Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 40 (2017) 51e60

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Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering

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Rate-transient analysis of an undersaturated CBM reservoir in

Australia: Accounting for effective permeability changes above and
below desorption pressure
C.R. Clarkson a, *, A. Salmachi b
a
Department of Geoscience, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada
b
Australian School of Petroleum, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Rate-transient analysis (RTA) of coalbed methane (CBM) wells is an on-going reservoir engineering
Received 24 October 2016 challenge because of the dynamic nature of coal reservoirs. During their lifetime, producing CBM wells
Received in revised form completed in initially undersaturated reservoirs (flowing above desorption pressure) experience a
29 January 2017
change from single-phase water to two-phase (gas þ water) production as desorption pressure is
Accepted 30 January 2017
Available online 3 February 2017
reached, and the production characteristics of these wells are affected by a multitude of dynamic CBM
reservoir properties. Amongst the most important dynamic properties influencing production is absolute
permeability of the natural fracture (cleat) network.
Keywords:
Rate-transient analysis
Prolific coalbed methane wells in the Fairview Field, central Queensland, eastern Australia, exhibit
Undersaturated coal stress-dependent permeability changes during early dewatering, followed by strong desorption-
Stress-dependent permeability dependent permeability effects below desorption pressure. These effects, combined with the switch
Desorption-dependent permeability from single-phase to two-phase flow at desorption pressure, make quantitative production data analysis
Flowing material balance for reservoir properties (e.g. permeability and original gas-in-place) particularly challenging.
Analytical simulation In this study, a combination of flowing material balance (FMB) equations for gas and water, modified
Fairview field for dynamic changes in effective permeability, and analytical simulation is used to analyze a Fairview
Field CBM well completed in coals of the Bandanna Formation using the cavitation technique. The subject
well exhibits strong permeability changes for the first several years after desorption pressure is reached,
after which permeability changes appear to occur more gradually. Single-phase water production data
above desorption pressure is analyzed using an FMB method modified for stress-dependent perme-
ability; gas production data below desorption pressure is analyzed using an FMB method modified to
account for relative permeability and desorption-dependent permeability. Because of uncertainty in
below-desorption pressure FMB model inputs, the FMB equations and analytical simulation are linked.
This approach allows for a consistent, if not unique, analysis.
The RTA approach outlined herein provides a reasonable starting point for more rigorous numerical
simulation, which in turn can be used for reserves forecasting and development planning. Because of the
multitude of reservoir properties (several of the key properties being dynamic) affecting the production
characteristics of CBM wells such as those in the Fairview Field, it is important to advance RTA methods
to constrain numerical model inputs.
© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction mechanisms (Jenkins and Boyer, 2008). Gas storage is dominated by

Coalbed methane reservoirs are considered to be “unconven-
tional” because of their unique natural gas storage and transport
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: clarksoc@ucalgary.ca (C.R. Clarkson).
adsorption within the coal organic matter matrix, while gas
transport through the matrix is generally considered to be domi-
nated by diffusion mechanisms because of the ultra-small pore
structure and associated permeability. Commercial gas production
to CBM wells is strongly controlled by natural fractures (“cleats”),
which form a high permeability pathway through which natural
gas, sourced from the matrix, flows to the well. Because cleats are

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jngse.2017.01.030
1875-5100/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
52 C.R. Clarkson, A. Salmachi / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 40 (2017) 51e60
commonly initially saturated with water, two-phase flow of gas and
water is expected to occur during early stages of CBM production. In
the case of “undersaturated” coals, where the gas content in the
matrix is less than the theoretical gas storage capacity (Seidle,
2011), single-phase flow of water will occur above desorption
pressure, followed by simultaneous flow of gas and water below
desorption pressure. Single phase flow of water may be observed
for an extended period of time for dewatering wells or CBM wells
drilled during early stages of field development.
Adaptation and routine application of model-based rate-tran-
sient analysis to CBM reservoirs has been slowed not only because
of the aforementioned unique reservoir characteristics, but also
because of the very dynamic nature of key CBM reservoir proper-
ties. For example, effective permeability to gas and water is
impacted by both relative permeability changes and absolute
permeability changes during primary depletion. Relative perme-
ability to gas and water evolves due to water saturation changes in
the cleat system during dewatering; absolute permeability of the
natural fracture system is affected both by effective stress changes
during dewatering, and matrix-shrinkage effects in response to gas
desorption (Seidle, 2011). A further complication for undersatu-
rated CBM reservoirs is that stress-dependent permeability effects
may dominate during the single-phase water production period,
while a combination of stress-dependent permeability and
desorption-dependent permeability effects may occur below
desorption pressure during the two-phase flow period. While there
has been excellent progress made in quantifying these effects in
both the lab and the field, leading to the development of analytical
approaches for their quantification (see summary by Pan and
Connell, 2012), only a few initial attempts have been made to
incorporate these effects into RTA (e.g. Clarkson et al., 2008).
Analytical solutions to flow equations used as the basis for
model-based RTA typically make very restrictive assumptions
about fluid and reservoir properties and boundary conditions. For
example, these solutions usually assume that fluid and reservoir
properties are independent of pressure, and wells are flowing at
constant rate or pressure conditions (Clarkson, 2013). For conven-
tional or tight gas reservoirs exhibiting single-phase flow of gas,
inclusion of pseudovariables (pseudopressure and pseudotime),
that account for the effects of pressure-dependent gas properties,
into analytical solutions developed for liquids for transient and
boundary-dominated flow, has proven to be a reasonably accurate
approach to correcting the solutions. Progress has also been made
in correcting analytical solutions for the effects of multi-phase flow
in these reservoirs, also through the use of pseudovariables (e.g.
Camacho-V. and Raghavan, 1989). Very recently, researchers have
demonstrated that multi-phase flow and stress-dependent
permeability effects during the transient and boundary-
dominated flow periods of tight/shale gas and oil reservoirs may
be reasonably accounted for using the pseudovariable approach
coupled with solutions developed for liquids (Behmanesh et al.,
2015; Behmanesh, 2015); still other approaches have been used,
such as the application of the iterative integral method (Qanbari
and Clarkson, 2013).
For CBM reservoirs, some progress has also been made in the
development of corrections to RTA analytical solutions to account
for the dynamic properties of CBM (see Clarkson, 2013 for a recent
summary). Of relevance to the current study are efforts to include
relative permeability and absolute permeability changes in the
analysis. Various authors (Clarkson et al., 2008, 2012; Sugiarto et al.,
2013) have used modified pseudovariables in RTA to account for
relative permeability changes in coal. Clarkson et al. (2008)
demonstrated that effective permeability changes (representing
the combined effects of relative and absolute permeability changes)
may be incorporated into flowing material balance analysis (an RTA
method designed to analyze boundary-dominated flow) to obtain
accurate estimates of original-gas-in-place (OGIP) for a Fruitland
Coal Fairway well. Those authors further demonstrated, using nu-
merical simulation, that, for undersaturated CBM wells initially
producing only water, FMB may be used to estimate original-water-
in-place (OWIP) and permeability (if skin is known). However, they
did not incorporate the effects of stress-dependent permeability
into the water FMB analysis. Later, Yarmohammadtooski et al.
(2017) used single-phase (water) FMB analysis to estimate
permeability, OWIP, and drainage area to assist with reservoir
characterization of a Fairview Field well, completed by the cavita-
tion technique in an initially undersaturated CBM reservoir. They
similarly ignored stress-dependent permeability in their analysis.
However, Yarmohammadtooski et al. (2017) demonstrated that,
once desorption pressure was reached, absolute permeability
changes are initially small, likely due to the effects of stress-
dependent permeability and matrix shrinkage cancelling out; at
lower pressures, however, strong increases in permeability were
observed and interpreted to be due to matrix shrinkage effects.
Those authors did not attempt to include below-desorption-
pressure effective permeability changes into RTA methods such as
FMB.
The current study builds on previous work by demonstrating,
for the first time, that the effects of absolute permeability and
relative permeability can be incorporated into RTA performed on
CBM wells producing above and below desorption pressure. Spe-
cifically, FMB analysis is applied to the single-phase and two-phase
flow periods, accounting rigorously for dynamic effective perme-
ability changes. This analysis is linked to analytical simulation
modeling to provide for a consistent, if not unique, analysis. The
data presented by Yarmohammadtooski et al. (2017) is re-analyzed
for this purpose.
2. Theory and methods
Analytical solutions used for RTA (model inversion) are typically
applied in three different formats to production data: 1) type-
curves, where production data is fit to dimensionless solutions to
the flow equations and reservoir/well stimulation properties are
extracted from the match; 2) straight-line (flow-regime) methods,
where analytical solutions are applied in the form of specialty plots
designed to linearize the data and reservoir/well stimulation
properties are extracted from a straight-line fit to the data; and 3)
analytical simulation models that can be used to history-match
production/pressure data with key reservoir/well stimulation
properties obtained from the matching process (Clarkson, 2013).
Time to reach boundary-dominated flow is mainly controlled by
coal permeability and the size of drainage area, and it can vary from
only a few days up to several months (Seidle, 2011;
Yarmohammadtooski et al., 2017). For high permeability CBM res-
ervoirs, such as those of the Fruitland Coal Fairway in the U.S., and
the Fairview Field in eastern Australia, the dominant flow-regime is
expected to be boundary-dominated flow. A common straight-line
method for analyzing production data during boundary-dominated
flow is flowing material balance. For CBM reservoirs, water pro-
duction data may be analyzed using this technique to estimate
original water-in-place, drainage area, and permeability (Clarkson
et al., 2008); gas production may similarly be analyzed for orig-
inal gas-in-place, and drainage area and permeability. For under-
saturated CBM reservoirs, where single-phase flow of water occurs
above desorption pressure, it is advantageous to apply FMB analysis
to the water data to provide an early estimate of the aforemen-
tioned parameters, which can be used as a starting point to analyze
the more complex two-phase flow data below desorption pressure.
This workflow is demonstrated herein. However, FMB must
 C.R. Clarkson, A. Salmachi / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 40 (2017) 51e60 53

account for the dynamic reservoir properties of CBM, such as stress- (1):
and desorption-dependent permeability e for the single-phase
flow period, stress-dependent permeability may be significant, Zp
p
while a combination of stress- and desorption-dependent perme- mg 1P ðpÞ ¼2 dp (6)
ability effects may occur below desorption pressure during the mg z
pbase
two-phase flow period. Further, relative permeability effects must
be accounted for below desorption pressure. Eq. (1) does not account for changes in relative or absolute
The following outlines how FMB for gas and water analysis permeability. Clarkson et al. (2008) utilized a 2-phase version of
associated with initially undersaturated CBM reservoirs may be FMB for coal, assuming gas is the primary phase:
adapted to account for dynamic effective permeability effects. The  
technique applied to gas is first summarized, as gas has been more qg 0 mg 2P ðpi Þ  mg 2P ðpÞ
0

 ¼ m Gi h
i þ b
commonly analyzed with FMB historically and methods to account mg 2P ðpi Þ  mg 2P pwf mg 2P ðpi Þ  mg 2P pwf
for effective permeability changes have been previously described.
Next, a new form of water FMB, which accounts for effective (7)
permeability changes above and below desorption pressure, is
presented. Finally, a workflow for integrating FMB analysis with where mg 2P ðpÞ is gas pseudopressure for a 2-phase (gas and water)
analytical simulation is described. reservoir, defined as:

Zp
p
2.1. Gas FMB mg 2P ðpÞ ¼2 krg ðpÞ dp (8)
mg z
pbase
For dry CBM reservoirs producing only gas in the reservoir,
Clarkson et al. (2007) utilized the following form of the flowing Eqs. (7) and (8) have the limitation that they require a rela-
material balance equation to analyze boundary-dominated flow: tionship between saturation and pressure to evaluate the 2-phase
pseudopressure. However, Clarkson et al. (2008) also provided a
 
qg 0 mg 1P ðpi Þ  mg 1P ðpÞ 0
simplification for which it is assumed that the reservoir has high

 ¼ m Gi h
i þ b permeability (10se100s of md) and there are negligible saturation
mg 1P ðpi Þ  mg 1P pwf mg 1P ðpi Þ  mg 1P pwf and pressure gradients e for this case, relative permeability is not
(1) included in the pseudopressure calculation, but only in the
pseudopressure-normalized rate term of Eq. (1):
where mg 1P ðpÞ is gas pseudopressure for a single-phase (gas)
reservoir, Gi is initial gas-in-place, and m’ and b’ are the slope and qg
h
i

qg
intercept of the FMB plot for gas (a plot of mg 1P ðpi Þmg 1P ðpwf Þ
versus mg 1P ðpi Þ
 mg 1P pwf krg Sw
bmg 1P ðpi Þmg 1P ðpÞc 
Gi ½mg 1P ðpi Þm ). 0 mg 1P ðpi Þ  mg 1P ðpÞ 0
g 1P ðpwf Þ ¼ m Gi h
i þ b (9)
Further, the following relationships were provided (radial mg 1P ðpi Þ  mg 1P pwf
geometry):
krg ðSw Þ is gas relative permeability evaluated at the average water
0 1
m ¼ 0 (2) saturation in the reservoir. Clarkson et al. (2008) further suggested
Gi bpss
that for reservoirs experiencing a change in effective permeability
with depletion, i.e. where both relative permeability and absolute
0 1 permeability are changing, the FMB equation can be written in a
b ¼ 0 (3)
bpss similar form. In the current work, it is assumed that relative
permeability and absolute permeability are known functions of
and: saturation and pressure, respectively; Eq. (9) can therefore be re-
  written to account for effective permeability changes as follows:
0 1:417T re 3
bpss ¼  (4)
kh rwa 4 qg
h i


It can be seen that Gi may be obtained either from the slope or x- mg  mg 1P pwf krg Sw kðpÞ
1P ðpi Þ ki
intercept of the FMB plot, and kh from the y-intercept, if skin is 
0 mg 1P ðpi Þ  mg 1P ðpÞ 0
known (rwa is a function of skin). The analysis is iterative, as Gi is ¼ m Gi h
i þ b (10)
required to calculate p from material balance, which in turn is used mg 1P ðpi Þ  mg 1P pwf
in datapoint generation, but Gi is also sought from analysis of the
data. CBM material balance equations are required to calculate p; in Because relative permeability and changes in absolute perme-
this work, the Clarkson and McGovern equation (2005) is used. For ability are often used as history-matching parameters, Eq. (10) is
completeness, this equation is provided below: integrated with analytical simulation, as described in Section 2.3.

p 32; 0374ð1  Swi Þ 0:7355

þ ¼ Gp
p þ pL VL Bg rc VL Ahrc
" # 2.2. Water FMB
pi 32; 0374ð1  Swi Þ
þ þ
pi þ pL VL Bgi rc Clarkson et al. (2008) and Yarmohammadtooski et al. (2017)
utilized the following form of water FMB to analyze single-phase
(5)
water production above desorption pressure for initially under-
The conventional single-phase gas pseudopressure is used in Eq. saturated coal reservoirs:
54 C.R. Clarkson, A. Salmachi / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 40 (2017) 51e60

(radial) inflow equations for gas and water with material balance.
qw Wp The following is a summary of the features of the model:
¼m h iþb (11)
pi  pwf ct p  p
i wf
 Undersaturated (single-phase water) flow is modeled by
coupling the radial inflow equation for water with the water
1
m¼ (12) material balance equation
Wi bpss  Pressure-dependent permeability is accounted for during the
single-phase flow period (see Eq. (17) below)
1  Once desorption pressure is reached, two-phase flow is modeled
b¼ (13)
bpss by coupling the radial inflow equations for gas and water with
the Clarkson and McGovern (2005) material balance equation
and: (Eq. (5)), which accounts for desorption
   Relative permeability for gas and water are included in the
141:2Bw mw re 3 inflow equations below desorption pressure
bpss ¼  (14)
kh rwa 4  Pressure- and desorption-dependent permeability is also
included in the inflow equations
It can again be seen that Wi (initial water-in-place) may be ob-
tained either from the slope or from the x-intercept of the FMB plot,
The Clarkson and McGovern (2005) tank-model analytical
and kh from the y-intercept, if skin is known (rwa is a function of
simulator is strictly applicable to cases where saturation and
skin).
pressure gradients are negligible (i.e. for high permeability reser-
Eq. (11) is referred to as the “compressibility” version of the
voirs) and for when desorption is assumed to be instantaneous
water FMB. However, for the purposes of this work, a new version
(which may be the case for coals with high fracture density and/or
of FMB is introduced, that is consistent with the form of the gas
large diffusion coefficients). These assumptions were demonstrated
FMB as follows:
to be reasonable for the Fruitland Coal Fairway of the San Juan Basin
qw ðp  pÞ in New Mexico, USA (Clarkson and McGovern, 2005), and are
¼ mWi
i þb (15) assumed to be applicable for the current Australian example (due to
pi  pwf p p i wf very high permeability). For low permeability, undersaturated
coals, the semi-analytical approach of Clarkson and Qanbari (2016),
where m, b, and bpss are again calculated using Eqs. (12)e(14). For 2- or rigorous numerical simulation, is recommended for forecasting.
phase flow, to be consistent with gas analysis, the following Analytical simulator input parameters are provided in Table 1;
equation is used to analyze water: relative permeability and absolute permeability change curves are
given in Fig. 1. Absolute permeability is assumed to decrease or
q ðp  pÞ

w
 ¼ mWi
i þb (16) grow exponentially with pressure as described with the following
kðpÞ
pi  pwf krw Sw k pi  pwf equation:
i

Eq. (16) again assumes that saturation and pressure gradients

are negligible. If they are not, an equation analogous to Eq. (7) for kðpÞ
¼ exp½gk ðp  pi Þ (17)
gas may be used (i.e. utilizing a 2-phase pseudopressure) e pseu- ki
dopressure for water, accounting for two-phase flow in oil and gas
condensate reservoirs has previously been suggested (Clarkson and where gk, is the permeability modulus (Yilmaz et al., 1991). For
Qanbari, 2016). pressures above a “rebound” pressure, the modulus is assumed to
be positive, causing permeability to decrease with pressure; below
2.3. Integrating FMB and analytical simulation the rebound pressure, matrix shrinkage effects are assumed to
dominate and the modulus becomes negative. An undersaturated
In previous work, Clarkson et al. (2012) had suggested that
analytical simulation and RTA be linked to provide for a consistent,
Table 1
if not unique analysis. For example, average saturation and pressure Model input for synthetic case.
derived as output from analytical simulation may be used as input
Input Parameter Values
for flowing material balance. This linkage is desirable because there
are several highly uncertain parameters that are not commonly Thickness (ft) 31
measured in the lab for CBM, such as relative permeability and Bulk Density (g/cm3) 1.50
Cleat Porosity (%) 0.5
stress- and desorption-dependent permeability. Of course, if these
Initial Water Saturation (%) 100
properties can be estimated from lab data, then the two methods Irreducible Water Saturation (%) 0
could be applied independently. In this work, the linked approach Gas Gravity (dimensionless) 0.57
suggested by Clarkson et al. (2012) is used. Initial Absolute Permeability (md) 100
Permeability Modulus (due to stress) (psi1) 0.0004
Permeability Modulus (due to desorption) (psi1) 0.0025
3. Method demonstration Rebound Pressure (psia) 800
Initial Reservoir Pressure (psia) 1000
In order to demonstrate application of the new FMB equations Reservoir Temperature ( F) 85
Langmuir Volume (scf/ton, in-situ) 380.6
(Eq. (10) and Eq. (16)), synthetic production is first generated using
Langmuir Pressure (psia) 400.0
an analytical simulation model and then analyzed. The analytical Initial Gas Content (scf/ton) 244.7
simulator features and development were described by Clarkson Drainage Area (acres) 320
and McGovern (2005). The analytical simulator assumes tank- Wellbore Diameter (in.) 9
type reservoir behavior (average pressure and water saturation Skin Factor (dimensionless) 1
Flowing Bottomhole Pressure (psia) 250
change uniformly throughout the drainage volume) and couples
 C.R. Clarkson, A. Salmachi / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 40 (2017) 51e60 55

a) 1
b)
10

0.8
krg or krw, dimensionless

0.6 krg

k/ki
1
0.4 krw

0.2

0.1
0 0 200 400 600 800 1000
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Reservoir Pressure, psia

Water Saturation, %

Fig. 1. (a) Relative permeability curves and (b) absolute permeability change curve used for synthetic case. Absolute permeability ratio changes in (b) were generated with Eq. (17)
using permeability moduli defined in Table 1.

case was simulated, assuming 10% undersaturation. Gas/water rates 4. Application to field case
and cumulative production generated using the analytical simu-
lator are given in Fig. 2; a short period (70 days) of single-phase In order to demonstrate practical application of the new FMB
flow of water is followed by two-phase flow. equations (Eq. (10) and Eq. (16)), the CBM well data previously
The synthetic water and gas data are plotted using the new FMB analyzed by Yarmohammadtooski et al. (2017) is re-analyzed for
formats (Eq. (16) and Eq. (10), respectively), in Fig. 3. As noted in this purpose. This vertical well is one of the first wells drilled in the
Section 2.3, reservoir pressure and saturation data output from the Fairview Field (a prolific CBM reservoir in Queensland, eastern
analytical model are used in the data plotting. The data are linear- Australia), and is completed by the cavitation method in coals of the
ized using the new FMB formats, suggesting that the corrections for Bandanna Formation. The coals were initially undersaturated,
multi-phase flow and dynamic absolute permeability are working. resulting in single-phase flow of water for an extended period of
As will be shown in the “Discussion” section, incorrect inputs for time followed by 2-phase flow of water and gas below desorption
these dynamic properties result in a non-linear FMB plot pointing pressure (Fig. 5). The flowing bottomhole pressure data profile
to the incorrect fluid-in-place. A straight-line fit to the plotted data shown in Fig. 5a was constructed using surface casing pressure and
(black lines in Fig. 3) is then used to estimate OWIP (385 MTSB) and fluid level estimates during the single-phase dewatering period at
OGIP (4951 MMScf) from the x-intercept of the water and gas FMB early time, and from wellhead pressure estimates at late time;
plot, respectively e the obtained values are exactly the same as however, at middle time, a lack of fluid level and flowing pressure
simulator input. The y-intercepts of the plots are used to estimate estimates meant that flowing bottomhole pressures could not be
permeability, given formation thickness and skin e again, the ob- estimated with certainty. It was therefore assumed to be constant
tained values (100 md from water FMB, and 99.5 md from gas FMB) after the last fluid level measurement at ~700 days, and then
are in excellent agreement with simulator input. decline to late time estimates after gas production started (to
Importantly, the water FMB, during the single-phase flow period reflect a decrease in fluid density). Although these estimates of
(above desorption pressure), can be used to provide an initial es- flowing pressure are highly uncertain, leading to a non-unique
timate of reservoir permeability and well drainage area for simu- analysis result, the intent of this section is to demonstrate the
lator history-matching e this is demonstrated by showing the plot combined use of new flowing material balance techniques and
for only the water data in Fig. 4. The field example provided in the analytical simulation.
next section will illustrate the practical application of this early data As described in Section 2.3, flowing material balance of water
analysis. and gas phases was performed in parallel with analytical

a) b)
1800 2000
Gas Rate, Mscf/D or Water Rate, STB/D

Cum. Gas , MMscf or Water Cum., MSTB

1500
1500
1200

900 1000

600
500
300

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
Time, days Time, days
Actual Gas Rate Actual Water Rate Actual Gas Cum. Actual Water Cum.

Fig. 2. (a) Gas and water rates and (b) cumulative gas and water production for synthetic case. A short period (70 days) of single-phase flow of water is followed by two-phase flow.
56 C.R. Clarkson, A. Salmachi / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 40 (2017) 51e60

a) Water Flowing Material Balance b) Gas Flowing Material Balance

1.0E+01 1.0E+00

Normalized Rate, scf/D/psi2/cp

8.0E+00 8.0E-01
Normalized Rate, STB/psi

6.0E+00 6.0E-01

4.0E+00 4.0E-01

2.0E+00 2.0E-01

0.0E+00 0.0E+00
0 100 200 300 400 0 2000 4000 6000

Normalized Cumulative Production, MSTB Normalized Cumulative Production, MMscf

Fig. 3. (a) Water flowing material balance (Eq. (16)) and (b) gas flowing material balance (Eq. (10)) analysis of synthetic data. The x-intercepts of these plots result in fluid-in-place
estimates consistent with analytical simulator input, while the y-intercepts (given formation thickness and skin) result in permeability values consistent with simulator input.

history-matching) were largely derived from the work of

Fig. 4. Water flowing material balance (Eq. (16)) analysis of synthetic data during the
single-phase flow period above desorption pressure. This plot can be used to provide
an initial estimate of reservoir permeability and well drainage area for simulator
history-matching.
simulation due to the uncertainty in dynamic properties such as
absolute and relative permeability. Analytical model inputs are
provided in Table 2 e “hard” data inputs (not adjusted during
Yarmohammadtooski et al. (2017). Gas content, desorption pres-
sure, adsorption isotherm, and initial absolute permeability are
within the range cited by Yarmohammadtooski et al. (2017); as
with that work, relative permeability curves (Fig. 6a) were adjusted
to be consistent with those derived by Clarkson et al. (2011) for
Fruitland Coal Fairway wells. Yarmohammadtooski et al. (2017)
investigated the cleat characteristics of a fossilized cleat system
(cleats are preserved by mineral filling) in a core sample by micro
computed tomography (mCT) and demonstrated that cleat porosity
in the study area is very high (5.7% on average). The high cleat
porosity is attributed to the extremely cleated nature of the coal.
The primary “soft” input used for history-matching is the ab-
solute permeability profile (Fig. 6b) with pressure (which necessi-
tates the parallel FMB/analytical simulation approach), skin and
drainage area. Yarmohammadtooski et al. (2017) derived an abso-
lute permeability ratio (k/ki) which is consistent in shape and
magnitude with that shown in Fig. 6b, although there are some
differences, probably related to the assumed flowing bottomhole
pressure profile. The absolute permeability is assumed to decrease
slightly during the single-phase flow period due to stress changes,
followed by an increase in absolute permeability during the two-
phase flow period due to desorption effects (matrix shrinkage).

Fig. 5. (a) Gas and water rates and flowing bottomhole pressure estimates and (b) cumulative gas and water production for field case. The coals were initially undersaturated,
resulting in single-phase flow of water for an extended period of time followed by 2-phase flow of water and gas below desorption pressure. Flowing pressures in (a) were estimated
at early time using casing pressures þ fluid levels, and from wellhead pressures at very late time e however, middle time data could not be estimated with certainty due to a lack of
flowing pressures and fluid levels. The flowing pressures for large portions of the well history are therefore uncertain, creating uncertainty in the analysis performed.
 C.R. Clarkson, A. Salmachi / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 40 (2017) 51e60 57

Table 2 input (expected because average reservoir pressure from simula-

Model input for field case. tion was used in the analysis), the initial permeability is slightly
Input Parameter Values larger (but still consistent with) analytical simulation (Table 2).
Thickness (ft) 31
Importantly, key dynamic properties (e.g. permeability, drainage
Bulk Density (g/cm3) 1.5 area) used in simulation history-matching are derived at this stage
Cleat Porosity (%) 4.0 before the complications of multi-phase flow and desorption-
Initial Water Saturation (%) 100 dependent permeability (matrix shrinkage) are encountered.
Irreducible Water Saturation (%) 0
The next step in the analysis is simultaneous gas FMB analysis
Gas Gravity (dimensionless) 0.57
Initial Absolute Permeability (md) 217 (Fig. 7b) and analytical simulator history-matching (Figs. 8 and 9) of
Permeability Modulus (due to stress) (psi1)a 0.0004 the below desorption pressure data. The actual water production
Permeability Modulus (due to desorption) (psi1)a 0.008 rate before desorption pressure (first 700 days of production) is
Rebound Pressure (psia)a 680
used as input in the simulator to ensure an accurate desorption
Initial Reservoir Pressure (psia) 1000
Reservoir Temperature ( F) 85
pressure is obtained. The model inputs used in history-matching
Formation Compressibility (psi1) 0.0015 are provided in Table 2; Figs. 8 and 9 show the resulting history-
Langmuir Volume (scf/ton, in-situ) 380.6 match of water and gas rates and cumulative production on Car-
Langmuir Pressure (psia) 400.0 tesian and semi-log plots respectively. After 3000 days of produc-
Desorption Pressure (psia) 872.7
tion, the reported water data appears to be suspect and hence is not
Initial Gas Content (scf/ton) 261.0
Drainage Area (acres)a 975 history-matched. The match to gas production is quite good, with
Wellbore Diameter (in.) 9 the model able to reproduce the rapid increase in gas production
Skin Factor (dimensionless)a 1.25 after 3000 days, which is attributed to strong increases in absolute
Flowing Bottomhole Pressure (psia) See Fig. 5 permeability (matrix shrinkage). Peak production is coincident
a
Soft inputs used in history-matching. with permeability remaining constant (due to the aforementioned
mechanisms). The water match is not as good, but this is not
considered to be as important as the gas match because 1) gas
At later time, the absolute permeability is assumed to stop drives material balance and 2) water production is generally not
increasing (as also illustrated with the Yarmohammadtooski et al., reported as accurately as gas for CBM wells. The uncertainty in
2017 data), possibly due to coal failure and consequent fines flowing bottomhole pressure estimates means that the match is
migration in fractures counteracting the effects of matrix non-unique e alternate flowing bottomhole pressure profiles can
shrinkage. be used where data is incomplete/missing, and a match can still be
As noted by Yarmohammadtooski et al. (2017), water flowing achieved through adjustment of dynamic reservoir properties (e.g.
material balance analysis performed on the single-phase water absolute permeability). However, the point of this study is to
production before desorption pressure is reached may be used to demonstrate that combined flowing material balance analysis
constrain drainage area and absolute permeability estimates. The (using the new equations provided herein) and analytical simula-
modified water FMB, which incorporates stress-dependent tion will yield a consistent, if not unique, analysis.
permeability effects (see Fig. 6b above “rebound” pressure of 680
psi) is similarly used for this purpose, as illustrated in Fig. 7a. The
5. Discussion
first 365 days of water production are analyzed only using Eq. (16);
the reservoir pressure used as input is obtained from the analytical
In this work, flowing material balance equations for gas and
model, to provide consistency between the analyses e note that
water have been modified to account for the complexities of
water rate is used as an input into the simulator at this point (i.e.
changing absolute and relative permeability during CBM produc-
actual cumulative water production is honored). A “best-fit” line as
tion. These modified equations, combined with analytical simula-
determined from engineering judgement leads to an estimate of
tion, have been used to analyze production data from a prolific, but
OWIP ¼ 9279 MSTB (corresponding to a drainage area ¼ 975 acres)
initially undersaturated, coalbed methane well from the Fairview
and an initial permeability of 220 md (assuming skin ¼ 1.25).
Field, central Queensland, eastern Australia. As noted in the pre-
While the drainage area and OWIP are consistent with simulator
vious section, the combined use of these production analysis tools

Fig. 6. (a) Relative permeability curves used in history-matching, compared to relative permeability data derived from Fruitland Coal of the San Juan Basin and (b) absolute
permeability change curve used in history-matching the field case. In (a), ‘SJB’ refers to relative permeability curves derived from San Juan Basin (Fruitland Coal Fairway) field data.
‘HM’ refers to curves used in the history-match of field data analyzed in this work. The absolute permeability ratio curve in (b) was created (using Eq. (17) and permeability moduli
provided in Table 2 for non-constant segments) by assuming a slight decrease during the single-phase flow period due to stress changes, followed by an increase in absolute
permeability during the two-phase flow period due to desorption effects (matrix shrinkage), followed in turn by a constant permeability. The derived profile is consistent in shape
with that used by Yarmohammadtooski et al. (2017), although there are some differences possibly due to flowing pressure estimates.
58 C.R. Clarkson, A. Salmachi / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 40 (2017) 51e60

a) Water Flowing Material Balance b) Gas Flowing Material Balance

1.0E+01 2.0E+00

Normalized Rate, scf/D/psi2/cp

Normalized Rate, STB/psi

8.0E+00
1.5E+00

6.0E+00
1.0E+00
4.0E+00

5.0E-01
2.0E+00

0.0E+00 0.0E+00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Normalized Cumulative Production, MSTB Normalized Cumulative Production, MMscf

Fig. 7. (a) Water flowing material balance analysis (Eq. (16)) performed on first 365 days of water data and (b) gas flowing material balance (Eq. (10)) analysis. In (a), the first 365
days of water production are analyzed only using Eq. (16); the reservoir pressure used as input is obtained from the analytical model, to provide consistency between the analyses.
The “best-fit” line resulted in permeability and drainage area/OWIP estimates consistent with analytical simulator input for history-matching. The gas FMB in (b) is used in parallel
with analytical simulator history-matching to derive consistent OGIP and absolute permeability estimates.

Fig. 8. Cartesian plot of (a) field and model-match gas and water rates and (b) field and model-match cumulative gas and water production. The actual water production rate before
desorption pressure (first 700 days of production) is used as input in the simulator to ensure an accurate desorption pressure is obtained. After 3000 days of production, the
reported water data appears to be suspect and hence is not history-matched. The match to gas production is quite good (except at late time), with the model able to reproduce the
rapid increase in gas production after 3000 days, which is attributed to strong increases in absolute permeability (matrix shrinkage).

results in a consistent, if not unique, analysis. It is suggested in this
work that FMB plots and analytical simulation should be linked in
cases of complex reservoir behavior where inputs are difficult to
constrain (e.g. relative permeability and stress- and desorption-
dependent permeability). As an example, Fig. 10 illustrates the
impact of assuming a constant absolute permeability on the
analytical model history-match and the gas FMB analysis. Although
the early-time (<3000 days) analytical model match to gas and
water production data is not significantly affected, nor is the FMB
plotted data for normalized cumulative production values < 10 Bscf,
the late-time analysis is significantly affected (compare Figs. 10a, 8a
and 10b with Fig. 7b). For example, the analytical model cannot
match the gas production even with the correct OGIP in the model,
and fitting a straight line to late-time normalized cumulative pro-
duction (>11 Bscf) would result in an incorrect OGIP and absolute
permeability estimate. In this way, the two methods may be used to
complement each other.
The FMB equations discussed for gas and water (Eq. (10) and Eq.
(16), respectively) work well for the case of a high permeability
reservoir with a radial geometry. In lower-permeability scenarios,
where saturations and pressure gradients in the reservoir are high,
then relative permeability and dynamic (stress- and desorption-
dependent) absolute permeability should be included in the
pseudopressure calculations, as discussed in Clarkson et al. (2008);
inclusion of relative permeability in FMB equations for oil and gas
reservoirs (conventional and unconventional) was recently dis-
cussed in Shahamat and Clarkson (2017). Further, the FMB equa-
0
tions used in this work assume a radial geometry (see Eq. (4), bpss ) -
for non-radial geometries, a shape-factor may be included.
6. Conclusions
Coalbed methane reservoirs exhibit dynamic reservoir proper-
ties that challenge the application of quantitative rate-transient
analysis methods. In the current study, a prolific CBM well in the
Fairview field, central Queensland, eastern Australia, is analyzed
using a combination of flowing material balance and analytical
simulation. The subject well is initially undersaturated, exhibiting
single-phase flow of water, followed by 2-phase flow of gas and
water below desorption pressure. Absolute permeability is dy-
namic, exhibiting stress-dependence initially, and then desorption-
dependence after desorption pressure is reached. In order to
analyze well production data with the flowing material balance
method, both gas and water FMB equations were modified to
 C.R. Clarkson, A. Salmachi / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 40 (2017) 51e60 59

Fig. 9. Semi-log plot of (a) field and model-match gas and water rates and (b) field and model-match cumulative gas and water production. The actual water production rate before
desorption pressure (first 700 days of production) is used as input in the simulator to ensure an accurate desorption pressure is obtained. After 3000 days of production, the
reported water data appears to be suspect and hence is not history-matched. The match to gas production is quite good (except at late time), with the model able to reproduce the
rapid increase in gas production after 3000 days, which is attributed to strong increases in absolute permeability (matrix shrinkage).

Fig. 10. Cartesian plot of (a) field and analytical model-match gas and water rates and (b) gas flowing material balance (Eq. (10)) analysis. A constant absolute permeability is
assumed in both analytical model and FMB. For reference, the straight-line fit to the FMB data in Fig. 7b is shown. Although the early-time (<3000 days) analytical model match to
gas and water production data (a) is not significantly affected by the constant permeability assumption, nor is the FMB plotted data for normalized cumulative production
values < 10 Bscf (b), the late-time analysis is significantly affected (compare Figs. 10a, 8a and 10b with Fig. 7b).

account for dynamic changes in effective permeability. The
following results and conclusions may be drawn from the study:
 The modified FMB equations, used in parallel and linked with
analytical simulation, result in absolute permeability and fluid-
in-place estimates that are consistent with analytical
simulation.
 During the early single-phase flow period, analysis of water
production with the modified FMB provided initial estimates of
drainage area and absolute permeability that served as a solid
starting point for analytical simulation.
 The combined use of FMB and analytical simulation leads to a
consistent, if not unique, analysis e there are many un-
certainties in the input data (such as relative permeability,
flowing pressures) that can lead to a range of results.
 The presented FMB equations work well for cases where reser-
voir permeability is high (10se100s of md), and when saturation
and pressure gradients can be assumed to be negligible.
 For lower-permeability reservoirs where saturation pressure
gradients may not be negligible, it is recommended to include
relative permeability and dynamic absolute permeability (due
to stress and/or desorption) into the pseudopressure
calculations.
 The FMB equations used in this work assume a radial geometry
e for non-radial geometries, a shape factor may be included.
Acknowledgements
Clarkson would like to thank Alberta Innovates Technology Fu-
tures, Encana and Shell for sponsoring his Chair in Unconventional
gas and Light Oil Research at the University of Calgary, Department
of Geoscience, Faculty of Science. Alireza Salmachi would like to
thank Santos Ltd for generous provision of production data and
technical support.
Nomenclature
A drainage area, acres
b y-axis intercept of straight-line fit to FMB plot for water
b’ y-axis intercept of straight-line fit to FMB plot for gas
60 C.R. Clarkson, A. Salmachi / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 40 (2017) 51e60

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