Traditional Decline Analysis Theory

Conceptual Definition of Decline Analysis

Decline analysis is a reservoir engineering empirical technique that extrapolates trends in the
production data from oil and gas wells. The purpose of a Decline analysis is to generate a
forecast of future production rates and to determine the expected ultimate recoverable (EUR)
reserves.

Figure 1: Rate versus cumulative gas production

Typically, decline analysis is conducted on a plot of rate versus time or rate versus cumulative
production (as shown in figure above). The most commonly used trending equations are those
first documented by J.J. Arps (1945). The following figure demonstrates a match trend and
extrapolation to the EUR.

Figure 2: Rate versus cumulative gas production

Historical Background
J.J. Arps was an American geologist who published a mathematical relationship for the rate at
which oil production from a single well declines over time (1945). His paper made several
references to existing methods and theory about decline analysis. References included Arnold
and Anderson (1908), W.W. Cutler (1924), H.N. Marsh (1928), and R. E. Allen (1931).

Many contemporary published papers have tried to investigate or modify the Arps decline
based on theoretical derivations. However, after 70 years, the original method is still widely in
use.

Practical Decline Analysis Key Points

All production can be characterized as having an initial transient flow period followed by a
boundary-dominated flow period. During the transient period, the reservoir pressure at the flow
boundary remains constant at the initial reservoir pressure and the flow boundary moves
outward from the well through the reservoir. This portion of a well’s flow is characterized by
very high decline rates. When the flow boundary reaches an actual reservoir boundary, or
meets with a flow boundary of another well, the reservoir pressure begins to decline and the
well enters the boundary-dominated flow period. It is in this period that traditional decline
methods (i.e. Arps) can be used.

The transient flow period can last for time periods from several minutes to several years,
depending upon permeability and the areal extent of the reservoir. For most conventional
production, the transient flow period ends after a few days. Tighter reservoirs that have
permeability in the 0.5 to 1.0 mD range can have transient periods that last several months.
Reservoirs that have even lower permeabilities that require extensive fracture networks can
have transient periods that could last for several years.
 Once a well has achieved boundary-dominated flow, another important consideration is the
sandface flowing pressure. For the period of production included in the decline analysis, the
sandface flowing pressure must be relatively constant before a reliable set of decline
parameters can be extracted. Factors that affect sandface flowing pressure are rate controlled
wells, changing wellhead backpressure, changing wellbore configurations, and liquid loading.

Decline Theory
The theory of all decline curve analysis begins with the concept of the nominal (instantaneous)
decline rate (a), which is defined as the fractional change in rate per unit time:

Another way of representing the decline rate is based on rate (q) and the decline exponent
constant b.

When production is plotted as flow rate vs. time, the nominal decline rate is equal to the slope
at a point in time divided by the rate at that point.

Figure 3

The behaviour of the production data can be characterized based on the way in which the
nominal decline rate varies with rate, based on the value of the decline exponent constant b.

 Exponential — b = 0
  Hyperbolic — b is a value other than 0 or 1

 Harmonic — b = 1

Exponential
For the exponential case, b = zero. The decline rate can be shown as:

Where k is a constant equal to a / qb at initial conditions:

As the decline rate remains constant, the integration of the equation for decline rate results in:

Therefore, a plot of flow rate vs. time, with rate set to a logarithmic axis, will result in a straight
line.

The cumulative production is defined as:

Therefore, a plot of flow rate vs. cumulative production will result in a straight line.

Hyperbolic
For the hyperbolic case, b is equal to any number between zero and one. The decline rate can
be shown as:

Where k is a constant equal to a / qb at initial conditions:

As the decline rate is not constant, the substitution and integration of the equation for decline
rate results in:

Substituting
  

The cumulative production is defined as:

Substituting
It is noted that neither a plot of flow rate vs. time or flow rate vs. cumulative production will
result in a linear relation (regardless of whether rate is set to a Cartesian or logarithmic axis).

Harmonic
The harmonic case is a special case of the above hyperbolic case, where b is equal to one.
The decline rate can be shown as:

Where k is a constant equal to a / qb at initial conditions:

As the decline rate is not constant, the substitution and integration of the equation for decline
rate results in:

Substituting
The cumulative production is defined as:

Substituting

It is noted that a plot of flow rate vs. time will not result in a linear relation (regardless of
whether rate is set to a Cartesian or logarithmic axis). A plot of flow rate vs. cumulative
production, with rate set to a logarithmic axis, will result in a straight line.
Exponential Decline Rate: Nominal vs. Effective
When production follows an exponential decline, there are two different ways of defining the
decline rate: Nominal and Effective.

The first is the nominal decline rate, represented by the symbol "a". The nominal decline rate
is defined as:

The nominal decline rate is used to calculate the rate decline at a specific time. For a given
time, the equation for rate using nominal decline is:

The second is the effective decline rate, represented by the symbol "d". The effective decline
rate, for a particular time period (typically one year), is defined as:

The effective decline rate is used to calculate the rate decline for particular time periods. For
one time step, the equation for rate using effective decline is:

Note that the time interval is included in the equation for rate using effective decline, but is
explicitly stated in the equation for rate using nominal decline.

Although the equations for nominal and effective decline rates are different from one another,
there is a relationship that will give the same answer for q2 provided the time intervals between
q1 and q2 are the same. The relationship between the two is given by:
 Note:    The above equation is only valid for the exponential equations.

The difference between the two decline rates is illustrated below. In effect, the nominal decline
rate is related to the instantaneous slope of the line, whereas the effective decline rate derives
from the chord segment approximating that slope. Also, the rate by which the slope is divided
is different - instantaneous rate (q) is used in the case of nominal decline, whereas the
preceding rate (q1) is used in the case of effective decline.

Figure 4: Comparison of Nominal Decline and Effective Decline

The effective decline rate typically arises when dealing with flow rate data in tabular rather
than graphical format. The difference between the nominal and effective decline rates is very
small when the nominal decline rate is small, but as the nominal decline rate gets larger the
difference between the two increases. It is therefore important to use these values correctly.

Modified Hyperbolic Decline

Extrapolation of hyperbolic declines over long periods of time frequently results in
unrealistically high reserves. To avoid this problem, it has been suggested that at some point
in time the hyperbolic decline be converted into an exponential decline (Robertson). Thus,
assume that for a particular example, the decline rate starts at 30% and decreases through
time in a hyperbolic manner. When it reaches a specified value, 10% for example, the
hyperbolic decline can be converted to an exponential decline, and the forecast continued
using the exponential decline rate of 10%.
Limited Decline Rate
The limited decline rate begins as a hyperbolic decline curve and transitions into an
exponential decline curve at a specified limiting effective decline rate, dlim. The limiting effective
decline rate is converted to a limiting nominal decline rate, alim, and the following rate – time
equations are applied in the analysis:

where:

The limited decline rate can also be expressed as rate – cumulative production using the
following equations.

For b > 1:

For b = 1:
 Values of b > 1

A value of b = 0 corresponds to exponential decline, values of b >0 and < 1 correspond to

hyperbolic decline, and a value of b = 1 corresponds to harmonic decline. Values of b >1 are
not consistent with decline curve theory, but they are sometimes encountered, and their
meaning is explained below.

Decline curve analysis is based on empirical observations of production rate decline, and not
on theoretical derivations. Attempts to explain the observed behaviour using the theory of flow
in porous media lead to the fact that these empirically observed declines are related to
boundary-dominated flow. When a well is placed on production, there will be transient flow
initially. Eventually, all of the reservoir boundaries will be felt, and it is only after this time that
decline curve analysis becomes applicable. During boundary-dominated flow, the value of "b"
lies in the range of 0 to 1, depending on the reservoir boundary conditions and the recovery
mechanism.

Occasionally, decline curves with values of b > 1 are encountered. Below are some reasons
that have been presented to explain this:

 The interpretation is wrong, and another value of b < 1 will fit the data.

 The data is still in transient flow and has not reached boundary-dominated
flow.

 Gentry and McCray (1978), using numerical simulation showed that

reservoir layering can cause values of b > 1.

 Bailey (1982) showed that some fractured gas wells exhibit values of b >
1, sometimes as high as 3.5.

Arps Production Decline Equation Summary

Type Exponential Decline Hyperbolic Decline Harmonic Decline

  Decline is constant Decline is proportional to a fractional power (b) of the Decline is proportional to
 Type Exponential Decline Hyperbolic Decline Harmonic Decline

b=0 production rate production rate

0 < b< 1 b=1

Rate-Time

Rate-
Cumulative

EUR
Nomenclature
Variable Description

a Nominal (instantaneous) decline rate (Traditional Decline Analysis Theory)

aelf Decline rate at end of linear flow

af Final nominal (instantaneous) decline rate

ai Initial nominal (instantaneous) decline rate

alim Limiting nominal (instantaneous) decline rate

A Area

AD Areal extent of reservoir

Ao Gas-oil pore size distribution index

ASRV Area of stimulated reservoir volume

Aw Oil-water pore size distribution index

APE Automatic Parameter Estimation

b Decline exponent

Pseudo-steady state constant in the flow equation using material balance pseudo-
ba,pss
time (gas)

bDpss Dimensionless pseudo-steady state constant

bpss Pseudo-steady state constant in the flow equation using material balance time (oil)

B Formation volume factor

Bg Formation volume factor for gas

Bgd Dry gas formation volume factor, ft3/scf, m3/m3

Bgi Formation volume factor for gas at initial reservoir pressure and temperature

Bginj Formation volume factor for injected gas

Bo Formation volume factor for oil, bbl/stb, m3/m3

Bob Formation volume factor for oil at bubble point

Boi Formation volume factor for oil at initial reservoir pressure and temperature
Variable Description

Bw Formation volume factor for water

Bwi Formation volume factor for water at initial reservoir pressure and temperature

Bwinj Formation volume factor for injected water

c Compressibility

cd Relative change in pore volume due to desorption of gas

Effective compressibility. For oil systems, includes oil, water, and formation
ce compressibilities. 
For gas systems, includes gas, water, and formation compressibilities.

cep Relative change in pore volume due to formation and residual fluid expansion

cf Formation/pore compressibility

cf,max Formation compressibility at zero net overburden pressure

cfi Initial formation compressibility

cg Gas compressibility

c̅g Average gas compressibility

ci Initial compressibility

cma Matrix compressibility

co Oil compressibility

ct Total compressibility

Total compressibility at average reservoir pressure including net gas compressibility

c̅te
due to water influx

cti Total initial compressibility

cT Isothermal compressibility

cT,w Isothermal compressibility of water

cT,wf Isothermal compressibility of gas-free water

cT,wg Isothermal compressibility of gas-saturated water

cti Total system compressibility at original reservoir pressure

cw Water compressibility
Variable Description

cwip Relative change in pore volume due to water influx and production

C Transfer coefficient related to flow capacity of the formation

CBM Coalbed Methane

CCA Custom Calculated Attributes

CD Storage coefficient

CDF Cumulative Distribution Function

CDI Formation and Connate Water Compressibility Drive Index

CF Casing Flange (reference point for depth measurements)

CGR Condensate Gas Ratio, bbl/MMscf, m3/103m3

Ca Ash content (Langmuir Isotherm)

CA Reservoir shape factor

CaD Dimensionless apparent wellbore storage

CAh Shape factor for horizontal wells

CD Dimensionless wellbore storage

Cg Gas content

Cg,abdn/CO2 Gas content at abandonment pressure or CO2 concentration

Cgi Initial gas content

CG Input gas volume fraction

CL Liquid input volume fraction

Cm Matrix swelling coefficient

Co Gas-oil entry capillary pressure

Cp Mechanical compliance coefficient

CpD Dimensionless storage pressure parameter

Oil-water entry capillary pressure.

Cw
Moisture content. (Langmuir Isotherm)

d Effective decline rate

Variable Description

di Initial effective decline rate

dlim limiting effective decline rate

D Turbulence factor

DDI Depletion Drive Index

DLS Dominion Land Survey

E Young's modulus of elasticity

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EUR Expected Ultimate Recovery

Eavg Average error

Efw Formation expansion factor

Eg Gas expansion factor

Egi Gas expansion factor at initial conditions

EL In-situ liquid volume fraction (liquid holdup)

EL0 Horizontal liquid holdup

ELθ Inclined liquid holdup

Eo Oil expansion factor

Et Total expansion factor

f Decimal fraction

fc Compressibility modifier

F Reservoir voidage from production

FDBC Fekete DataBase Connection tool

FCD Dimensionless fracture conductivity

gg Geothermal gradient

G Original gas-in-place

GHV Gross Heating Value

Variable Description

GMB Gas Material Balance

GOR Producing Gas-Oil Ratio

Gf Free gas-in-place

Ginj Cumulative gas injected

Gp Cumulative gas production

Gpa Additional gas production

Gp,n Ultimate recoverable gas

Gpn Cumulative gas production at time 'n'

Gr Remaining gas

GT Cumulative transferred gas volume in a connected reservoir

h Net pay

hp Perforated interval

HCPV Hydrocarbon Pore Volume

I Incline rate

IWIP Initial Water-In-Place

j Time interval/timestep

J Transfer coefficient

k Permeability

kabs Absolute permeability

kaq Aquifer permeability

ke Effective roughness of pipe

kf Fracture permeability

kg Effective permeability of gas

kh Horizontal permeability

ki Initial permeability
Variable Description

ko Effective permeability of oil

kr Pressure-dependant permeability ratio: kr = k / ki

kres Reservoir permeability

krg Gas-relative permeability

krgc Gas-relative permeability at residual oil saturation

krgcw Gas-relative permeability at connate water saturation

krgro Gas-relative permeability at residual oil saturation

kro Oil-relative permeability

krocw Oil-relative permeability at connate water saturation

krog Oil-relative permeability with respect to gas

krogc Oil-relative permeability at critical gas saturation

krow Oil-relative permeability with respect to water

krw Water-relative permeability

krwgc Water-relative permeability at critical gas saturation

krwro Water-relative permeability at residual oil saturation

kv Vertical permeability

kw Effective permeability of water

kx Permeability in the x-direction

ky Permeability in the y-direction

kz Permeability in the z-direction

Bulk modulus (CBM Properties)

K
Constant of proportionality (Material Balance Analysis Theory - Schilthuis Model)

KB Kelly Bushing (reference point for depth measurements)

L Horizontal wellbore length

LD Dimensionless horizontal wellbore length

Le Effective horizontal wellbore length

Variable Description

Lex Effective horizontal wellbore length in the x-direction

m Slope from the flow equation using material balance time (oil)

ma Slope from the flow equation using material balance pseudo-time (gas)

Mobility Ratio (Analytical Models) (Water-drive Typecurves and Models)

M
Constrained axial modulus (CBM Properties)

MD Measured Depth (CF or KB)

MPP Mid-Point of Perforations

Maq Aquifer mobility

Mo Molecular weight of stock tank liquid

Mres Reservoir mobility

n Moles of gas (Ideal Gas Law equation)

nf Number of fractures

ng Gas exponent

nog Oil-gas system exponent

now Oil-water system exponent

nw Water exponent

N Original oil-in-place

NTS National Topographic map numbering System

Np Cumulative oil production

Np,n Ultimate recoverable oil

NVL Liquid velocity number

ODBC Open Database Connectivity

OCIP Original Condensate-in-Place, Mstb, 103m3

OCIPSRV Original Condensate-in-Place in Stimulated Region, Mstb, 103m3

OFIP Original Fluid-in-Place

OGIP Original Gas-in-Place, MMscf, 106m3

Variable Description

OGIPA Original Adsorbed Gas-in-Place, MMscf, 106m3

OGIPF Original Free Gas-in-Place, MMscf, 106m3

OGIPSRV Original Gas-in-Place in Stimulated Region, MMscf, 106m3

OMB Oil Material Balance

OOIP Original Oil-in-Place, Mstb, 103m3

OOIPSRV Original Oil-in-Place in Stimulated Region, Mstb, 10 3m3

OWIP Original Water-in-Place, Mstb, 103m3

OWIPSRV Original Water-in-Place in Stimulated Region, Mstb, 10 3m3

p Pressure

p̅ Average reservoir pressure

pab Abandonment pressure

pair Air pressure

paq Aquifer pressure

paqi Initial aquifer pressure

pbp Bubble point pressure, psi(a), kPa(a)

pc Critical pressure

(pce)go Gas-oil pore entry capillary pressure, psi(a), kPa(a)

(pce)ow Oil-water pore entry capillary pressure, psi(a), kPa(a)

pcgo Gas-oil system capillary pressure, psi(a), kPa(a)

pcow Oil-water system capillary pressure, psi(a), kPa(a)

pd Desorption pressure

pdew Dew point pressure, psi(a), kPa(a)

pD Dimensionless pressure

pDi Dimensionless pressure integral

pDid Dimensionless pressure integral derivative

pe Bulk overburden pressure

Variable Description

pflow Specified flowing pressure

pgrd Overburden pressure gradient

pi Initial reservoir pressure

pj Pressure at time "j"

pL Langmuir pressure

pmax Maximum pressure

pmin Minimum pressure

pn Net overburden pressure

pni Initial net overburden pressure

po Oil pressure

pp Pseudo-pressure

̅ pp Average pseudo-pressure

ppab Abandonment pseudo-pressure

̅ ppab Average abandonment pseudo-pressure

ppi Initial pseudo-pressure

ppwf Wellbore flowing pseudo-pressure

pr Reduced pressure

̅ pR Current reservoir pressure

psp Separator pressure

psc Pressure at standard conditions (14.65 psia, 101.0 kPa(a))

pw Water pressure

pwf Wellbore flowing pressure

pwff Sandface forecast pressure

pε Reservoir pressure at 50% matrix strain

PI Productivity index
Variable Description

PVT Pressure-Volume-Temperature

Capillary pressure
Pc SPE recommends Pc (P being the secondary symbol for pressure) to denote
capillary pressure, whereas pc is used to denote critical pressure.

q Rate

q̅ Average rate

qab Abandonment rate

qD Dimensionless rate

qDd Dimensionless decline rate

qDde Dimensionless decline rate accounting for total pool production

qDd, integral Dimensionless rate integral

qelf Rate at end of linear flow

qf Final rate (abandonment rate)

qg Instantaneous gas rate

qginj Injected gas rate

qi Initial rate

qintegral Rate integral

qj Rate at time "j"

qo Instantaneous oil rate

qs Gas flow rate from separator

qtot Pool total production rate

qw Instantaneous water rate

qwe Rate of water influx

qwinj Rate of water injection

Q Cumulative production

QD Dimensionless cumulative production

Variable Description

QDA Area-based dimensionless cumulative production

QDd Dimensionless cumulative decline production

Qf Final cumulative production

Qg,dry Cumulative surface gas production

Qg,wet Cumulative well stream gas produced at the sandface

Qi Initial cumulative production

Qm Modified cumulative production

Qn Normalized cumulative production

Qtot Pool cumulative production

r Radius

raq Aquifer exterior radius

re Reservoir effective radius

reD Dimensionless effective radius

Reservoir outer boundary radius (Water-drive Typecurves and Models)

ro Distance to observation well from active well, for cylindrical reservoirs (Well
Locations and Boundaries)

rw Wellbore radius

rwa Apparent wellbore radius

rwD Dimensionless wellbore radius

rwe Effective wellbore radius

R Ideal gas law constant

RC Rate vs Cumulative production

RF Recovery factor

RR Remaining Recoverable

RT Rate vs Time

Rp Solution gas-oil ratio based on cumulative oil and gas production

Variable Description

Rs Solution gas-oil ratio, scf/bbl, m3/m3

Rsb Solution gas-oil ratio at bubble point

Rsi Initial solution gas-oil ratio

Rsr Reduced solution gas-oil ratio

Rsw Gas solubility in water

Rv Vaporized oil ratio, bbl/MMscf, m3/103m3

s Skin

sd Near-wellbore skin damage

sdφ Interporosity skin

sf Fracture face skin

S Salinity of water

SDI Segregation (gas cap) Drive Index

SL Surface losses

SPE Society of Petroleum Engineers

SRV Stimulated Reservoir Volume

Sg Gas saturation

Sgc Critical gas saturation

Sgi Initial gas saturation

Sgn Normalized gas saturation

Siw Irreducible water saturation (Relative Permeability Correlations)

So Oil saturation

Soi Initial oil saturation

Son Normalized oil saturation

Sor Residual oil saturation

Sorg Residual oil saturation to gas

Sorw Residual oil saturation to water

Variable Description

Sw Water saturation

Swc Critical water saturation (Capillary Pressure)

Swc Connate water saturation (Relative Permeability)

Swi Initial water saturation

Swirr Irreducible water saturation (Capillary Correlations)

Swn Normalized water saturation

̅ Sw Average water saturation

t Time

ta Pseudo-time

tc Material balance time

tca Material balance pseudo-time

tcae Total material balance pseudo-time for gas

tce Total material balance pseudo-time for oil

tco Length of the first time period in material balance time

tD Dimensionless time

tDA Area-based dimensionless time

tDd Dimensionless decline time

tDde Dimensionless decline time accounting for total pool production

tDxf Dimensionless time based on fracture half-length (xf)

tDye Dimensionless time based on reservoir width (Ye)

telf Time at end of linear flow

tf Time at start of forecast date

tflow Specified flow time

tj Time at the "jth" time period/timestep

tlim Limiting time

Variable Description

tshut-in Specified shut-in time

tstab Time to stabilization

T Temperature

TVD True Vertical Depth (CF or KB)

TPC Tubing Performance Curve

Tc Critical temperature

Tf Formation temperature

Ti Initial temperature

Tpp Pour point temperature

Tr Reduced temperature

Tsp Separator temperature

Tsc Temperature at standard conditions (60oF/15oC)

Tsp Separator temperature

vg Gas velocity

vL In-situ liquid velocity

vm Mixture velocity

vsg Superficial gas velocity

vsl Superficial liquid velocity

V Volume

VR Voidage replacement

VRR Voidage Replacement Ratio

Vaq Aquifer volume

VHCP Hydrocarbon pore volume

Vi Initial volume

VL Langmuir volume
Variable Description

VLi Initial Langmuir volume

Vp Pore volume

Volatile oil ratio

VR
Rock volume

Vsc Volume at standard conditions

VT Total volume

Vw Wellbore volume

wf Fracture width

WDI Water Drive Index

WOR Water-Oil Ratio

We Water encroachment from aquifer

Wei Initial water encroachment from aquifer

Winj Cumulative water injection

Wp Cumulative water production

xf Fracture half-length

xfx Fracture-half length in the x-direction

xfy Fracture-half length in the y-direction

Xe Reservoir length

XeD Dimensionless reservoir length

Xw Active well location in the x-direction

Y Distance of investigation at time t

Ye Reservoir width

Yw Active well location in the y-direction

Ye/Yw Ratio of reservoir width to well location in the y-direction

Z Gas compressibility factor

Z** Modified gas compressibility factor

Variable Description

Z̅ Average gas compressibility factor

Zab Compressibility factor at reservoir abandonment pressure

Zi Compressibility factor at initial pressure and temperature

Zi** Modified compressibility factor at initial pressure and temperature

Zo Location of observation well from top of zone (z-direction) for rectangular reservoirs

Zsc Compressibility factor at standard conditions

Zw Well location in the z-direction (only applicable to horizontal wells)

Biot's coefficient (Geomechanical Reservoir Models - Dobrynin Correlation)

α
Separation factor/selectivity ratio (Langmuir Isotherm)

β Square root of the anisotropic ratio kh/kv

βD Ratio of total pool production to individual well production

Permeability modulus (Geomechanical Reservoir Models - Yilmaz & Nur Pressure-

Dependant Permeability Correlation)
Dimensionless correlation factor (Geomechanical Reservoir Models - Dobrynin
γ Pressure-Dependant Permeability Correlation)
Grain compressibility (CBM Properties)
Euler's constant = 0.57721 (Material Balance Pseudo-Time for Gas), (Abandonment
Pressure Calculations), (Blasingame Typecurve Analysis Theory - Horizontal Well)

γAPI Specific gravity of liquid hydrocarbons/condensate in oAPI

γg Specific gravity of gas

γg(psp) Specific gravity of gas at separator pressure conditions

γo Specific gravity of liquid hydrocarbons/condensate

γt Recombined gas gravity

γw Specific gravity of water

∆k Change in permeability

∆pf Change in pressure due to friction

∆pHH Change in pressure due to hydrostatic head

∆Q Forecast cumulative production

∆t Forecast duration
Variable Description

∆Vd Change in reservoir volume due to desorption of gas

∆Vep Change in reservoir volume due to formation and residual fluid expansion

∆Vp Reduction in hydrocarbon pore volume

∆Vw Expansion of initial water volume

∆Vwip Change in reservoir volume due to water influx and production

Location of observation well from active well in the x-direction, for rectangular
∆Xo
reservoirs

Location of observation well from active well in the y-direction, for rectangular
∆Yo
reservoirs

∆Z Change in elevation

ε Tensile strain

Net strain between overburden stress effect and matrix shrinkage as measured
εexp
experimentally

εL Langmuir strain

θ Angle of inclination

θr [(T + 459.67) / 459.67] = relative temperature

Interporosity flow coefficient (Dual Porosity)

λ
Pore size distribution index (Capillary Correlations - Brooks/Corey)

λgo Gas-oil pore size distribution index

λow Oil-water pore size distribution index

μ Viscosity of primary fluid (gas/oil/water)

µ̅ Average viscosity

μaq Aquifer viscosity

μg Gas viscosity, cP, mPa.s

̅ μg Viscosity of gas at average pressure

μi Viscosity at initial reservoir pressure

μL Liquid viscosity
Variable Description

μm Mixture viscosity

μNS No-slip viscosity

μo Oil viscosity, cP, mPa.s

μob Oil viscosity at bubble point

μod Viscosity of dead oil

μos Viscosity of saturated oil

μres Reservoir viscosity

μw Water viscosity, cP, mPa.s

ν Poisson's ratio

ξ Reduced inverse viscosity

ρ Density

ρa Apparent density of surface gas

ρair Air density

ρbs Pseudo-liquid density at reservoir pressure and standard temperature

ρB Bulk density

ρG Gas density

ρL Liquid density

ρm Mixture density

ρmol Molar density

ρNS No-slip density

ρo Oil density

ρob Oil density at bubble point

ρoR Oil density at reservoir conditions

ρpo Pseudo-liquid density at standard conditions

ρst Stock tank oil density

Variable Description

ρw Water density

Interfacial tension (Capillary Pressure)

σ
Effective horizontal stress (CBM Properties)

σi Effective horizontal stress at initial reservoir pressure

φ Porosity

φi Initial porosity

φt Total porosity

Ψ Pseudo-pressure

Ψ̅ Pseudo-pressure at average pressure

Ψi Pseudo-pressure at initial reservoir pressure

Ψwf Pseudo-pressure at sandface flowing pressure

ω Storativity ratio