead to individual
distinctive plates. Thanks to this individualistic character
the entire composition doens’t look dull, but remains
interesting.

The contrasting appearance internal and external is made

possible due to the translucency of the element. Where the
outside look cold and dull the inside is warm and exciting.

528 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 529
5. Conclusive drawings
5.1 Sequences
To make a more abstracted way of the conception of the
surrounding space the following drawings were made. It
consists of the sequence of the sightlines in sections while
approaching the final destination (a room or function
in the building). Several different characteristics can be
analysed in this graph such as: the space in relation to a
person, the time of every section, the time to reach the
destination, the sequence of scales of spaces etc. All these
aspects are important characteristics in buildings but hard
to combine in a single drawing. But when combined they
give a strong overview of the atmosphere of approach. With
these combined drawings a lot of principal differences and
similarities can be explained.
Sequential experience Aalto
Sequential experience Bunshaft
530
Public building types: The library
5. Conclusive drawings
The approach of the urban context shows strong differences
concerning the scale and urbanity of the location. Bunshaft
is clearly part of a large city whereas Aalto is placed in the
middle of a public parc. Also the number of entrances is
very different. Where Aalto introduces three entrances,
Bunshaft includes just one to have full control.
Very similar is the way they condens space before physically
entering the building. The approach is always a sequence of
large areas which slowly condens into a very small entrance.
The routing inside the buildings are very different from
each other. Aalto has 3 different routings of which one is a
closed circle whereas Bunshaft is more like a tree structure,
also this enables the user to have control over its visitors.
The borders put up by Bunshaft are much more present
03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library
than in Aalto’s library. Bunshaft strongly emphasizes this
aspect whereas Aalto’s space is much more fluent due to the
interpenetration of spaces.
Where the orientation in Bunshaft´s library is always
internal and focussing on the ´exhibited´ books, Aalto
decides to make external views possible in his routing.
It is striking to see the time it takes to reach the destination
if compared to Aalto’s library, this has a strong relation
with the formality of the space of Bunshaft. The size of the
spaces is very different. Aalto is much more modest in the
scale of his building because it is public. Bunshaft on the
other hand emphasizes the importance by enhancing every
public aspect.
531
5. Conclusive drawings 5. Conclusive drawings

5.1 Sequences

In the Beinecke library we believe there are three striking
analysis which would describe the spatial and relational
context the best.
Firstly we found that Gordon Bunshaft has introduced not
one traditional but at least 5 present façades in his building.
First he introduces a plaza which is partly submerged
and walled, the first visisble urban façade of the building.
Secondly, the most prominent both inside and outside, the
massive floating volume which contains the formal part of
the building. At first glance one would conclude this layer
as being the dominant and primary separation between
over the plaza which eventually maximizes the floatation
of the massive volume. This floatation again is enhanced
by placing strong pillars in the corners of the building. The
fourth layer is the booktower, which in itselves also knows
two layers. Namely the glass, climatisation layer, and the
actual bookcases for rare books. Inside this volume there
is also a structural core which allows routing inside the
FACADE MATERIALS TRANSPARANCY REPETITION OF ELEMENTS
volume. The last visually present façade is the patio. This
- Granite plates on
façade is also partially visible from public space but reveals the ground and walls
itself in total only from the cellar of the building. This
priniciple can be summarized as a box-in-box-in-box-in-
box-in-box.

inside and out. Interestingly he makes no difference in
material inside or out which makes his architecture more
elementary. The third façade a visitor would encounter is
the glass ‘façade’ which gives zones to the plaza. Because of
the tranparancy of this layer he allows an unobstructed view
PLAZA WALL
In the drawings to the right every single façade has been
analysed for its primary characteristics to be able to make
the previous comparison.

- Granite facade

MASSIVE FLOATING VOLUME

elements and
columns
- Marble plates
- Bronze on top of
columns

- Bronze construction
and windowframes

GLASS FACADE/ENTRANCE
- Glass

- Bronze construction
and windowframes
- Glass

BOOK TOWER

- Granite plates
- Bronze
windowframes
- Glass
PATIO

Sequential experience Façade analysis

532 Public building types: The library 03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 533
5. Conclusive drawings
This analysis shows the individual element of which its
repetition allows a certain visible transparancy. Every aspect
of the building is, in this case, related to the whole and
therefore makes the complexity much more understandable.
Element repetition
534
Public building types: The library
5. Conclusive drawings
5.1 Book typology
Yale’s book collection stored in the library is a mixture of solely devoted to rare books and manuscripts. The booktower
German, American and Western Americana literature. This contains about 180,000 volumes and in its underground
specific collection was previously housed in the Sterling bookcases it contains about 600,000. Also display cases
Memorial Library Rare Book Room which overtime ran are placed to house extreme rare books. Annualy four
out of space. A part of the entire collection was donated expositions are organised. The continuous exposition is
by the financiers of the building, the Beinecke brothers placed in the display cases and the oval bookcases.
and their families(Edwin J. Beinecke(Yale 1907), Frederick
W. Beinecke(Yale 1909) and Walter Beinecke(Yale 1910)
(Pinnell, P. 2004, The building). Not only where they the
primary investors of the building they also donated a large
amount of their personal collection. Medieval manuscripts
and materials related to Robert Louis Stevenson(Turner,
F. 2008, Meditations on the Beinecke Rare Book and
Manuscript Library), Western Americana literature and
subsequent generations of Beineckes contributed to the
donations. The total amount of volumes is 780,000 and
therefore makes it one of the largest buildings in the world
Book typology
03. Viipuri Library & Beinecke Library 535
 Literature
Books
Bush-Brown, A. (1983). Skidmore, Owings and
Merrill: architektur und staedtebau. S.I.: Hatje.
Cuito, A. (2002). Alvar Aalto. Barcelona: LOFT
Publications.
Quantrill, M. (2002). Alvar Aalto: a critical study.
New Amsterdam Books.
Trencher, M. (2002). The Alvar Aalto guide. New
York: Princeton Architectural Press.
Weston, R. (1995). Alvar Aalto. London: Phaidon.
Woodward, C. (1970). Skidmore, Owings and Merrill.
London: Thames and Hudson.
536 Public building types: The library Literature
Magazines
Architectural Design. Feb 1961. pp. 84.
Architectural Record. June 1967. pp. 50-55.
Architectural Record. Nov 1963. pp. 12-13.
Architectural Review. Jan. 1993. pp. 74-79.
Architecture and Urbanism. June 2003. pp. 162-164.
Casabella. Dec 2008. pp. 30-43.
Casabella. Feb 1998 pp. 93.
Casabella. June 1997. pp. 80-81.
Figures
1 Cuito (2002), Viipuri City Library
2 Cuito (2002), Viipuri City Library
3 http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/
6RoG5jpPPCUD0Fj2e07GWg
4 http://clippings.com/images/1277331978-yale-
beinecke-e5jpg-60978
5 http://clippings.com/images/1277331969-
beinecke-148y5jpg-60977
6 http://clippings.com/images/1277331982-yale-
beinecke-ezrastoller-esto-es148y33jpg-60976
7 http://thensinny.blogspot.nl/2010/08/yale-
university-library.html
537