6301 Module 1 PDF

DE6301 Fluid Mechanics
Module 1
DE6301
1
Copyright Open Polytechnic of New Zealand (BCH 2020)
Contents
Overview 4
• Traditional fluid power usages 4
• Fluid power 4
• Fluid power system constraints 5
Density 6
• Relative density 7
• Flotation and Archimedes’ principle 9
• Determination of relative density 12
Hydrostatics 16
• Properties and measurements in hydrostatics 17
• Liquid pressure due to depth 18
• Pressure head 19
• Atmospheric pressure 20
• Atmospheric pressure in head of mercury and head of water 20
• Absolute and gauge pressure 22
• Vacuum 23
• Forces on immersed surfaces 23
• Force on bottom 24
• Force on sides 24
• Transmission of force by fluid pressure 25
• Positive displacement pump 27
• Simple hydraulic machinery 28
• Pressure on curved surfaces 31
The principles of fluid mechanics 31
• What is a fluid? 31
Physical characteristics of a fluid 34
• Viscosity 34
• Surface tension 38
• Vapour pressure 38
• Cavitation 39
2
Gas laws 42
• Use of absolute units 42
• The general (or combined) gas law 47
• Other relationships between gas constants 47
• Isothermal, adiabatic and polytropic processes 49
Fan laws 54
• Flow comparisons 55
• Pressure comparisons 56
Pump laws 58
Feed back on module 1 Activity 60
6301
3
Module 1: Principles of fluid mechanics

Overview
There are only three basic methods today of transferring and controlling energy:
1. Mechanical
2. Electrical
3. Fluid power.
Most often, they are combined for most effective usage. Mechanical power transmission has
been used for many thousands of years — ever since prehistoric man developed the wheel and
the lever. Fluid power has also been used for thousands of years in its more primitive forms,
such as the sailing ship and the waterwheel. And in the past more than two hundred years, man
has learned how to harness and use electricity.
Traditional fluid power usages

Traditional fluid power employed vast amounts of air or water at very low ‘pressures’ to harness
nature’s energies. But during the past century, engineers have developed air compressors and
hydraulic pumps to produce relatively high pressures and correspondingly lower flow rates, which
provides almost unlimited applications where fluid power has proved its advantages over
mechanical or electrical systems.
The key word to fluid power’s acceptance and wide current use is ‘manageability’. For example,
fluid power is not influenced by the geometry of the machine which uses it. Power in almost
unlimited quantities can be transmitted anywhere a hose or tube can go. And fluid power is the
only method in which force and speed can be instantaneously reversed (both rotary and linear)
without burning out or injuring the actuator.
Fluid power
Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, control and transmission of power
using pressurised fluids. It can be said that fluid power is the muscle that moves industry. This is
because fluid power is used to push, pull, regulate or drive virtually all the
machines of modern industry. For example, fluid power steers and brakes automobiles, launches
spacecraft, moves earth, harvests crops, mines coal, drives machine tools, controls airplanes,
processes food and even drills teeth.
Since a fluid can be either a liquid or a gas, fluid power is actually the general term used for
hydraulics and pneumatics. Hydraulic systems use liquids such as petroleum oils, water,
synthetic oils, and even molten metals. The first hydraulic fluid to be used was water because it
4
was readily available. However, water has many deficiencies. It freezes readily, is a relatively
poor lubricant and tends to rust metal components. Hydraulic oils are far superior and hence are
widely used in lieu of water. Pneumatic systems use air as the gas medium because air is very
abundant and can be readily discharged into the atmosphere after completing its task.
It should be noted that there are actually two different types of fluid systems:
1. Fluid transport systems.
2. Fluid power systems.
Fluid transport systems have as their sole objective the delivery of a fluid from one location to
another to achieve some useful purpose. Examples include pumping stations for pumping water
to houses, cross-country gas lines and chemical processing plants.
Fluid power systems are designed specifically to perform useful work. The work is accomplished
by a pressurised fluid acting directly on an actuator (cylinder) or fluid motor, which, in turn,
provides the muscle to do the desired work. Of course, control components are also needed (and
so designed) to ensure that the work is done smoothly, accurately, efficiently and safely.
Liquids provide a very rigid medium for transmitting power and thus can provide huge forces to
move loads with utmost accuracy and precision. On the other hand, pneumatic systems exhibit
spongy characteristics due to their compressibility. However, pneumatic systems are less
expensive to build and operate.
Fluid power equipment ranges in size from huge hydraulic presses to miniature fluid logic
components used to build reliable control systems.
Fluid power system constraints

In spite of all these highly desirable features of fluid power, it is not a panacea for all power
transmission problems.
Hydraulic systems also have some drawbacks. Hydraulic oils are messy and leakage is difficult
to eliminate completely. Hydraulic pipelines can burst, possibly resulting in human injury due to
flying objects, if proper design is not implemented. Also, most hydraulic oils can cause fires if an
oil leak occurs in an area of hot equipment. Therefore, each application must be studied
thoroughly to determine the best overall design.
This module begins with the explanation of the physical characteristics of a fluid — dynamic
viscosity and kinematic viscosity, measurement of viscosity, surface tension, vapour pressure
and cavitation.
The principles of fluid mechanics, that is, the principles of mass flow, conservation of mass and
conservation of energy are explained in terms of the relationship of pressure, volume and
temperature.
The properties of fluid systems such as pressure, volume and temperature are calculated, and
formulae used in fan laws, pump laws, gas laws and Bernouilli’s equation are selected to meet
the requirements of specific mechanical engineering situations.
5
There is a vital need to measure the rate of flow of fluids as they move through pipes in industrial
manufacturing processes. The range of flow-measurement applications is extremely wide. A
range of instruments for measuring fluid flow are selected and these include:
• differential pressure meter (pitch tube, venture meter and orifice meter)
• anemometer
• variable area flow meter (rotameter)
• balancing valve.
The fluid behaviour in mechanical engineering systems is assessed in terms of static and velocity
pressures, friction loss, laminar and turbulent flow, density and viscosity.
At the conclusion of this module, you should be able to:
• define the main properties of liquids
• explain and calculate hydrostatic pressure
• calculate the hydrostatic forces and moments on submerged surfaces
• explain and solve problems involving simple hydrostatic devices.
Density
The mass of a brick will remain constant so long as no pieces are broken off. A sponge of the
same size will also have a constant mass although a much smaller one than the brick.
The amount of matter contained in a given volume of a material is a measure of its density.
Density is defined as the ratio of mass to volume, that is
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑚2
In standard symbols 𝜌 (Greek rho) represents density, m represents mass, and V represents
volume.
𝑚
Hence 𝜌=
𝑉
A brick has a fairly high density whereas a dry sponge has a low density.
6
Example
A lead cube has 9 mm sides. Its mass is 8.3 grams. Find its density.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 93 𝑚𝑚2
= (9 𝑥 10−3 )3 𝑚3
= 729 𝑥 10−9 𝑚3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 8.3𝑔
= 8.3 𝑥 10−3 𝑘𝑔
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑘𝑔
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑚2
8.3 𝑥 10−3
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 729 𝑥 10−9
= 11400 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Relative density
The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its mass to the mass of an equal volume of
water.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
This is the basic definition but since we are dealing with equal volumes it can be stated as
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ( 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
Relative density is therefore purely a number that has no units.

The relative density gives the number of times that a substance is more or less dense than
water. If the relative density is less than 1, the substance is lighter than water (a solid block of it
will float). If its relative density is greater than 1, the substance is heavier than water (a solid
block of it will sink).
Lead, with a relative density of 11.4, sinks, whereas cork with a relative density of 0.25, floats.
More about flotation later.
The density of water is 1000 kg/m³
Note
Some older textbooks may use the misleading term specific gravity instead of relative density. It
is no longer in use in modem technology
7
Example
A cubical tank with 400 mm sides is filled with oil. The oil has a relative density of 0.75.
Find its mass.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = (0. 4)3 𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 0.064 𝑚3
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Density of oil = density of water × relative density of oil
= 1000 × 0.75
= 750 kg/m³
𝑚
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 → 𝜌
𝑉
Therefore 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉
= 750 × 0.064
= 48 kg
Example
A litre container when full holds 13.6 kg of mercury. Find the density and relative density of
the mercury. (Note: 1L = 1 x 10−3m³)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
13.6
=
1𝑥10−3
= 13 600 kg/m3
Relative density = density of mercury

density of water
= 13 600
1000
= 13.6
8
Example
Force = mass x acceleration

Units of force are newtons (N). Weight is a force.
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s²
Density of a body is determined by the amount of mass contained in its volume.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Activity 1.1
1. Find the weight of a person whose mass is 80.0 kg
(a) On earth
(b) On the moon where g = 1.63 m/s2.
2. A lead pipe has an external diameter of 4 cm and a wall thickness of 4 mm. If the
density of lead is 11 370 kg/m3, find
(a) The volume of lead per metre length of pipe.
(b) The mass of lead per metre length of pipe.
3. What mass could be saved by replacing a 1500 kg iron casting by an aluminium one
of the same shape and size? The relative density of iron is 7.45 and the relative
density of aluminium is 2.65.
Check your responses with the feedback provided at the end of the module
Flotation and Archimedes’ principle

You know how easy it is for a human being to float on water. Let’s consider this by using what we
have learned so far.
If you float quite still on the surface of a pool, you are in equilibrium. That means that all forces
are balanced by equal and opposite reactions. Take the vertical forces.
You know very well that your weight is acting downwards. There must be an equal force acting
upwards where your body meets the water. This force is called the upthrust, and on a floating
body it is exactly equal to the weight.
9
Even a body which sinks experiences an upthrust. For example, this explains how large boulders
are so easily moved by rivers and floodwaters. In such cases, the upthrust will be less than the
weight, and there will be an upward reaction where the boulder touches the bottom.
About 2000 years ago, the Greek scientist, Archimedes found that the value of the upthrust was
exactly equal to the weight of liquid displaced. Strictly speaking, there is an upthrust in any fluid,
even in air (which explains why balloons ‘fly’).
Archimedes’ principle, as it is called, can be verified by the following method.
Weigh an object on a spring balance. Lower the object into a displacement can full of water (see
Fig. 1.1). The difference in the spring balance readings will give the upthrust.
The weight of water displaced into the beaker can be found from its full and dry weights. This will
be the same as the upthrust read off the spring balance.
Example
A steel cube of sides 4 cm has a density of 7700 kg/m3. What force does it exert on the bottom of
a bucket in which it is covered in water?
Volume = 4 × 4 × 4
= 64 cm³
= 64 × 10−6 𝑚3
Mass of cube = density x volume
= 7700 × 64 × 10−6 𝑘𝑔
Force = mass × acceleration
Therefore, Downward force, weight = (7700 × 64 × 10−6 ) × 9.81

= 4.83 N
10
Upthrust = weight of water displaced
but volume of water displaced = 64 × 10−6 𝑚3
Therefore, Mass of water =64 × 10−6𝑚3 𝑥 1000

Weight of water displaced = 64 × 10–6 × 1000 × 9.81
Therefore, Upthrust = 0.628 N
Resultant vertical force = weight of object – upthrust
= 4.83 – 0.628
Resultant force on bottom of bucket = 4.202 N
Example
A submarine of mass 1000 tonnes floats

completely immersed in sea water,
density 1030 kg/m3. What volume of water
does it displace? What mass of water
must be discharged from her ballast tanks
if she must float at the same level in fresh
water?
.
Mass of sea water displaced = 1000 tonnes, since the submarine floats (even though it is
submerged)
Therefore, Volume of water displaced = 1000 × 1000
1030
= 971 m3
Now upthrust on submarine in fresh water = weight of water displaced
= 971 × 1000 × 9.81 N
= 9.525 MN
Weight of submarine = 9.81 MN
11
Therefore. The submarine must reduce its weight by 9.81 MN – 9.525 MN
= 0.285 MN
or
= 285 kN
This is achieved by pumping water weighing 285 kN out of the ballast tanks.
Hence the mass of water discharged = 285 000
9.81
= 29000 kg or 29 tonnes
Determination of relative density
Archimedes’ principle gives us a simple and accurate method of finding the relative density of an
object.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Now at any single point on earth, weight will always be proportional to the mass. Therefore, we
may write
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
We also know that when an object is immersed in water, the upthrust on it is equal to the weight
of water displaced.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
Therefore 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 …..(1)
So, in order to find the relative density of the object, we need only make two weighings. First, weigh
the object in air. Then weigh it immersed in water. The difference between the two weighings gives
the upthrust. Now use equation (1) to find the relative density.
12
Example
A piece of coal weighs 4.9 newtons in air and 1.4 newtons when immersed in a bucket of
water. Find the relative density of the coal.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙
𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Now upthrust = weight in air – weight in water
= 4.9 – 1.4
= 3.5 newtons
Therefore, Relative density = 4.9
3.5
= 1.4
When a piece of wood, or other material of density less than that of water, is placed in water it
sinks until the weight of water displaced just equals its own weight. Then the upthrust is exactly
equal to the weight acting downwards and the object is in equilibrium, or in other words, it floats.
In general terms, it can be said that when a body floats in a fluid it displaces its own weight of fluid.
This is just a variation of Archimedes’ principle as it is applied to flotation. It means that the depth
to which any object sinks is dependent on the densities of the object and the fluid. See Fig. 1.4.
13
You can show very quickly that the depth to which an object sinks in a fluid is proportional to the
density of the fluid (providing that the object has a constant cross-sectional area at the fluid
surface).
Use is made of this fact in the hydrometer which is a device for measuring the relative densities of
liquids. Examples are shown in Fig. 1.5.
Hydrometers are used to find the relative densities of

liquids. In particular, they are used to measure the
relative densities of oil, battery acids and milk. They
also have a number of special applications in industry.
Now from first principles we can derive an expression
which connects the density of an object with the depth to
which it floats on water.
Starting with the basic formula for relative density, we can find that
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
You don’t need to be able to derive this formula.
14
Example
A solid rectangular life raft floats on water with its largest side uppermost and horizontal. Its
dimensions are 3m × 2m × 0.4 m, and it sinks to a depth of 28 cm. What is the density of
the raft?
Total volume of raft = 3 × 2 × 0.4
= 2.4 m³
Volume of water displaced = 3 × 2 × 0.28
= 1.68 m³
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 1.68
2.4
= 0.7
Our original definition gave relative density = density of object (raft)
density of water
Therefore, Density of raft = relative density × density of water
= 0.7 × 1000
= 700 kg/m3
Example
A marker float (see Fig. 1.6) of diameter 0.4 m and mass 5.25 kg is moored in salt water with
exactly half of the float below the surface. Calculate the tension in the mooring rope. Density
of salt water is 1030 kg/m³.
4
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3
2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝜋0. 23 𝑚3
3
Volume of salt water displaced = 2 x π x 0.23 m3
= 0.01675𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 0.01675 𝑥 1030𝑚3 𝑥
𝑚3
= 17.25𝑘𝑔
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 17.25𝑘𝑔 𝑥 9.81𝑁
= 169.2 𝑁
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = mass x acceleration due to gravity

= 5.25𝑘𝑔 𝑥 9.81𝑁
15
= 51.5𝑁
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑑 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

= 169.2𝑁 − 51.5𝑁
= 117.5 𝑁
Key points
According to Archimedes’ principle, a body in a fluid has an upthrust on it equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Activity 1.2
1. A block of wood having dimensions of 15 cm by 8 cm by 4 cm has a relative density of

0.7. It floats in a vessel filled with fresh water to the point of overflowing. Lead is added to
the top of the block until the block just sinks. What volume of water will overflow from the
vessel? What volume of lead must be placed on the block? Relative density of lead is
11.4.
2. A ship has a mass of 4500 tonnes. Its area at the water line is 1200 m2. Assuming that its
sides are vertical, how far does it rise when it sails from a fresh water harbour into the
sea? 𝑆𝑒𝑎 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1030𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Check your responses with the feedback provided at the end of the module.
Hydrostatics
A fluid is a substance that cannot resist shear stress and thus offers no resistance to change of
shape.
We can divide fluids into liquids and gases. A quantity of liquid occupies a fixed volume, has a
free horizontal surface and is virtually incompressible. A quantity of gas completely fills the
enclosing vessel and is easily compressed.
The most common liquid is water. When liquids are at rest, all behave in a similar way to water,
the only significant variable being density.
16
Properties and measurements in hydrostatics

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 − 𝜌(𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑟ℎ𝑜)𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 − 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 𝑤 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑁/𝑚3
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑔)
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠
Therefore = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑒 𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑔)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Therefore 𝑤 = 𝜌𝑔
Relative density, d, is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of
water at 4°C.
𝜌 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑=
𝜌 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑤 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑=
𝑤 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Pressure of a liquid is the force exerted by the liquid on the surfaces with which it is in contact or
by one part of the liquid on the neighbouring part symbol ρ, unit N /m².
In Fig. 1.7, a force F is applied to a piston that is

sealing off a liquid in a cylinder. The liquid is
pressurised to a value p. Neglecting the weight of
the liquid, we have
𝐹
𝑃=
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
Fig 1.7 Pressure in a cylinder

Remember that the same pressure p acts on all containing surfaces, and pressure always acts normal to
the surface in contact.
17
Example
The base of the cylinder shown in Fig. 1.7 is replaced by

a hemispherical dome attached to the sides of the cylinder.
If the diameter of the cylinder is 0.3 m, and contains a
liquid at uniform pressure of 500 N /m2, what is the force
tending to separate the dome from the cylinder?
Figure 1.8 shows that the liquid pressure acts normal to the
curved interior surface of the dome. To find the resultant
force tending to separate the dome from the cylinder,
however, calculate the total force acting on the projected
area.
force
Pressure p =
area
𝐹
=
𝐴
Therefore Force = p x A
𝜋
= 𝑝 𝑥 𝑑2
4
𝜋
= 500 𝑥 𝑥 0.32
4
= 35.4𝑁
Liquid pressure due to depth

The pressure of a liquid at a depth h below its free surface is due to the weight of fluid it
supports. Therefore, the pressure will increase in direct proportion to the depth from the free
surface, as shown in Fig. 1.9.
The column in Fig. 1.9 is in equilibrium in the surrounding liquid, because of its weight acting
downwards and the force due to the pressure p acting upwards on the column.
18
The horizontal or side forces due to the column are also in equilibrium with the surrounding
liquid.
Resolving vertical forces, we get
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑝 𝑥 𝐴 = 𝑤ℎ𝐴
𝑝 = 𝑤ℎ(𝑁/𝑚2 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎)
Note that the pressure pacts in all directions at depth h, not only upwards as indicated in this
proof.
Pressure head
Because pressure is proportional to depth, or head as it is called in hydraulic engineering, it is
often convenient to express pressure in terms of head in metres of liquid. That is
𝑝
ℎ=
𝑤
Example
Find the pressure head of water corresponding to a pressure of 50 kPa. The

specific weight of water is 9.81 kN/m3.
𝑝
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑, ℎ =
𝑤
50 𝑥103
=
9.81 𝑥103
= 5.1𝑚 𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Note
When stating pressure as a head, you must always give the units of length and the name of the
liquid.
19
Atmospheric pressure
The atmospheric pressure at the surface of the earth is due to the weight of the column of air that
constitutes the atmosphere. This column of air extends many kilometres above the earth’s surface.
Atmospheric pressure varies with temperature and with altitude.
The density and pressure of the air at sea level are at maximum because, at sea level, the column of air is
of maximum height, and hence the full weight of the atmosphere is felt. At sea level, the weight of a column
of air 1 m square is 101.3 kN. Therefore, the pressure is 101.3 kN /m². A system based on the bar, which
equals 10⁵ N /m², is also widely used, particularly in meteorology.
Atmospheric pressure in head of mercury and head of

water
The pressure of the atmosphere can be recorded by measuring the equivalent head of mercury
that it will support. Figure 1.11 shows how the mercury barometer works.
Atmospheric pressure acting upwards on the column of mercury at A balances the weight of the
column.
20
Taking the specific weight of mercury (wm) as 133.4 kN /m3, we can calculate the head of
mercury. If on a certain day the atmospheric pressure is 100 kN /m2, then
Using p = wh, we get
Head of mercury = atmospheric pressure
specific wt of mercury
= 100 × 10³ (N/m²)
133.4 × 10³ (N/m²)

= 0.75 m of mercury
This is generally given in the form

Atmospheric pressure = 750 mm of mercury
Taking the specific weight of water as 9.81 kN /m3, we can also calculate the equivalent head of
water.
𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
10 𝑥 103
=
9.81 𝑥 103
𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 10.19𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Many measurements are greatly affected by variation in temperature or pressure. As one example, the
boiling point of liquids reduces as pressure reduces. As another example, the length of steel reference
gauges increases with temperature.
Usually, therefore, we adopt standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p. or STP) readings to which all
measurements may be referred.
Standard temperature is 0°C (or 273 K), and standard pressure is 1.013 bar or 101 300 Pa.
Example
What is the atmospheric pressure in N/m2 and mbar when a barometer reads 770 mm of
mercury?
Pressure = specific weight × head
Specific weight of mercury = 133.4 kN/m³
Therefore p = (133.4 × 10³) × (770 × 10−3)
21
= 102 718 N/m²
Now 1 bar = 10⁵ N/m²

Therefore
1 mbar = 10² N/m²
Therefore
102718
𝑝=
100
= 1027𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑟
Absolute and gauge pressure

Industrial pressure gauges are generally calibrated to read zero at atmospheric pressure. Hence,
a pressure gauge reads gauge pressure, not absolute pressure.
Gauge pressures are measured relative to the atmosphere.
Absolute pressures are measured relative to a perfect vacuum such as that which exists in outer
space.
Therefore
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
In our Mechanics assignments, all pressures are given as absolute values unless followed by the
word gauge. For example
200 kN/m² is absolute pressure,
200 kN/m² gauge is gauge reading, and
200 kN/m² gauge = 200 + 101.3
= 301.3 kN/m² absolute
Example
A horizontal cylindrical tank of 4 m diameter is fitted with a vent pipe. If the relative density of
the oil that just fills the tank is 0.9, calculate
1. The force on the end plates
2. The maximum pressure (gauge) in the tank.
22
1. Resultant force on end of pipe = average pressure × area of end of pipe
Average pressure = pressure at centroid of end, p

𝑤ℎ
𝑝=
2
= 0.9 𝑥 9810 𝑥 2
= 17.66 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜋 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝐴 = 𝑑
4
𝜋
= 𝑥 𝑑2
𝑑
= 12.57𝑚2
Therefore, Force on end = pA
= 17.66 × 12.57
= 222 kN
2. Maximum pressure occurs at maximum depth, that is
𝑃max = 𝑤ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 0.9 × 9810 × 4
= 35.3 kPa
Vacuum
A complete vacuum is a total absence of pressure. A partial vacuum is a pressure below
atmospheric. Vacuum gauges measure pressure below atmospheric, usually in head of water or
mercury.
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure – vacuum gauge reading
For example, on a day when the atmospheric pressure is 10.32 m of water and a vacuum gauge
reads 6 m of water.
Absolute pressure = 10.32 – 6
= 4.32 m of water
Forces on immersed surfaces

Now we are ready to find the forces involved when a body is immersed in a liquid or filled with a
liquid.
Consider a rectangular tank filled with water to depth h. Let us see if we can find the force acting
on the:
1. bottom
2. sides.
23
Force on bottom
Pressure on the bottom is the same over the whole base area, because all points are at the
same depth. We have seen that the pressure at any particular depth is wh.
Therefore, Force acting on bottom = pressure at depth h × area of base
= wh × A
Force on sides
If we consider the sides of the tank, we can see that the pressure varies uniformly from zero at
the top to wh at the bottom. Hence the average pressure will be the pressure half way down the
side (that is, at the centroid) and its value will be
0 + 𝑤ℎ 𝑤ℎ
=
2 2
Therefore, Force acting on side (Fr) = average pressure x submerged side area
= pressure at centroid × submerged side area
This is an important point, because it can be shown to apply to any immersed surface, regardless
of depth below the free surface and regardless of shape.
The force acts normal to the immersed surfaces at a point called the centre of pressure. For a
rectangular area, the centre of pressure is 2⁄3 h from the surface of the liquid as shown in Fig.
1.12.
24
Activity 1.3
1. A single rod hydraulic cylinder must pull with a force of 5 kN. The piston is 75 mm diameter
and the rod is 30 mm diameter. Calculate the pressure required
2. Calculate the pressure and force on an air inspection hatch 0.75 diameter located on the
bottom of a tank when it is filled with oil of density 875 kg/m3 to a depth of 7 m.
Transmission of force by fluid pressure
Look at Pascal’s law for the principle of how fluids transmit force. By that law, pressure applied to
a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions, which is why a full glass bottle can
break if a stopper is forced into the already full chamber. Because the liquid is incompressible, it
transmits the pressure applied at the stopper throughout the container, as shown in Fig. 1.13.
Figure 1.13 shows how a small force exerted on a small area can create a proportionally larger
force on a larger area. Hence, the only limit to the force a machine can exert is the area to which
the pressure is applied.
Figure 1.14 shows how Pascal’s law can be applied to produce a useful amplified output force
such as in a hydraulic jack.
25
Because the pressure p is constant throughout the system
𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2
so that a small force acting on a small area can support a large force on a large area.
By rearranging the equation, we get
𝐴2
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐹2 = 𝑥 𝐹1
𝐴1
This means that if 𝐴2 is 4 x 𝐴1, then a force 𝐹2 that is 4 x 𝐹1 can be lifted.

Example
A hydraulic press has a plunger of 200 mm diameter and a ram of 650 mm diameter. The
plunger is operated by a force of 160 kN. Find the resistance overcome by the ram if the
efficiency is 90%.
The hydraulic press operates on the same principle as the jack.
Theoretical resistance
𝐴2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥𝐹
𝐴1
𝑑²2
𝑥𝐹
𝑑²1
650²
𝑥 160 𝑥 10³
200²
= 1.69 𝑀𝑁
26
Actual resistance on ram would be 90% of this.
Therefore, Actual resistance = 0.9 x 1.69
= 1.52 MN
Positive displacement pump
The simplest positive displacement pump is a hand pump similar in operation to the hydraulic
jack. See Fig. 1.15.
27
Mechanical advantage is gained by a lever arm, and manpower is the input. If 50 N is applied to
the end of the 500 mm handle, a 1 kN force is applied to the small-diameter pumping piston.
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑚

𝑁𝑜𝑤, =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑚
1𝑥103 𝐹
𝜋 =𝜋
𝑥 12.62 𝑥 40²
4 4
40²
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑥 1 𝑥 10³
12.6²
= 10.1 𝑘𝑁
Thus, the small force of 50 N can support a load of 10.1 kN with the aid of this simple hydraulic
machine.
From your knowledge of simple machines, you will realise that, because the areas are in the ratio
of 10 to 1, the pumping piston has to move 10 times the distance raised by the load. This requires
repetitive strokes of the pump handle to raise the load some distance.
Activity 1.4
A hydraulic jack is operated by a hand lever with a ratio of 10 to 1. The pumping piston has a
diameter of 19 mm and the ram has a diameter of 300 mm. When the load on the ram is 210 kN,
calculate
1. The pressure in the oil
2. The force applied to the hand lever.
Simple hydraulic machinery

Simple hydraulic machinery works on the same principle as the jack. The hydraulic fluid is
pressurised by a piston, or the pressure in the circuit is used to move a piston and hence operate
some device.
Hydraulic cylinders are widely used, for example, to raise and lower bulldozer blades, to open and
close dock gates or to operate the brakes on a car.
28
In a single-acting cylinder, some applied force is needed to return the piston to its starting point.
This may be a spring or the weight of the mechanism.
In a double-acting cylinder, the piston is returned by hydraulic pressure and hence has a working
stroke in each direction.
If p is the pressure in the system, then the force F on the piston having an area A is given by
Hydraulic accumulators store fluids under pressure in systems where the supply (usually a pump)
does not match the demand, for example, a cylinder. They perform much the same function as do
car batteries; they store energy surplus to the system and release it when needed.
𝐹 =𝑝𝑥𝐴
Hydraulic intensifiers are used to provide high pressure fluid from a supply at a lower pressure.
The force or the pistons is the same, as they are rigidly connected. Hence
29
𝑝1 𝐴1 = 𝑝2 𝐴2
𝐴1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑝2 = 𝑝
𝐴2 2
Ram pumps, as shown in Fig. 1.19, range in power from a few kilowatts to many megawatts and
at operating pressures from about 10 kPa to 100 MPa.
The ram raises the pressure as it enters the cylinder, forcing fluid through the self-acting discharge
valves. On the return stroke, the suction valves open to refill the cylinder. The pump is driven by
an electric motor coupled to the crankshaft and commonly has three cylinders to smooth out the
pressure surges. The hydraulic fluid is likely to be either water or oil.
30
Online tutorial
Now would be a good time to go to your online resource, Hydrostatics, and work through the
tutorial.
Pressure on curved surfaces

Problems involving the resultant pressure of a liquid on a curved surface can usually be solved by
considering the horizontal and vertical components of the resulting pressure separately.
The web resource, Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface, illustrates the technique.
The principles of fluid mechanics

Fluid mechanics is that branch of applied mechanics that is concerned with the statics and
dynamics of liquids and gases. The analysis of the behaviour of fluids is based on the fundamental
laws of applied mechanics, which relate to the conservation of mass and conservation of energy.
The study of fluid mechanics began about 350 years ago with the discovery, in 1650, of Pascal’s
law. Simply stated, this law says that pressure in a fluid at rest is transmitted equally in all
directions. One hundred years later, Bernoulli developed his law concerning the conservation of
energy in a flowing fluid. Another 100 years were to pass before these laws were applied to
industry.
Today, we can see the fine achievements made possible by the application of fluid mechanics
principles of mechanical engineering systems and components. Transportation, farm machinery,
material handling, construction, chemical, mining, manufacturing, processing, aerospace and high-
performance machines are finding more and more use of fluid power. Fluid power is power
transmitted and controlled through use of a pressurised liquid or gas. Hydraulics (from the Greek
word for water) is the engineering science pertaining to liquid pressure and flow. Pneumatics is the
engineering science pertaining to gaseous pressure and flow.
What is a fluid?
A fluid is a substance that has no resistance to change of shape.
A fluid can be a gas, liquid, slurry or powder.
In this section, we’ll deal mainly with liquids, oil and water.
The study of fluids is called:
• hydrostatics — fluids at rest
• hydrodynamics — flowing fluids.
31
As you work through this unit, you’ll need to be clear about:

1. Types of pressure
Gauge pressure read from gauge
Zero = atmosphere
Absolute pressure read from barometer

Zero = true zero
= gauge + atmosphere
2.Units of pressure .
• N/m²
• Pa (Pascals)
• bar
• mm of liquid.
All are interchangeable.

3. Unit conversions
1 N/m² = 1 Pa
1 bar = 10⁵ Pa
32
Standard atmospheric pressure = 101.3 kPa

= 1.013 bar
= 760 mm Hg
= 10.33 m H2O
4. The pressure-depth relationship,
p=wxh
where p = pressure
w = specific weight
h = depth below surface
4. Pressure in a closed container is equal in all directions.
Some properties of common liquids and gases

Table 1.1 gives some properties of common liquids and gases that are useful in calculations.
Table 1.2 gives some properties of common gases.
33
Physical characteristics of a fluid

The three different states of matter are due to the spacing and the degree of mobility of its
molecules. Solids have closely-packed molecules with little freedom of movement. Molecules in a
liquid are packed almost as closely as those in solids but are free to move. Gas molecules are
usually widely spaced and move about at random. It is the impact of the gas molecules on the
walls of the containing vessel that causes the gas to exert a pressure on them.
A fluid is a substance that cannot resist shear stress and thus offers very little or minimal resistance
to change of shape. Fluids may be divided into liquids and gases. A liquid occupies a fixed volume,
has a free horizontal surface and is virtually incompressible. A gas expands to completely fill the
enclosing vessel and is easily compressed.
Change of shape is caused by shearing forces, so if shear forces are acting in a fluid, it will flow.
Conversely, if a fluid is at rest, there can be no shearing forces in it and all forces exerted by the
fluid will be perpendicular (normal) to the planes on which they act.
In many engineering applications, the effects of compressibility are not important. Problems in this
area may be solved by using the ordinary principles of mechanics such as equilibrium of forces,
Newton’s laws, energy and momentum.
Where the effects of compressibility and temperature changes cannot be ignored, as in high-speed
gas flow, the concepts of thermodynamics must also be used.
Viscosity
The resistance to flow of a fluid is due to molecular cohesion, which results in a shearing action as
layers of the fluid slide relative to each other. This resistance to shear stress is a measure of the
viscosity of the fluid. We can easily show experimentally that different fluids have different
viscosities and that viscosity changes when the temperature of the fluid changes.
34
In engineering, the viscosity of oils has by far the widest application. Viscosity is probably the most
important physical property of an oil because it affects the ability to flow and to lubricate. If an oil
does not have the correct viscosity, it cannot perform satisfactorily, regardless of its other qualities.
The proper oil viscosity for use with a particular piece of equipment is usually specified by the
manufacturer of the equipment, and if oil of too high or too low a viscosity is used, the efficiency of
the equipment will be reduced. Low viscosity causes increased leakage and wear, and high
viscosity causes sluggish operation and high oil temperatures.
When a fluid flows smoothly over a stationary boundary, the layer in contact with the boundary is
at rest, and subsequent layers move with increasing velocities as the distance from the boundary
increases. Thus, there is a velocity gradient across the section of flow. See Fig 1.20.
To visualise viscosity, try this:
• Stir a cup of coffee
• Watch the bubbles on the surface
• The outer ones go more slowly than the inner ones.

A velocity gradient exists from outer to inner.
• This shows that each layer has a tangential force acting

between it and the adjacent layer.
In pipe flow, the velocity gradient exists along its length. Fluid is stationary at the outer edge and
its velocity increases towards the centre. Velocity is maximum at the centre.
35
The flow is assumed smooth and steady here (laminar flow). In turbulent flow, the velocity is approximately
uniform across the pipe. A high viscosity fluid has high shear forces between layers — makes it sluggish and
needs more power to move it. Called a highly viscous fluid.
Dynamic viscosity
The dynamic viscosity μ (mu), also called the coefficient of viscosity or simply the viscosity, is defined as
the shearing stress per velocity gradient.
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 (𝑡𝑎𝑢)

𝜇=
𝑑𝑣
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑣
𝜏=
𝑑𝑦
Units of viscosity
The usual unit for the measurement of viscosity is the poise (P). (1 P = 0.1 N s/m²).
𝜏(𝑁𝑚2 )
𝜇=
𝑑𝑣 (𝑚/𝑠)
𝑑𝑦 𝑚
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜇 = 𝑁𝑠/𝑚²
Kinematic viscosity 𝑣 (nu) is defined by the ratio of the dynamic viscosity divided by the density. It is not a
fundamental property of a fluid, but the ratio occurs frequently in problems of fluid motion and it has
been found convenient to give it a separate name. In symbols
36
𝜇
𝑣=
𝜌
𝜇 (𝑁 𝑠/𝑚² = 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣 =
𝜌(𝑘𝑔/𝑚²
𝑚²
𝑠
For convenience, we normally use values for 𝑣 in mm²/s.
The usual unit of measurement is the stoke (St) or centistoke (cSt).
1 stoke = 110−4 m²/s or 0.0001 m²/s
Measurement of viscosity
In industry, viscosity is usually determined by a viscometer, which measures the time taken in
seconds for a fixed volume of liquid at a given temperature to flow through a capillary tube. This
industrial viscosity is then related to kinematic viscosity by means of a conversion chart or a
calibration table. Figure 1.21 shows a typical conversion chart.
The standard viscometers are:
1. The Redwood No. I viscometer, which is used in Britain and the Commonwealth. The
time for 50 mL of fluid to flow through the orifice is measured. This test is carried out
at various standard test temperatures. When the number is quoted in seconds, the
temperature must also be stated.
2. The Saybolt viscometer, which is used in America, again at standard test temperatures.
3. The Engler viscometer, which is used in Europe. The viscosity is expressed as the ratio
of the time taken for a given quantity of oil to flow through an orifice to the time taken
for the same quantity of water to flow through the same orifice at the same temperature.
37
Surface tension
Liquids behave as though their free surfaces are perfectly flexible skins or membranes. This skin
has a constant tension per unit width called the surface tension. Note that this is neither a force
nor a stress but a force per unit length. Because it is so small, it is measured in millinewtons per
metre (mN/m).
The surface tension decreases as temperature increases and depends on the nature of the fluid
(liquid or gas) in contact at the surface.
Vapour pressure
In fluid mechanics, the physical property of vapour pressure is often important in the solution of
problems such as those associated with siphons and pipelines where the pressure is likely to fall
below atmospheric.
All liquids tend to vaporise or change from a liquid to a gas. Vaporisation occurs when molecules
are projected from the free surface of the liquid to the surrounding region. The ejected molecules,
being gaseous, exert a pressure called the vapour pressure of the liquid. As the temperature of
the liquid is increased, the number of ejected molecules will increase. Therefore, vapour pressure
increases with temperature.
Boiling will occur when the absolute pressure of the surrounding region is equal to, or less than,
the vapour pressure exerted by the liquid. Thus, the boiling point depends on pressure, and the
temperature at which a liquid boil will increase as the pressure of the surrounding region is
increased.
For example, Table 1.3 gives the boiling temperature of water corresponding to various vapour
pressures.
38
Note the use of the bar for the unit of pressure. The bar is not a preferred unit in SI, but you will
see it used in some publications.
One bar = 10⁵ N/m² = 100 kPa
Cavitation
What is pump cavitation?
Cavitation occurs when air bubbles are generated inside a pump because of the partial pressure
drop of the flowing liquid, resulting in a cavity at the relevant part. Changes in pressure inside the
pump turn the liquid into vapour and, as the pump’s impellers spin, back to liquid again. The air
bubbles move, pressure is increased, and the air bubbles instantaneously implode. The collapse of
vapour bubbles erodes the impeller surface, and if strong cavitation occurs at the impeller inlet,
pump performance decreases, which can lead to pumping failure.
Cavitation usually happens while using centrifugal pumps — these types of pumps depend on
changing pressure inside the unit to create a vacuum, pushing the liquid into the unit as opposed to
pulling it in. Submersible pumps can also experience cavitation, but the instance is less frequent.
This phenomenon is especially destructive to metal surfaces, which have little elasticity and will
eventually become pitted by the high-pressure jets formed by the collapsing vapour bubbles. Acrylic
pumps are more pliable than metal surfaces and are therefore more resilient against damage from
cavitation, but steps should still be taken with these pumps to avoid cavitation at all costs.
Cavitation, how to stop It

Cavitation is about the forming and collapsing of bubbles. Bubbles will form when the fluid
temperature gets too high, or the fluid pressure becomes too low.
To cure vaporisation problems, you must either increase the suction head, lower the fluid
temperature, decrease the fluid velocity, or decrease the net positive suction head required
➢ Raise the liquid level in the tank

➢ Elevate the supply tank.
➢ Put the pump in a pit.
➢ Reduce the piping losses. These losses occur for a variety of reasons that include:
➢ The system was designed incorrectly.
39
➢ Bigger pump has been installed, and the existing system has too much loss for the
increased capacity.
➢ A globe valve was used to replace a broken gate valve.
➢ Retrofit the pump with a higher specific speed impeller.
➢ Install a booster pump or inducer.
➢ Pressurise the tank.
➢ Lower the fluid inlet temperature
➢ Insulate the suction piping from the sun’s rays.
➢ Be careful of discharge re-circulation and vent lines re-circulated to the pump suction; they
can heat up the suction fluid.
➢ Decrease the fluid velocity
➢ Do not run the impeller too close to the pump cutwater.
➢ Reduce the speed of the pump.
➢ Reduce the capacity of the pump.
➢ Do not install an elbow too close to the pump suction.
➢ Reduce the net positive suction head required
➢ Use a double suction pump.
➢ Use a lower speed pump.
➢ Use a pump with a larger impeller eye-opening.
➢ If possible, install an inducer.
➢ Use several smaller pumps.
Cavitation Prevention
If your pumps are experiencing cavitation, check these.
Check filters and strainers - clogs on the suction, or discharge side can cause an imbalance of
pressure inside the pump
1. Reference the pump's curve - Use a pressure gauge and/or a flowmeter to understand
where your pump is operating on the curve. Make sure it is running at its best efficiency
point
2. Re-evaluate pipe design - Ensure the path the liquid takes to get to and from your pump is
ideal for the pump's operating conditions
Uses of Hydraulics in Everyday Life
The application of hydraulics in everyday life has become so normal that nobody ever thinks
about it anymore.
Today, virtually every industry uses hydraulics to move machinery and equipment to
accomplish various tasks, including tractors in agriculture, cranes in building & construction,
forklift in manufacturing and production warehouses, braking in transportation, and more.
Hydraulic machines utilise hydraulic fluid pressure to primarily power movement or as a
basic source of energy.
40
Hydraulic machines include dumps trucks, aluminium extruders, plastic extruders, cranes,
jackhammers, and hose crimpers.
Below is how hydraulics help in accomplishing various day-to-day tasks across industries and
sectors.
Hydraulics in Everyday life
Jobs performed by hydraulic machines may also include metal stamping, hose crimping,
injection moulding, and more.
Entertainment: Spinning motors are a great source of entertainment in amusement parks.

They apply hydraulics technology to power rides and provide motion, for instance, a Ferris
wheel.
Vehicle Braking: Virtually all vehicles on the road are powered by hydraulics. Specifically,
brake fluid is an important component of a vehicle’s braking system. Pressing the foot on the
brake pedal forces a rod and piston within the master cylinder to move and achieve the
desired effect, which ideally involves slowing down or stopping the vehicle.
Lifting and Repair & Maintenance: Without a hydraulic system, it would be very difficult to
lift a very heavy motor vehicle to facilitate repair and maintenance. The system uses
hydraulic fluid to help lift any heavy load to a desired height.
Aeroplanes: The advent of aerodynamics and aeroplanes has been a blessing in disguise.
People can easily travel from one continent to another within a few hours. However,
unknown to many, hydraulics have played a critical role in the operation of aeroplanes,
which use the technology to slow down when on the runway, to manage various flight
control panels, and to control the flaps.
Compress Substances: Compressing a huge mountain of garbage would require a huge

amount of force. However, hydraulic garbage compressors have profited from the idea that
applying a small amount of pressure and leveraging the power of hydraulics in everyday life
can produce a large amount of force to compress substances elsewhere.
As a result, garbage trucks take advantage of their strong hydraulic arms to compress and
compact the garbage to occupy less space. Apparently, compacting the garbage prevents the
rapid filling up of landfills, thereby helping to save the environment.
Table 1.3 shows that the boiling point of a liquid reduces as the pressure on the liquid reduces.
When a body moves through a liquid, the pressure on the downstream side of the body is
reduced. If the pressure becomes low enough, the liquid behind the downstream side starts to
boil, and as a result, cavities form between the downstream surface and the liquid with which it is
normally in contact. Under these circumstances, the boiling is termed cavitation. In practice, it is
met within the suction side of pump impellers and behind ships’ propeller blades.
Damage is caused in pumps when the vapour pockets move along with the liquid into higher
pressure regions within the pump. They then collapse violently, causing intense hammer-like
41
blows to the internal parts of the pump. In time, the pump metal becomes eroded and eventually
component failure results.
Activity 1.5
1 An automobile lubricating oil gives a Redwood No. 1 viscometer reading of 300 seconds
at 38°C. What is its viscosity in poise? The oil has a relative density of 0.83 at 38°C.
(6060P at 38°C)
2. Inspection of an impeller pump during a maintenance outage shows cavitation damage.

Give two possible methods of reducing or eliminating the cavitation without altering the
speed of the pump or restricting the flow through it.
3. Which categories of fluids would you describe as
(i) Compressible?
(ii) Incompressible?
4. Give an everyday example of why it is undesirable to have compressible fluid in a hydraulic

system.
Gas laws
The gas laws are briefly stated below. For more detail of their derivation, you should revise your
earlier work in physics.
Use of absolute units

When using the gas laws, all pressures and temperatures must be in absolute units.
In the assessments, all pressures are absolute unless stated otherwise. In your answers, you
should leave pressures absolute unless the question asks for a gauge pressure.
Gauge pressure = absolute pressure – atmospheric pressure
Temperatures given in degrees Celsius must be converted to kelvin for use in the gas law
equations. Answers should be given in degrees Celsius.
K = °C + 273
1atm = 101325P
𝜏, greek tau, (pronounced ‘tor’) is the symbol used for absolute temperature.
42
Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure
Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s Law (sometimes referred to as the Boyle-Mariotte Law) states that the absolute pressure and
volume of a given mass of confined gas are inversely proportional, provided the temperature remains
unchanged within a closed system. This can be stated mathematically as follows:
P1V1 = P2V2 = a constant
Example
In an industrial process, a gas confined to a volume of 1 L at a pressure of 20 atm is allowed to flow

into a 12-L container by opening the valve that connects the two containers. What is the final pressure
of the gas?
Set up the problem by setting up the known and unknown variables. In this case, the initial pressure
is 20 atm (P1), the initial volume is 1 L (V1), and the new volume is 1L + 12 L = 13 L (V2), since the two
containers are connected. The new pressure (P2) remains unknown.
P1V1 = P2V2 12
(20 atm)(1 L) = (P2)(13 L).
20 atom = (13) P2.
P2 = 1.54 atm. or 1560640.5Pa( 156.04 kPa)
The final pressure of the gas is 1.54 atm. or 156.04 kPa
Charles' Law
In 1787, the French inventor Jacques Charles, while investigating the inflation of his man‐carrying
hydrogen balloon, discovered that the volume of a gas varied directly with temperature. This relation
can be written as
and is called Charles' law. For this law to be valid, the pressure must be held constant, and the
temperature must be expressed on the absolute temperature or Kelvin scale.
Because the volume of a gas decreases with falling temperature, scientists realized that a natural
zero‐point for temperature could be defined as the temperature at which the volume of a gas
theoretically becomes zero. At a temperature of absolute zero, the volume of an ideal gas would be
zero. The absolute temperature scale was devised by the English physicist Kelvin, so temperatures
43
on this scale are called Kelvin (K) temperatures. The relationship of the Kelvin scale to the common
Celsius scale must be memorized by every mechanical student: K = °C + 273.15. we will use the
following equation for our calculations.
K = °C + 273
Therefore, at normal pressure, water freezes at 273.15 K (0°C), which is called the freezing point, and
boils at 373.15 K (100°C). Room temperature is approximately 293 K (20°C). Both temperature scales
are used in tables of chemical values, and many simple errors arise from not noticing which scale is
presented.
Use Charles' law to calculate the final volume of a gas that occupies 400 ml at 20°C and is subsequently
heated to 300°C. Begin by converting both temperatures to the absolute scale:
T 1 = 20°C = 293 K
T 2 = 300°C = 573 K
Then substitute them into the constant ratio of Charles' law:
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
400𝑚𝐿 𝑥 𝑚𝐿
=
293𝐾 573𝐾
(400𝑚𝐿)(573𝐾)
𝑥 𝑚𝐿 =
293𝐾
𝑥 𝑚𝐿 = 782.25
When using Charles' law, remember that volume and Kelvin temperature vary directly; therefore, an
increase in either requires a proportional increase in the other.
What is Gay-Lussac’s Law?
Gay-Lussac’s law is a gas law which states that the pressure exerted by a gas (of a given mass and kept
at a constant volume) varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas. In other words, the
pressure exerted by a gas is proportional to the temperature of the gas when the mass is fixed, and
the volume is constant.
44
This law was formulated by the French chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac in the year 1808. The mathematical
expression of Gay-Lussac’s law can be written as follows:
P ∝ T ; P/T = k
Where:
• P is the pressure exerted by the gas

• T is the absolute temperature of the gas
• k is a constant.
The relationship between the pressure and absolute temperature of a given mass of gas (at constant
volume) can be illustrated graphically as follows.
From the graph, it can be understood that the pressure of a gas (kept at constant volume) reduces
constantly as it is cooled until the gas eventually undergoes condensation and becomes a liquid.
Formula and Derivation
Gay-Lussac’s law implies that the ratio of the initial pressure and temperature is equal to the ratio of
the final pressure and temperature for a gas of a fixed mass kept at a constant volume. This formula
can be expressed as follows:
(P1/T1) = (P2/T2)
Where:
• P1 is the initial pressure

• T1 is the initial temperature
• P2 is the final pressure
• T2 is the final temperature
This expression can be derived from the pressure-temperature proportionality for gas. Since P ∝ T for
gases of fixed mass kept at constant volume:
P1/T1 = k (initial pressure/ initial temperature = constant)
P2/T2 = k (final pressure/ final temperature = constant)
Therefore, P1/T1 = P2/T2 = k
Or, P1T2 = P2T1
45
Examples of Gay-Lussac’s Law
When a pressurized aerosol can (such as a deodorant can or a spray-paint can) is heated, the resulting
increase in the pressure exerted by the gases on the container (owing to Gay-Lussac’s law) can result
in an explosion. This is the reason why many pressurized containers have warning labels stating that
the container must be kept away from fire and stored in a cool environment.
An illustration describing the increase in pressure which accompanies an increase in the absolute
temperature of a gas kept at a constant volume is provided above. Another example of Gay-Lussac’s
law can be observed in pressure cookers. When the cooker is heated, the pressure exerted by the
steam inside the container increases. The high temperature and pressure inside the container cause
the food to cook faster.
Solved Exercises on Gay-Lussac’s Law
Exercise
The pressure of a gas in a cylinder when it is heated to a temperature of 250K is 152kPa. What was
the initial temperature of the gas if its initial pressure was 1 atm.
Given,
Initial pressure, P1 = 101.3kPa
Final pressure, P2 = 152kPa
Final temperature, T2 = 250 K
As per Gay-Lussac’s Law, P1T2 = P2T1

𝑃1 𝑇2
Therefore, 𝑇1 = 𝑃1
101.3𝑘𝑃𝑎 ∙ 250𝐾
𝑇1 = 152𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 166.61 Kelvin.
46
The general (or combined) gas law

The above relationships may be combined into a single equation, which may be used when any
or all of the quantities are varying. In symbols
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
= = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇1 𝑇2
(for a fixed mass of gas).
Note that equation 1 may be applied to all problems that could be solved by the use of Boyle’s,
Charles’ or Gay-Lussac’s laws, as the constant quantities simply cancel out on either side of the
General gas equation.
The characteristic gas equation

This is another way of writing the General gas law.
For a unit-fixed mass of gas, the value of the constant in equation 1 is given the special symbol
‘R’, which is termed the characteristic gas constant. In symbols
𝑝𝑉
= 𝑅 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠)
𝑇
𝑝𝑉
= 𝑚𝑅 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠)
𝑇
Therefore 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
Equation 2 is termed the characteristic equation for a gas. Values of R for various gases may be
obtained from tables of physical constants. For air, R = 287 J/kg K.
All of the above equations assume that the gases are ‘perfect’, that is, that they obey simple
mathematical relationships exactly. Real gases are not perfect, but the errors are insignificant
in practical applications.
Other relationships between gas constants

Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise unit mass of a substance through one degree
of temperature. For a solid or a liquid (where expansion is negligible), the specific heat has only
one value for a given substance, as the change in temperature alters only the kinetic (or internal)
energy of the molecules.
If a gas is heated at constant volume, again only the internal energy of the molecules alters, and
this is manifested by an increase in pressure of the gas. However, if the pressure is kept constant,
by allowing the volume of gas to expand, then in addition to the increase in internal energy, external
work is also done by the gas. It follows that the amount of heat added at constant pressure must
be greater than that added at constant volume, by the heat equivalent of the external work done.
47
A gas, therefore, has two specific heat values; specific heat at constant volume (Cv ) and specific
heat at constant pressure (Cp), which is larger.
The units for Cp and Cv are J/kg K and these are the same units as used for R (see R for air above).
It can be shown that
R = Cp – Cv (3)
Two other quantities that you will use are:
1. specific volume, that is, the volume of unit mass, symbol Vs
2. density, that is, mass per unit volume, symbol 𝜌 (rho).
In the case of a gas, both of these must be quoted at given values of pressure and temperature.
In SI, the units of vs are m³/kg and the units of ρ are kg/m³. Hence
1
𝑉𝑠 = (4)
𝜌
Examples
1. What total volume of air at an atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa is required to inflate a
car tyre of 6 litres capacity to a pressure of 180 kPa gauge, assuming no change in air
temperature?
𝑃1 = 100𝐾𝑝𝐴 𝑃2 = 180 + 100
𝑉1 =? 𝑃2 = 280𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑉2 = 6𝐿
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡
Therefore 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑃2 𝑉2
Therefore, 𝑉1 = 𝑃1
280𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑥 6𝐿
100𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 16.8𝐿
48
Note the correct SI symbol L for litre.

2. A small air compressor delivers 1.2 m3/min of free air. Calculate the mass of air delivered
per minute taking free air conditions as 101.3 kPa at 15°C. R for air is 287 J/kg K.
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑝𝑉
𝑜𝑟 𝑚 =
𝑅𝑇
103𝑁
𝑝 = 101.3 𝑥 𝑉 = 1.2 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚2
𝑇 = (15 + 273)
= 288𝐾
101.3 𝑥 103 𝑥 1.2

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑚=
287 𝑥 288
= 1.47𝑘𝑔/ min
Check the units by using a unit equation as shown below:
𝑁 𝑥 𝑚3 𝑥 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 𝐾
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 =
𝑚2 𝑥 min 𝑥 𝑁𝑚 𝑥 𝐾
= 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
Note
Dotted symbols in the above equation indicate flow rate.
Isothermal, adiabatic and polytropic processes
Isothermal process
The expansion (or compression) of a gas at constant temperature is called an isothermal process
and is in accordance with Boyle’s law.
pV = constant
In an isothermal process, all the heat energy absorbed (or rejected) is expended as work done
by (or on) the gas. In practice, it is not possible to obtain an isothermal process, that is, to
convert all the heat to work. However, a process carried out very slowly would approximate to an
isothermal process.
49
Adiabatic process
If no heat is absorbed (or rejected) by the gas during expansion (or compression), then the process
is said to be adiabatic. The expression that applies only to an adiabatic process is
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑃
𝛾(𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎) =
𝐶𝑉
where Cp is the specific heat of the gas at a constant pressure, Cp and Cv is the
specific heat of the gas at a constant volume Cv.
The specific heat of a gas depends on the conditions of heating, because, if the gas
is heated at constant pressure, it will expand and do external work at the expense
of the heat input. The specific heat of a gas must therefore be determined at a
constant pressure Cp and at a constant volume Cv. In practice, it is not possible to
expand or compress a gas adiabatically because, to do so, would require a perfectly
insulated cylinder. A close approximation to an adiabatic can, however, be achieved
by rapid expansion.
Polytropic process
In the everyday world, a process is neither isothermal nor adiabatic but lies somewhere between
the two and is called a polytropic process. We can assume that a polytropic process follows the
law
𝑝𝑉 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
where n lies somewhere between 1 and 𝛾(𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎)
Work done by (or on) a gas
The SI units for pressure multiplied by volume are
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑃𝑎 𝑚³ (𝑁/𝑚² 𝑥 𝑚³)
= 𝑁𝑚
As the joule (J) is defined as 1 newton metre (Nm), we can express pV in terms of joules (units of
energy). Pressure multiplied by volume is measured in joules, which is a measurement of the
energy of the gas. So if there is a change in volume of the gas(either at constant pressure or
accompanied by a change in pressure), then there will be a change in energy and therefore in work done
when the gas is expanded or compressed. Figure 1.22 shows the curves that apply in different cases.
50
When a gas expands as shown in Fig. 1.22(a), the work done (area under the curve) is a minimum when
the expansion is adiabatic, and during compression, as shown in Fig. 1.22(b), the work done is a minimum
when the compression is isothermal. In practice, compression process closely resembling the isothermal is
aimed in achieving the minimum work done.
Example
One litre of air at 101.3 kPa and 15°C is compressed adiabatically in a cylinder to 1.25 MPa.
Determine the:
1. final air temperature
2. specific volume and the density of the air after compression.
For air R = 287 J/kg K and Cv = 718 J/kg K

1. 𝑃1 = 101.3 𝑥 103 𝑁/𝑚² 𝑃2 = 1.25 𝑥 106 𝑁/𝑚²
2. 𝑉1 = 1.0 𝑥 10−3 𝑁/𝑚² 𝑉2 = ?
𝑇1 = 15 + 273 𝑉2 = ?
= 288𝐾
𝑅 = 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑅 + 𝐶𝑉
= 287 + 718
= 1005 𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝐶𝑃
𝛾=
𝐶𝑉
1005
=
718
51
= 1.3997
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝛾
𝑃1 𝑉 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑉2 ( 21 ) 𝛾
𝑃
101.3 𝑥 103 𝑥 10−3 1.4

1
𝑉2 ( ) 1.4
1.25 𝑥 106
= 1.6615 𝑥 10−4 𝑚²
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑇2 =
𝑇2
1.25 𝑥 106 𝑥 1.662 𝑥 10−4 𝑥 288

𝑇2 =
101.3 𝑥 103 𝑥 1.0 𝑥 10−3
= 590.6 𝐾 𝑜𝑟 317.6 ℃
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = ( 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠)
𝑅𝑇1
1.6615 𝑥 10−4
=
1.2256 𝑥 10−3
= 0.1356𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔
1
𝑉𝑠 =
𝑉𝑠
1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝜌 =
𝑉𝑠
1
=
0.1356
= 7.375𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
Note
You should check that the units are correct in the answers to the above example by the use of
unit equations.
52
Key points
Viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance of a liquid to shear (or flow).
The unit of dynamic viscosity is the poise (1 poise = 0.1 N s/m2). The unit of kinematic viscosity is
the stoke (1 stoke = 10−4m²/s).
Cavitation is the formation of cavities between the downstream surface of a moving body and a
liquid normally in contact with it. Associated damage occurs when the cavities collapse, causing
erosion of the body.
The gas laws must be used when dealing with compressible fluids. Absolute units must be used
when applying the gas laws.
Activity 1.6
1. A cylinder of compressed air has an internal volume of 3 m3 and a gross weight of 350 N.
The temperature of the cylinder and contents is 25°C. If the weight of the empty cylinder
is 300 N, what pressure would you expect to see showing on the cylinder pressure
gauge? R for air is 0.287 kJ/kg K.
2. Oxygen at a pressure of 15 MPa and a temperature of 17°C is contained in a cylinder 2
m long and 150 mm internal diameter. What mass of oxygen is contained in the cylinder?
What mass of oxygen is available from the cylinder if the lowest useful cylinder pressure
is 120 kPa? R for oxygen is 0.26 kJ/kg K.
3. A machine uses 250 L of free air from an air receiver having a capacity of 600 L. The
receiver was originally filled to 750 kPa at 50°C. Calculate the pressure after discharge if
the receiver temperature is then 15°C. Free air conditions are 101.3 kPa at 15°C.
53
Fan laws
Above pressures of about 500 mm w.g., compressibility of the air (or gas) becomes appreciable,
and corrections for variation of density and temperature must be included in fan calculations. For
fans operating below 500 mm w.g., the following theory is useful for comparing similar fans of
different diameters operating at different speeds against different pressures.
Note that the fan laws give only a first approximation for the selection of size, speed and power for
a fan application, and final selection should be made from fan performance curves in
manufacturers’ catalogues.
To develop the fan laws, we make two basic assumptions:
1. The velocity of air coming from the fan is approximately equal to the blade tip velocity.
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑣 = 2𝜋𝑁𝑑
𝑣 𝛼 𝑁𝑑
where v is the velocity of flow, N is the impeller speed, and d is the impeller diameter.
2. The pressure developed by the fan is proportional to the kinetic energy of the air
leaving the impeller.
𝑉2
𝑝 𝛼
2𝑔
𝑝 𝛼 𝑉2
54
Flow comparisons
The flow from the fan can be approximated as
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
𝜋𝑑 2
= 𝑥𝑣
4
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑄 𝛼 𝑑 2 𝑣
𝐴𝑠 𝑣 𝛼 𝑁𝑑
𝑄 𝛼 𝑁𝑑 3
If suffix 1 applies to a fan of known performance and suffix 2 applies to a similar fan of different
dimensions for which we wish to estimate performance, then, for the same operating pressure
𝑄1 𝛼 𝑑13
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄2 𝛼 𝑁2 𝑑23
𝑄1 𝑁1 𝑑1
= ( )³
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝑑2
Example
A fan of 1 m diameter delivers 1000 m3/min when operating at 2950 rev/min against a pressure
of 25 mm w.g. Estimate the flow from a 2 m diameter fan operating at 585 rev/min against the
same pressure.
𝑄1 𝑁1 𝑑1
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ( )³
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝑑2
1000 2950 1
= ( )³
𝑄2 585 2
𝑄2 = 1590𝑚2 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
55
Pressure comparisons
The pressure developed by a fan is taken as being proportional to the kinetic energy of the air
leaving the impeller.
𝑝 𝛼 𝑉2
𝐴𝑆 𝑣 𝛼 𝑁𝑑
𝑝 𝛼 𝑛2 𝑑 2
For two similar fans delivering the same flow.
𝑃1 𝑁1 𝑑1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = ( )2 ( )2
𝑃2 𝑁2 𝑑2
Power comparisons
𝑃1 𝑁1 𝑑1 𝑛2
= ( )3 ( )5 ( )
𝑃2 𝑁2 𝑑2 𝑛1
As the fans are similar, efficiency will be approximately the same for each, and 𝑛1 = 𝑛2 , giving
𝑃1 𝑁1 𝑑1
= ( )3 ( )5
𝑃2 𝑁2 𝑑2
Example
A fan pumps 20 m³/s of air against a pressure of 70 mm w.g. when rotating at 1000 rev/min
and requires 17 kW to drive it. Estimate its performance at 1500 rev/min (1 mm w.g. = 9.81
N/m²).
𝑄1 𝑁1 𝑑1
= ( )³
𝑄2 𝑁2 𝑑2
𝑁1 𝑑1
𝑄2 = 𝑄1 ( )³
𝑁2 𝑑2
1500 1
𝑄2 = 20 𝑥 ( ) ( )³
1000 1
= 30𝑚3 /𝑠
56
𝑃1 𝑁1 𝑑1
= ( )2 ( )2
𝑃2 𝑁2 𝑑2
𝑁1 2 𝑑1 2
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 = ( ) ( )
𝑁2 𝑑2
1500 1
𝑃2 = 70 𝑥 ( )² ( )²
1000 1
= 158 𝑚𝑚 𝑤. 𝑔
𝑃1 𝑁1 𝑑1
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ( )3 ( )5
𝑃2 𝑁2 𝑑2
𝑁2 3 𝑑2 5
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 = ( ) ( )
𝑁1 𝑑1
1500 3 1 5
𝑃2 = 17 𝑥 ( ) ( )
1000 1
= 57.4 𝐾𝑊
𝑃1𝑄1
𝐴𝑠 𝑃1 =
𝑛1
𝑃1 𝑄1
𝑛1 =
𝑃1
70 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 20
𝑛1 =
17
𝑛1 = 0.81 (80%)
Note that 𝑃1 must be in Newtons per square metre, and as 1 mm w.g. is equivalent to 9.81
N/m², P1 = 70 x 9.81 N/m².
57
Key points
Fan laws apply for incompressible flow conditions with pressures < 500 mm w.g.
The assumptions are:
1: 𝑉 𝛼 𝑁𝑑
2: 𝑝 𝛼 𝑉2
At constant pressure, 𝑄 𝛼 𝑁𝑑 2
At constant flow, 𝑝 𝛼 𝑁 2𝑑2
Power absorbed by fan
𝑝𝑄 𝑁 3𝑑5
𝑝= 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑛 𝑛
Activity 1.7
A fan absorbs 0.69 kW in delivering 5.5 m3/s of air against a pressure of 125 Pa at a speed of 1200
rev/min. What will be the new speed, pressure and power requirements if the flow is to be reduced
to 3.6 m3/s?
Pump laws
The pump, which imparts a velocity to a fluid and converts the velocity energy to pressure energy
are categorised by a set of relationships called Pump Laws (Table 1.4). The laws can be
described as similarity processes that follow these rules:
1. Flow (capacity) varies with the rotating speed (that is, the peripheral velocity of the
impeller).
2. Pressure varies as the square of the rotating speed.
3. Power varies as the cube of the rotating speed.
These laws are useful for estimating pump performance at different rotating speeds or impeller
diameters based on a pump with known characteristics.
58
The pump laws assume that the system curve is known, and that pressure varies as the square of flow.
The operating point is the interaction of the total system curve and the pump curve (see Fig. 1.24).
Because the pump law is used to calculate a new condition due to a flow or pressure change, for
example, reduced pump speed or impeller diameter, this new condition also follows the same system
curve. You may have noted that fan laws and pump laws are similar.
59
Feedback on Module 1 Activities
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69

6301 Module 1 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

6301 Module 1 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DE6301 Fluid Mechanics

Feed back on module 1 Activity 60

Module 1: Principles of fluid mechanics

Traditional fluid power usages

1. Fluid transport systems.

2. Fluid power systems.

Fluid power system constraints

• variable area flow meter (rotameter)

At the conclusion of this module, you should be able to:

• define the main properties of liquids

• explain and calculate hydrostatic pressure

• calculate the hydrostatic forces and moments on submerged surfaces

• explain and solve problems involving simple hydrostatic devices.

Relative density is therefore purely a number that has no units.

The density of water is 1000 kg/m³

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = (0. 4)3 𝑚3

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 0.064 𝑚3

Relative density = density of mercury

Force = mass x acceleration

Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s²

Density of a body is determined by the amount of mass contained in its volume.

1. Find the weight of a person whose mass is 80.0 kg

(b) On the moon where g = 1.63 m/s2.

(a) The volume of lead per metre length of pipe.

(b) The mass of lead per metre length of pipe.

Flotation and Archimedes’ principle

Therefore, Downward force, weight = (7700 × 64 × 10−6 ) × 9.81

Upthrust = weight of water displaced

but volume of water displaced = 64 × 10−6 𝑚3

Therefore, Mass of water =64 × 10−6𝑚3 𝑥 1000

A submarine of mass 1000 tonnes floats

Therefore. The submarine must reduce its weight by 9.81 MN – 9.525 MN

Determination of relative density

Hydrometers are used to find the relative densities of

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = mass x acceleration due to gravity

𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑑 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

1. A block of wood having dimensions of 15 cm by 8 cm by 4 cm has a relative density of

Properties and measurements in hydrostatics

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 − 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 𝑤 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑁/𝑚3

𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑔)

In Fig. 1.7, a force F is applied to a piston that is

Fig 1.7 Pressure in a cylinder

The base of the cylinder shown in Fig. 1.7 is replaced by

Liquid pressure due to depth

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Find the pressure head of water corresponding to a pressure of 50 kPa. The

Atmospheric pressure in head of mercury and head of

= 100 × 10³ (N/m²)

133.4 × 10³ (N/m²)

This is generally given in the form

𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 10.19𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Specific weight of mercury = 133.4 kN/m³

Therefore p = (133.4 × 10³) × (770 × 10−3)

= 102 718 N/m²

Now 1 bar = 10⁵ N/m²

Absolute and gauge pressure

200 kN/m² gauge is gauge reading, and

200 kN/m² gauge = 200 + 101.3

= 301.3 kN/m² absolute

1. Resultant force on end of pipe = average pressure × area of end of pipe

Average pressure = pressure at centroid of end, p

Forces on immersed surfaces

Transmission of force by fluid pressure