Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have considerable importance for

transport systems, as they provide access to travel information, planning tools, opportunities to
share transport modes, to work at-a-distance, compare transport mode cost, make payment,
improve safety and health, and to communicate travel patterns. Over the past decade, there has
been massive growth in the availability of transportation ICT, in particular smartphone
applications. There is considerable evidence that ICT has profoundly changed the ways in which
transport systems are perceived and used, and mobilities performed; with far-reaching
implications for transport mode choices and transport demand.

Interrelationships of ICT innovations and changes in transport demand have been debated
for more than three decades (Line et al. 2011; Salomon 1986; Senbil and Kitamura 2003;
Thomopoulos, Givoni and Rietveld 2015; Wagner et al. 2004). The basis of discussions has
however changed fundamentally over time, as ICT opportunities constantly evolved, specifically
with the development of the smartphone. Wagner et al. (2004) and Banister and Stead (2004)
were the first to comprehensively discuss the complexity of ICT and transport interrelationships,
considering ICT demand responses as well as spatial and temporal distribution outcomes.
Specifically, this included ‘living’, ‘working’ and ‘producing’, the latter comprising logistics,
manufacturing systems, customized services, retailing and distribution, teleshopping, distance
working and self-employment. Wagner et al. (2004) and Banister and Stead (2004) concluded
that ICT would stimulate travel, as new ‘opportunities’ for transport became available, though
ICT would also substitute for travel, as a growing number of tasks could be carried out at-a-
distance.

A refined understanding of ICT, social (media) networks and travel was presented by
Carrasco and Miller (2006), who found that transport demand depends on the social importance
of the contacts in the network, as well as physical distances to social activities.

Evidence of transport demand growth as a result of mobile phone use was later presented
by Nobis and Lenz (2009), who found that changes in life circumstances triggered changes in
mobile phone use and travel behavior. Notably, at the time of these studies, the authors still
focused on the implications of mobile phone, regular phone and email use: Smartphones and
their opportunities (apps, chats) as well as social media had not as yet made a mass-market entry.
This affirms that less than a decade ago, studies investigating ICT and transport
interrelationships still had a starting point in considerably more limited technologies and
opportunities for use.

Furthermore, Aguiléra et al. (2012) provided new insights regarding the potential of ICT
innovations to stimulate and substitute transport demand. Of particular importance is their
finding that ICT changes the nature of transport demand, as it adds “new value to physical
presence” (Aguiléra et al. 2012: 666). In their view, travel no longer addresses instrumental
needs; it makes up for “relational deficits”. This is confirmed by Cohen-Blankshtain and Rotem-
Mindali (2016) who noted that ICT lead to some travel substitution, though both physical and
virtual activity types grow. Advances of Internet platforms, smartphone and tablet applications,
and the rise of social media platforms are becoming increasingly relevant in transport contexts,
as they facilitate travel, allow for co-presence in the sharing of distant lives, while also
generating new forms of social and network capital (Germann Molz 2012; see also van den Berg
et al. 2013). As an example, Cohen, Prayag and Moital (2014) found that social media had
gained considerable importance for tourism behavior and mobility patterns, as a result of
opportunities to communicate travel patterns. Social media can also set in motion competitive
travel and changes in collective and individual identities modeled on movement (Gössling and
Stavrinidi 2015)

ICT influences transportation in, firstly transport information systems have seen major
advances in recent years, and travellers have profited from a wide range of apps developed to
facilitate travel and to make in particular public transport systems more reliable. One of the most
important innovations is the integration of different transport modes (e.g. tram, train, subway,
bus), with apps (google map, waze) informing about the closest departure location, departure
time, arrival time, and cost. One of the first of these integrative systems (9292.nl), introduced in
the late 2000s in the Netherlands, already triangulated the user’s current position to recommend
the next starting point for a journey by public transport to any destination in the country. This
system allowed travellers to use their smartphones for navigation, while also addressing the
problem of delays: by pushing a button, the system recalculated the next best connection
(Gössling 2010). More recent apps (Moovit, Moovel) also include payment options, delay
control, a greater range of transport modes (including rental bikes or car sharing), as well as
cross-border destination choices. Quixxit claims to integrate 15 transport choices, including train
and air travel. Transit App offers alternative transportation, rhetorically asking: “Public transit
not cooperating? … easily request an Uber, reserve a car2go or grab the closest bike share”.
Apps such as Hailo App, Mytaxi or Uber offer standardized taxi request services. Overall, there
is an emerging integration of different transport mode choices, as well as a growing number of
specialized services on the basis of peer-to-peer, for profit, not-for-profit, or city
council/government funded ICT solutions.

Private transport also increasingly relies on the support of websites and apps. One of the
most notable innovations has been Google’s digitalization of the world’s transport infrastructure
(Google maps), allowing calculation of physical distances, identification of public transport
connections, and comparison of travel times. Information includes transport flows and the speed
of movement in specific road sections in real time. This has been further developed into routing
advice, with for instance Waze informing about the ‘best’ route, including “police alerts,
accidents, road hazards or traffic jams” based on information shared by drivers. The app also
shows the progress of other (fellow) travellers, and allows co-ordination of arrival times or track-
keeping of friends. Integrated satellite navigation systems include BringGo, an app that can be
used as a navigation system. Even built-in navigation systems in cars are increasingly integrated,
and designed as ‘mobility assistants’ that can for instance identify park & ride stations.

Secondary influence of ICT for transportation are for instance relevant in the context of
sports events or disasters (for example through Twitter), as they can result in a “rush to the road”
and concomitant congestion effects (Stephens et al. 2015: 498). Depending on the planned type
of trip, weather forecasts (e.g. AccuWeather) can deter or attract visitors, as well as affect
transport choices, for instance in the case of national park visits, specific activities such as skiing,
hiking, sailing, swimming, or sun-bathing, or the choice of transport modes (Scott and Lemieux
2010). Such services cause changes in the temporal and spatial distribution of trips, and they
initiate or forestall travel. Similarly, trip suggestions as provided by Outdooractive (bicycle, foot)
or Myscenicdrives (cars), may support specific forms of 6 mobility and concentrate transport
flows. Apps such as ViaggiaRovereto or Bike Rider allow collecting "CO2-reduction" or "green"
points by choosing green transport modes.

In term of convenience, innovations for car drivers include a wide range of apps devoted
to parking. This includes informational apps, comparing parking opportunities with regard to
opening times, restrictions, payment options and cost (e.g. Parkopedia, BestParking), parking
spot reservation and pre-payment (e.g. ParkWhiz, Justpark), opportunities to rent parking space
privately (e.g. Park2Gether), payment by smartphone by QR (e.g. Parku) or number code (e.g.
Easypark), park time reminders (e.g. Parker, ParkenApp2), or park location reminders (Find My
Car). Illegal parking can be reported using Wegeheld, an app designed for pedestrians and
cyclists encountering wrongly parked cars on cycle tracks/lanes or pedestrian walks. Public
transport has seen the introduction of apps providing ‘crowdedness indicators’ (Moovit). Dutch
Railways uses an indicator that considers observed passenger numbers in comparison to planned
train length, and presents passenger reports on crowdedness in real time (Xtra). This allows
travellers to choose less crowded alternatives.

Moreover, roads and other traffic infrastructure are increasingly congested, and
considerable efforts have been made to assess and optimize transport flows (e.g. Allsop 1976). In
recent years, technology has gained considerable importance in efficient road use of car traffic
on the basis of automated vehicle control, and specifically adaptive cruise control systems
(Kesting et al. 2010). Such control systems also exist in the form of variable road signs
controlling speeds (Krause et al. 1996). Apps addressing congestion include alternative routing
recommendations in recognition of jams, accidents or police controls (Waze), as well as
alternative transport mode recommendations designed to avoid delays or crowding on public
transport (Transit App). Apps are also increasingly focused on parking, i.e. finding, reserving,
renting or shared parking opportunities (Justpark). Transport efficiencies potentially improve
because of apps that help finding co-riders (ride-sharing), e.g. making better use of capacity
already on the road. Specifically, systems such as UberPOOL are designed to transport multiple
persons heading in the same direction in real time at a lower price, though with an additional
time investment for additional stops.

Information technologies are represented in all fields of society and science, including the
traffic and transport. They are the base of intelligent systems. And there are still a lot of
influences that were not mentioned. To limit everything here is not ideal because people can
clearly see widely and openly the influences of transportation in their daily lives.

Please cite as: Gössling, S. 2017. ICT and transport behaviour: A conceptual review. International
Journal of Sustainable Transportation, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15568318.2017.1338318