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Introduction
The analysis of minifrac test data is conducted in two parts: pre-closure analysis (PCA) and after-closure analysis (ACA).
Pre-closure analysis consists of identifying closure and analyzing the early pressure falloff period while the induced fracture is closing. One of the most critical parameters in
fracture treatment design is the closure pressure. One specialized analysis technique used to identify closure is, in pressure transient parlance, the G-Function Analysis.
Instantaneous Shut-In Pressure (ISIP) = Final injection pressure - Pressure drop due to friction
Net Fracture Pressure (Δpnet) – Net fracture pressure is the additional pressure within the frac above the pressure required to keep the fracture open. It is an
indication of the energy available to propagate the fracture.
Fluid efficiency – Fluid efficiency is the ratio of the stored volume within the fracture to the total fluid injected. A high fluid efficiency means low leakoff and indicates
the energy used to inject the fluid was efficiently utilized in creating and growing the fracture. Unfortunately, low leakoff is also an indication of low permeability. For
minifrac after-closure analysis, high fluid efficiency is coupled with long closure durations and even longer identifiable flow regime trends
G-Function Analysis
Post-injection (pre-closure) pressure falloff analysis can be performed using the G-function and root time methods. The G-function is a dimensionless time function designed to
linearize the pressure behaviour during normal fluid leakoff from a bi-wing fracture. Any deviations from this behaviour can be used to characterize other leakoff mechanisms. The
root time plot exhibits similar behavior and can be used to support the G-function analysis.
A straight-line trend of the G-function derivative (Gdp/dG) is expected where the slope of the derivative is still increasing. Position the Fracture Closure Identification line, which is
anchored to the origin by default, through the straight-line portion of the G-Function derivative. Fracture closure is identified as the point where the G-Function derivative starts to
deviate downward from the straight line as shown in the following figure.
Note: The shape of the G-function derivative prior to closure qualitatively describes how fluid moves from the fracture into the formation (see Fluid Leakoff Types).
The equation for α = 1.0 is for low leakoff, or high efficiency where the fracture area open after shut-in varies approximately linearly with time.
The equation for α = 0.5 is for high leakoff, or low efficiency fluids where the fracture surface area varies with the square-root of time after shut-in.
One of the key variables identified by Nolte is the difference between a high efficiency (upper limit) and a low efficiency (lower limit) leak-off condition. These two conditions have no
significant effect on the overall shape of the curves.
Normal Leakoff
Normal leakoff occurs when the fracture area is constant during shut-in and the leakoff occurs through a homogeneous rock matrix.
The G-Function derivative (G dP/dG) lies on a straight line that passes through the origin.
The fracture closure point can be identified when the G-Function derivative (G dP/dG) starts to deviate downward from the straight line. The time and pressure corresponding to
this point are identified from a marker set at this point.
Pressure-Dependent Leakoff
Pressure-dependent leakoff (PDL) indicates the existence of secondary fractures intersecting the main fracture, and is identified by a characteristic “hump” in the G- Function
derivative that lies above the straight line fit through the normal leakoff data. This hump indicates fluid is leaking off faster than expected for a normal bi-wing fracture. The
interception of secondary fractures, which could be natural or induced, facilitates this additional leakoff by providing a larger surface area exposed to the matrix.
A characteristic large “hump” in the G-Function derivative; G dP/dG lies above the straight line that passes through the origin.
The portion of the normal leakoff lies on a straight line passing through the origin.
As shown below, the fracture closure point is identified from the G-Function derivative G dP/dG when it starts to deviate downward from the straight line.
1. Transverse storage occurs when the main fracture intercepts a secondary fracture network, which could be natural or induced. This differs from PDL in that the dominant
effect of the secondary fractures is to provide pressure support to the main fracture, rather than additional surface area for leakoff. There can be cases where transverse
storage (pressure support) dominates, followed by a period of PDL before closure of the main fracture occurs.
2. Fracture height recession occurs if the fracture propagates through adjoining impermeable layers (above or below the pay zone) during injection. In the normal leakoff
scenario, fluid can leak off from the entire surface area of the fracture. For fracture height recession, leakoff can only occur in the portion of the fracture which is in
communication with the permeable zone. As a result, the leakoff rate is slower than the normal case. Eventually, the fracture area in the impermeable layer(s) starts closing
(height recession), and during this period the rate of pressure decline increases. Once the fracture height recedes to the edge of the permeable zone, the entire area of the
frac contributes to leak off, and a period of normal leakoff ensues.
The three characteristic signatures for height recession during shut-in are:
The G-Function derivative G dP/dG lies below a straight line extrapolated through the normal leakoff data.
The G-Function derivative G dP/dG initially exhibits a large positive slope that continues to decrease with shut-in time, yielding a concave-down curvature.
Any straight line fit through the G-Function derivative G dP/dG intersects the y - axis above the origin.
Until the main fracture closes, the G-Function derivative behaves similarly to PDL, and it is difficult to distinguish between PDL and fracture tip extension. The following plot shows a
typical response for fracture tip extension after shut-in.
ISIP = Final injection pressure - Pressure drop due to friction in the wellbore and perforations or slotted liner
ISIP can be a difficult value to quantify and, as a result, there are numerous ways to obtain an estimate of ISIP in IHS WellTest.
If sandface pressures have been calculated, a default value for ISIP is calculated by subtracting the friction component of the sandface calculation from the final
injection pressure. This tends to overestimate the value of ISIP because it doesn't account for friction through the perforations or near the wellbore.
It is also common practice to estimate ISIP by placing a straight line on the early falloff portion of the history plot. After shut-in, the friction decreases rapidly and this
can appear to cause a step drop in pressure, or a brief linear trend in the data (prior to the expected concave-up-trend of the falloff).
By default it is positioned between the final injection pressure and the first falloff pressure. An ISIP arrow may be added by selecting the ISIP button on the toolbar above the ISIP
plot and left-clicking on the appropriate point on the plot. It is also possible to estimate ISIP in a similar fashion using the G-Function and Sqrt Time plots (ISIP arrows are not
currently available on these plots but the standard annotation arrow can be used).
Once an ISIP arrow has been added to the plot, the pressure value from the arrow will be added to the list of ISIP defaults.
Note: The ISIP defaults may be accessed via the button beside the ISIP field in the Parameters dialog box.
If a closure arrow is placed on the G-function plot, ISIP can be calculated from the following equation, which assumes normal leakoff.
Closure pressure is equal to the minimum in-situ stress because the pressure required to open a fracture is the same as the pressure required to counteract the stress in the rock
perpendicular to the fracture. Closure pressure is determined from the G-Function or the Sqrt(t) plot.