Reinforced Concrete
loading. So the reinforcement may be distributed
This article deals with reinforced structural concrete in
its most general meaning. It addresses reinforced and
prestressed concrete, as well as ferrocement, thin
reinforced concrete composites, fiber-reinforced con-
crete, and hybrid combinations of them. A number of
books and references are given in the Bibliography
and should be consulted for any in-depth coverage.
The Bibliography represents only a limited selection of
US titles of the 1980s and 1990s and is not in any way
complete or comprehensive. Its purpose is to provide
the reader with a first link to additional information
on any of the subjects discussed.
1. Definition : Concrete Matrix and Reinforcement
Concrete is a cement-based composite generally
obtained by mixing a Portland cement binder, water,
aggregates, and other additives. The aggregates may
or may not be used ; they generally comprise sand and
gravel. Examples of additives include pozzolanic
materials such as fly ash and silica fume, or simply very
fine sand or clay. Additives may be inert or active.
Depending on the aggregate content, different terms
are used for concrete : a paste is made without
aggregates ; a mortar contains sand but no coarse
aggregate (or gravel) ; a cement slurry is a very fluid
paste containing a larger amount of water and\or
some chemical additives to increase fluidity. For
detailed coverage of concrete see Portland Cements
and Concrete as a Building Material, and Mehta
(1986) and Mindess and Young (1981). In this article
the term concrete is used in the most general way to
represent any one of the above-mentioned matrices.
Concrete is a durable construction material and has
all the attributes suitable for constructed facilities.
From a mechanical viewpoint, all concrete matrices
share a common property, i.e., they are weak in
tension in comparison to their compressive strength
and they have a low tensile strain prior to cracking.
While formulas exists to estimate tensile strength
based on compressive strength, as a first approxi-
mation the tensile strength of concrete ranges from
about 7 % to 10 % of its compressive strength.
Although very high strength concretes can be
obtained, in most applications the compressive
strength of concrete ranges from about 20 MPa to
60 MPa.
Since, in addition, concrete has a very low tensile
strain capacity to failure it is brittle and it cracks. For
all practical purposes in design, the tensile strength of
concrete is ignored or assumed null.
To overcome the shortcoming of poor tensile
resistance, reinforcement is added in concrete pri-
marily in regions where tension is expected such as at
the bottom of beams. However, in seismic regions
where load reversals are expected, tension will occur at
practically every portion of a section depending on the
along the section depth, as well as in two or three
directions.
By its very definition and purpose, the reinforcement
should have a tensile strength significantly higher than
that of concrete. Also, when the reinforcement is not
prestressed, a better performance or a more serviceable
structural concrete is obtained when the modulus of
elasticity of the reinforcement, Er, is significantly larger
than that of concrete, i.e., Er < Ec.
When the reinforcement is embedded in concrete,
both are generally assumed to be perfectly bonded to
form a composite ; this assumption has proved to be
very effective in modeling the behavior of reinforced
concrete members. In prestressed concrete the pre-
stressed reinforcement may be bonded or intentionally
unbonded ; in the latter case, the reinforcement is
anchored at the ends of the member.
2. Types of Reinforcement
The reinforcement in concrete structures can be either
continuous or discontinuous or a combination of both
(Fig. 1). The term ‘‘ continuous ’’ implies that the
length of the reinforcement is of the same order as the
length of the structural member, and generally larger
than its least dimension. The term ‘‘ discontinuous ’’
generally implies a reinforcement significantly smaller
than the length of the member and, except in thin
reinforced sheets, also smaller that its least dimension ;
discontinuous reinforcement is described as fiber
reinforcement.
2.1 Continuous Reinforcement
(a) Steel reinforcing bars and prestressing tendons.
The most common form of reinforcement for
concrete consists of round, surface-deformed steel
reinforcing bars. However, welded wire fabric or
grids can also be used. In the USA standard
reinforcing bars are available in diameters ranging
from about 9 mm to 57 mm and minimum specified
yield strengths of either 276 MPa or 414 MPa. Wires
are also available with minimum yield strengths of
483 MPa. Three types of steel tendons are used in
prestressed concrete : wires, strands made with
several wires, and bars. The most commonly used
strands are made of seven wires (Fig. 2) and range in
diameter from about 6.3 mm to 15.2 mm. They have
a minimum specified tensile strength of 1860 MPa,
and a yield strength of at least 85 % of ultimate for
normal relaxation and 90 % of ultimate for low
relaxation strand. Most common bars for prestressed
concrete are deformed and range in diameter from
about 19 mm to 35 mm. Their minimum specified
tensile strengths are either 1000 MPa or 1104 MPa,
and the minimum specified yield strength is 80 % of
tensile strength. Wires for prestressed concrete are
1
Reinforced Concrete
Figure 1
Types of reinforcements used in concrete structures.
generally less than 9 mm in diameter, and they can
be used either individually, or as part of a cable as-
sembly, or to make strands. Several strands can be
assembled together to form cables for use in pre-
stressing. Minimum properties of wires are similar to
those of strands.
Reinforcing steel bars generally have an elastic
plastic behavior in tension with a definite yield plateau
(Fig. 3). Unlike reinforcing steels, prestressing steels
do not show a definite yielding point ; the onset of
yielding is arbitrarily defined by standards. The yield
strain of prestressing strands and wires is arbitrarily
set by ASTM at 1%, while that of prestressing bars is
set at 0.7 %.
The modulus of elasticity of steel is almost in-
dependent of its strength. In lieu of information from
the manufacturer, the following values can be used in
design : 200 GPa for prestressing wires, 193 GPa for
prestressing bars, and 186 GPa for prestressing
strands.
Steel is the most common reinforcing material used
with concrete. It has the advantages of being strong,
ductile, and with a relatively high modulus of elasticity
2
in comparison to concrete. However, it is prone to
corrosion and is relatively heavy to handle in the field.
These drawbacks can be overcome by using fiber-
reinforced polymeric or plastic (FRP) reinforcements
using high-performance fibers.
(b) FRP reinforcements. FRP reinforcements, made
from carbon, glass, aramid, or other high-perform-
ance fibers embedded in polymeric matrices, in the
form of bars, tendons, strands, and two- or three-
dimensional meshes, are produced and tested by
various institutes around the world especially in
Japan, the USA, and Western Europe (ACI 1997).
Examples of FRP reinforcements include tendons
with trade names like Parafil, Arapree, CFCC,
Polystal, Fibra, Leadline, and numerous others.
The use of FRP reinforcements is seen primarily as
a means to avoid corrosion problems otherwise
encountered in concrete structures when using con-
ventional steel reinforcing bars or prestressing
tendons. Moreover, their nonmagnetic properties
make them ideal for special applications, such as radar

Figure 2
Cross-section of typical reinforcing elements.
Figure 3
Typical stress–strain curves in tension of reinforcement
materials.
stations and structures for magnetic levitation (mag-
lev) trains. FRP reinforcements are suitable for use in
new structures, as well as for repair or strengthening of
existing structures, where their properties can be most
advantageous. In the latter case, FRP sheets are
adhesively bonded to the concrete surface to provide
strengthening in bending, or shear, or both ; they are
also used to confine reinforced concrete columns to
improve their seismic resistance.
Other advantages of FRP reinforcements, particu-
larly in prestressing applications, include lower unit
weight, ease in coiling and handling, good damping
and fatigue behavior, and low relaxation losses.
However, FRP materials are not without drawbacks
which include high cost, low shear (transverse)
Reinforced Concrete
strength, susceptibility to stress-rupture effects, and,
most importantly, low ductility (i.e., no yielding).
Indeed they show a linear elastic response in tension
up to failure (that is considered a brittle failure) which
leads to poor sectional and member ductility. Also,
they have an elastic modulus lower than that of steel,
and generally ranging from about twice (glass FRP) to
about five times (carbon FRP) that of normal strength
concrete. The reader is strongly advised to consult
technical papers or texts on the subject prior to
designing concrete structures with FRP reinforce-
ments. The design suggestions made in this chapter are
applicable to concrete structures with steel reinforce-
ments, and cannot be applied to FRP reinforcements
without special limitations.
2.2 Discontinuous Fiber Reinforcement
Short fibers used in concrete can be characterized in
different ways. First, according to the fiber material :
natural organic (such as cellulose, sisal, jute, bamboo,
etc.) ; natural mineral (such as asbestos, rock-wool,
etc.) ; and synthetic (such as steel, titanium, glass,
carbon, polymers, synthetics, etc.). Second, ac-
cording to their physical\chemical properties : density,
surface roughness, chemical stability, nonreactivity
with the cement matrix, fire resistance or flammability,
etc. Third, according to their mechanical properties :
tensile strength, elastic modulus, stiffness, ductility,
elongation to failure, surface adhesion, etc.
Fibers are differentiated by a number of other
important geometric characteristics related to their
cross-sectional shape, length, diameter or equivalent
diameter, and surface deformation. The cross-section
of the fiber can be circular, rectangular, diamond,
square, triangular, flat, polygonal, or any substantially
polygonal shape. To develop a better bond between the
fiber and the matrix the fiber can be modified along its
length by roughening its surface or by inducing
mechanical deformations. Thus fibers can be smooth,
deformed, crimped, coiled, twisted, with end hooks,
paddles, buttons, or other anchorages. Typical
examples of steel fibers are shown in Fig. 4.
Most common steel fibers are round, have a di-
ameter ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.8 mm, and a length
ranging from 25 mm to 50 mm. Their aspect ratio, i.e.,
the ratio of length to diameter or equivalent diameter,
is generally less than 100, with a common range from
40 to 80. The length and diameter of synthetic fibers
vary greatly. Single-filament fibers can be as little as
10 µm in diameter such as for Kevlar, and as large as
0.8 mm such as with some polypropylene or poly(vinyl
alcohol) (PVA) fibers. Generally, the aspect ratio of
very fine fibers exceeds 100 while that of courser fibers
is less than 100.
Due to the formulation of the mechanics of the
composite, the fiber content in cement matrices is
specified by volume fraction of the total composite.
The fiber volume content of a typical fiber-reinforced
3
Reinforced Concrete
Figure 4
Typical profiles of steel fibers used in concrete.
concrete is less than about 2%. High-performance
fiber-reinforced cement composites generally use fiber
contents ranging from 2% to up to 15%, with a most
common range between 2% and 6%. Because of fiber
materials of different densities, the same volume
fraction of fibers of different materials leads to
different weight fractions of fibers. Fibers are pur-
chased by weight. Typically a 1% volume fraction of
steel fibers in normal-weight concrete amounts to
about 80 kg mV$ of concrete, whereas a 1% volume
fraction of polypropylene fibers amounts to about
only 9.2 kg mV$.
To be effective, fibers must have the following
properties : (i) a tensile strength significantly higher
than that of concrete (2–3 orders of magnitude higher) ;
(ii) a bond strength with the concrete matrix preferably
of the same order as or higher than the tensile strength
of the matrix ; and (iii) an elastic modulus in tension
significantly higher than that of the concrete matrix,
unless self-stressing is used through fiber reinforce-
ment.
The mechanics of fiber reinforcement of concrete
and other information on the applications of fiber-
reinforced concrete can be found in Balaguru and
Shah (1992), Bentur and Mindess (1990), Naaman and
Reinhardt (1996), Naaman (2000), and Reinhardt and
Naaman (1992, 1999).
3. Methods of Reinforcement of Concrete Structures
Generally all concrete structures are reinforced with
some type of reinforcement. Nonreinforced concrete
members are assumed to carry only small gravity loads
or perform a noncritical, non-life-threatening load-
carrying function. Examples include a slab on grade, a
walkway, a low-height retaining wall, etc. All other
applications belong to structural concrete where some
4
Figure 5
Response of plain, reinforced, and prestressed concrete to
service loading.
type of reinforcement is used. It would be unsafe, for
example, to use a nonreinforced concrete beam to
sustain any external load including its own weight.
Figure 5 illustrates the response of such a beam under
service load and how reinforcement is placed to
prevent its collapse. In reinforced concrete, bars are
placed where tension and cracking are expected. In
prestressed concrete, the tendons are stressed to apply
a compressive force balancing tensile stresses and
preventing cracking.
In concrete structures the reinforcement may be
considered passive such as in reinforced concrete or
ferrocement, or active such as in prestressed concrete.
Active reinforcement implies that the reinforcement is
stressed prior to application of external load to the
structure.
Figure 6 illustrates the effects of prestressing for a
concrete member subjected to tension. The reinforced
concrete member will crack under load. When pre-
stressing is used, the prestressed concrete member will
not crack under load. This is because the uniform
precompression stress induced by prestressing
balances the tensile stress induced by external loads ;
the resulting stress remains a compressive stress
throughout the member.
In reinforced concrete the bond is assumed to be
perfect between the steel and the concrete. In pre-
stressed concrete the prestressing tendons may be

Figure 6
Internal stresses designed to balance external stresses in
prestressing.
bonded or unbonded. In unbonded construction the
prestressing force is transmitted to the concrete mem-
ber at the end anchorages of the tendon only, as if it
were an externally applied force. Unbonded pre-
stressing tendons may be placed inside or outside the
concrete section. In the latter case they are described
as external tendons leading to external prestressing
(Fig. 10). In its simplest definition, partially pre-
stressed concrete is a combination of reinforced and
prestressed concrete, i.e., a concrete member con-
taining simultaneously reinforcing bars and stressed,
prestressing tendons.
3.1 Various Types of Structural Concrete
Figure 7 schematically compares plain concrete with
different forms of structural concrete beams and
provides the terminology used to designate each type
of reinforcing system.
Reinforced and prestressed concrete structures can
be built of practically any thickness. Nuclear power
vessels can be more than 3 m thick, and dams can be as
thick as a road is wide. However, it is not practical to
build conventional concrete structures with a thickness
of less than about 100 mm. Other forms of structural
concrete such as ferrocement, fiber-reinforced con-
crete, or hybrid composites must be used (Balaguru
and Shah 1992, Bentur and Mindess 1990, Naaman
2000).
Ferrocement is a type of thin-wall reinforced con-
crete commonly constructed of hydraulic cement
mortar reinforced with closely spaced layers of con-
Reinforced Concrete
Figure 7
Various forms of structural concrete.
tinuous and relatively small size wire mesh (Fig. 8).
The mesh may be made of metallic or other suitable
materials. The fineness of the mortar matrix and its
composition should be compatible with the mesh and
armature systems it is meant to encapsulate. The
matrix may contain discontinuous fibers or micro-
fibers. The thickness of ferrocement is generally less
than 50 mm, and in most applications less than 25 mm.
The principles governing the design and analysis of
ferrocement are similar to those used for reinforced
concrete ; however, a number of differentiating factors
exists between them and should be evaluated prior to
embarking on design and construction with ferro-
cement composites (Naaman 2000).
In the above paragraphs, it is assumed that con-
tinuous reinforcement is used. Short, strong, pref-
erably stiff and ductile discontinuous reinforcing fibers
can also be used with concrete matrices. The fibers can
be added to the concrete matrix similarly to adding
sand or other components ; they are premixed with the
concrete to lead to fiber-reinforced concrete. However,
several forms of fiber-reinforced concrete exist where
the fibers are not premixed. In some shotcreeting
operations, the fiber (such as glass fiber) is fed
separately to the nozzle where the matrix is projected
5
Reinforced Concrete
Figure 8
Typical sections of ferrocement and thin-sheet reinforced
concrete products.
under pressure. In slurry-infiltrated fiber concrete
(SIFCON), the fibers are preplaced in the mold to
form a three-dimensional network then infiltrated by a
cement slurry. In slurry-infiltrated mat concrete
(SIMCON), the fibers are first used to produce a three-
dimensional porous mat which is then infiltrated by a
cement slurry in a manner similar to SIFCON
(Naaman and Reinhardt 1996, Reinhardt and
Naaman 1992, 1999).
Fibers or microfibers can be added to the concrete
matrix used in conventional reinforced concrete,
prestressed concrete, or ferrocement. In this case a
hybrid system or a hybrid composite is obtained.
While fibers generally tend to improve a number of
material and structural properties of concrete, the
most predominant improvement is in the energy
absorption capacity of the matrix or its fracture
energy. Moreover, when used in the right proportion,
their presence may improve the tensile and shear
resistance of concrete, the bond between reinforcing
bars and concrete, and the cyclic response (Balaguru
and Shah 1992, Bentur and Mindess 1990).
4. Prestressing
4.1 Definition
Prestressing is the deliberate creation of permanent
internal stresses in a structure or system in order to
improve its performance. Such stresses are designed to
6
counteract those induced by external loadings. Pre-
stressed concrete is a mature structural material with a
proven technology ; a number of textbooks have been
written about it (Collins and Mitchell 1991, Gerwick
1993, Libby 1984, Lin and Burns 1981, Naaman 1982,
Nawy 1995a, 1995b, Nilson 1987).
The application of prestressing to concrete is in a
way a natural result. Concrete is strong in compression
and weak in tension. For design purposes its tensile
resistance is discounted. Prestressing the concrete
would produce compressive stresses, either uniform or
nonuniform, which will counteract tensile stresses
induced by external loading (Fig. 6). The original
concept, initially developed by Eugene Freyssinet,
attempted to counteract tensile stresses entirely, thus
producing a crack-free material during service. How-
ever, it has since evolved to counteract only in part
externally induced tensile stresses, thus allowing ten-
sion and controlled cracking in a way similar to
reinforced concrete. This has led to what is called
partial prestressing.
Partially prestressed concrete occupies the whole
spectrum of the reinforcing range between fully
reinforced and fully prestressed concrete. It can be
considered a combination of both.
4.2 Prestressing Methods
Several methods and techniques of prestressing are
available. However, except for chemical prestressing,
most can be classified within two major groups :
pretensioning and post-tensioning.
(a) Pretensioning. In pretensioning the prestressing
tendons (wires, strands) are stretched to a pre-
determined tension and anchored to fixed bulkheads
or molds (Fig. 9). The concrete is poured around the
tendons, cured, and, upon hardening, the tendons are
released. As the bond between the tendons and the
concrete resists the shortening of the tendons, the
concrete gets compressed. The prefix ‘‘ pre ’’ in pre-
tensioning refers to the fact that the tendons are put
in tension prior to hardening of the concrete.
Depending on the pretensioned structural elements
produced, the profile of the tendons is either straight
(Fig. 9), such as in hollow-cored slabs, or has one or
two deflected points (also called draping or hold-down
points) such as in bridge girders.
Pretensioning is the method mostly used for the
production of precast prestressed concrete elements in
the USA because it offers great potential for
mechanization. Efficient long-line production tech-
niques with casting bed lengths of up to 600 ft (182 m)
where individual elements are cast end to end are
preferred, as they require a single tensioning op-
eration. Elements of standardized cross-sections are

Figure 9
Typical pretensioning bed showing beams with straight
tendons.
mass produced, yet customized by varying the length
of each element and by placing inserts, holes, or
blockouts for the mechanical or electrical distribution
systems. Accelerated curing often permits early re-
moval of the elements and daily reuse of the forms (24-
hour production cycle). Excellent quality control and
optimum use of labor and materials are achieved.
In order to stretch the tendons, hydraulic jacks are
generally used. Another technique for stretching the
tendons is electrothermal prestressing. Here, high-
strength deformed bars are heated by means of an
electric current to between 250 mC and 450 mC, then
placed and anchored at the ends of the molds or a
pretensioning bed. Electrothermal prestressing is not
used in the USA but has been used in the former Soviet
Union and Eastern Europe. Its applications are
limited.
(b) Post-tensioning. In post-tensioning the tendons
are stressed and anchored at the ends of the concrete
member after the member has been cast and has
attained sufficient strength.
Commonly, a mortar-tight metal pipe or duct (also
called sheath) is placed along the member before
concrete casting. The tendons may have been pre-
placed loosely inside the sheath prior to casting or
could be placed after hardening of the concrete. After
stressing and anchoring, the void between each tendon
and its duct is filled with a mortar grout which
subsequently hardens. Grouting ensures bonding of
the tendon to the surrounding concrete, improves the
resistance of the member to cracking, and reduces the
risks of corrosion of the steel tendons.
This post-tensioning technique implies using what
are commonly called ‘‘ bonded tendons. ’’ If the duct is
filled with grease instead of grout, bonding is prevented
throughout the length of the tendon and the tendon
force is transferred to the concrete member only at the
anchorages. This leads to ‘‘ unbonded tendons. ’’
Unbonded tendons are generally coated with grease or
bituminous material and wrapped with waterproof
paper or placed inside a flexible plastic hose ; they are
placed in the forms prior to concrete casting. When the
concrete reaches sufficient strength, the tendons are
stressed and anchored. They remain unbonded
throughout their length and during service of the
structure. Unbonded tendons can also be placed
Reinforced Concrete
Figure 10
Illustration of external prestressing.
outside the concrete section leading to what is termed
‘‘ external prestressing ’’ (Fig. 10).
Although post-tensioning can be used in precast
prestressed operations, it is most useful in cast-in-
place construction where large building and bridge
girders cannot be transported, and for customized
structures which need tensioning on the job site. Its
application in slabs (unbonded tendons) or unusual
projects, such as nuclear power vessels, TV towers,
long-span bridges, and offshore structures has become
a must and will certainly continue to expand.
(c) Chemical prestressing and self-stressing. Pre-
tensioning and post-tensioning represent two general
methodologies to which most prestressing techniques
belong. It was mentioned above that electrothermal
prestressing is in effect a pretensioning method.
Chemical prestressing, however, does not belong to
any of the above. In chemical prestressing the
tendons are placed untensioned in the forms and the
concrete is poured. Due to the special expansive
cement used, the concrete, instead of shrinking,
expands after curing and during hardening. As the
steel is bonded to the concrete, it stretches with it,
thus undergoing tension and inducing compression in
the concrete. Because stresses due to chemical pre-
stressing are generally low, this technique has not
been widely used.
There are ‘‘ smart ’’ materials that allow us to
envision self-stressing with effective prestress levels
that can be controlled much more accurately, and can
be of much larger magnitude than is achieved with
expansive cement matrices or electrical prestressing.
Shape memory alloys (SMAs) and some special
polymeric fibers possess the unique property of being
able to be frozen temporarily in a particular state,
then, with proper heat or radiation treatment, go back
to their previous equilibrium state. Compared to
electrical prestressing these materials do not need
costly specialized electric equipment and do not create
safety problems in the field. The treatment (heat or
radiation) can be applied any time after hardening of
the matrix instead of during its curing and hardening.
7
Reinforced Concrete

The special reinforcement needed, such as SMA, can

be factory produced, stored, shelved, placed in the
composite, and triggered to recover its deformation
(inducing prestressing) at any appropriate time.
Finally, it is conceivable to combine the previous
two methods, i.e., to have a matrix that expands and a
reinforcement that shrinks in order to produce the
proper amount of self-stressing. The technique of self-
stressing using shape memory materials was still at the
basic research stage at the end of the 1990s (Naaman
2000, Reinhardt and Naaman 1999).

5. Typical Behavior of Structural Concrete Beams

Under Load
When a reinforced concrete beam is loaded in bending
it undergoes several stages of behavior. These help
explain the basis for the different analysis and design
approaches followed for reinforced concrete.
Consider the load (or moment) vs. deflection re- Figure 11
sponse of a typical beam (Fig. 11). Several portions of Typical moment vs. deflection response of a typical
the curve can be identified. reinforced concrete beam.
(i) An initial portion (OA) where structural crack-
ing does not occur.
(ii) A cracking region (AB) where cracks develop
over a relatively short load range ; their width increases
thereafter with increasing load.
(iii) An almost linear portion (BC) where the
concrete is cracked and both the concrete and the steel
can be considered in their linear elastic range of
behavior. The slope of this portion is smaller than that
of the initial portion.
(iv) A region where the response of the concrete is Figure 12
nonlinear (CD) and\or where gradual yielding of the Typical model of a structural concrete section at nominal
steel reinforcement occurs. This nonlinear region bending resistance.
eventually leads to a maximum load (represented by
point D) considered to be the nominal bending
resistance. are assumed to yield, the initial prestress, if present,
(v) A post-peak portion (DE) at the end of which does not influence ultimate resistance. Figure 12 illus-
failure occurs either due to concrete failure in com- trates the section forces at nominal resistance. The
pression or due to failure of the extreme layer of corresponding detailed solution is given in Sect. 7.1.
reinforcement.
The analysis of stresses along each portion of the
curve for the cases of reinforced concrete, prestressed
6. Design Philosophy
concrete, and partially prestressed concrete is beyond
the scope of this article since each commends a The design philosophy generally adopted for concrete
different procedure and a different set of equations. structures is based on satisfying a number of limit
However, in predicting the nominal bending resistance states where a limit state is defined as the boundary
(i.e., the maximum load for design purposes), a unified between acceptable and unacceptable performance.
procedure can be followed for all reinforced and Limit states are generally classified in two categories,
prestressed concrete members. namely serviceability limit states and ultimate strength
Indeed when a structural concrete section is sub- limit states. An allowable stress, a maximum crack
jected to bending in the cracked state, an internal width, or a limit value of deflection belong to the
couple develops with the compression force in the category of serviceability limit states. Collapse of the
concrete and the tensile force in the steel reinforce- structure due to excessive bending or shear belongs to
ment. The forces must remain equal. The compression the category of ultimate strength limit states.
force in the concrete balances the tensile force, whether In the following formulation, the subscript u such as
it is resisted by reinforcing bars, prestressing tendons, in Mu refers to ultimate and the subscript n such as in
or their combination. Since all steel reinforcements Mn refers to nominal. Mu is the required ultimate

8

moment or the factored moment and Mn is the nominal
moment resistance of the member, i.e., its maximum
bending resistance. The factor φ is the capacity
reduction factor or resistance factor and is defined
below.
6.1 General Design Approaches
Design approaches applicable to all structural
materials commonly use the following terminology :
USD : ultimate strength design
LSD : limit state design
LRFD : load and resistance factor design
WSD : working stress design
ASD : allowable stress design
WSD or ASD, also sometimes called the permissible
stress design, are different terminologies for the same
approach, in which maximum stress criteria are
specified ; i.e., an allowable stress is not to be exceeded.
The USD, the LSD, and the LRFD imply essentially
the same philosophy wherein collapse is considered
under factored loads.
Note that WSD and USD may result in the same
member design, but USD or LRFD generally allows
for a more rational distribution of safety reserve.
6.2 USD, LSD, or LRFD
When the USD, LSD, or LRFD approach is applied,
the general format is given by the formula :
U l γiQiφRn (1)
where i l type of load, i.e., dead load, live load, wind
load, etc. ; Qi l nominal load effect ; γi l load factor
corresponding to Qi ; U l required or specified ul-
timate strength ; γiQi l factored loads l required
or specified ultimate strength U ; Rn l nominal
strength or nominal resistance ; φ l resistance factor
(or capacity reduction factor) corresponding to
Rn ; and φRn l design strength or design nominal
resistance.
The left-hand side of Eqn. (1) represents the required
resistance which is computed from structural analysis
based on assumed loads, and the right-hand side of
Eqn. (1) represents a limiting structural capacity
provided by the selected members. In USD or LRFD,
the designer compares the effect of factored loads to
the strength actually provided. The term design
strength refers to the resistance or strength, φRn, that
must be provided by the selected member. The load
factors, γi, and the resistance factor, φ, reflect the fact
that loads, load effects (the computed forces and
moments in the structural elements), and the
resistances can be determined only to imperfect
degrees of accuracy.
Reinforced Concrete
The required strength for design, U l γiQi, is
defined as the maximum (absolute value) of force
obtained from the specified load combinations. The
load factors and load combinations recognize that
when several loads act in combination with the dead
load, only one load takes on its maximum lifetime
value at a time, while the other loads are at arbitrary
point-in-time values. Examples of load combinations
specified by the American Concrete Institute (ACI)
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
(ACI 1995) are as follows :
1n4DT1n7L
0n75(1n4DT1n7LT1n7W )
(2)
0n75(1n4DT1n7W )
0n9DT1n3W
where D, L, and W represent either the loads them-
selves (dead load, live load, wind load) or the load
effects (i.e., the forces or moments caused by the
loads). The coefficients are the applicable load fac-
tors, γi.
Values of resistance (or capacity reduction) factor,
φ, given by ACI 318 (ACI 1995) for reinforced concrete
are :
φ l 0.9 for bending
φ l 0.9 for axial load in tension
φ l 0.85 for shear (3)
φ l 0.75 for axial load in compression,
assuming spiral confinement
φ l 0.70 for axial load in compression,
assuming tie confinement
The factor φ accounts for uncertainties in materials
properties, analysis approximation, etc.
When the USD approach is applied to bending,
direct axial tension, or shear in reinforced concrete,
the following formulation is obtained :
Mu l γDMDjγLMLφMn (4)
Nu l γDNDjγLNLφNn (5)
Vu l γDVDjγLVLφVn (6)
where M is the bending moment, N the tensile axial
load, V the shear force, and other notation is as above.
Note that the load and resistance factors are
obtained from calibration using reliability analysis.
Load factors are higher for loads with a higher degree
of uncertainty. This is why the live load factor for
reinforced concrete is higher than the dead load factor.
However, resistance factors are lower for types of
members or materials with a higher degree of uncer-
tainty. This is why the capacity reduction factor, φ, for
axial load is smaller than that for bending.
9
Reinforced Concrete
Figure 13
Illustrating the WSD and USD approach for a bending
member.
6.3 WSD or ASD
When the WSD or ASD approach is used, the
following general formula applies :
Actual stress  Allowable stress (7)
where absolute values of stresses are considered. The
allowable stress can be obtained from :
Strength
Allowable stress l (8)
Safety factor
For bending, axial tensile load, or shear the actual
stress induced by loading in an uncracked section is
directly proportional to the applied load :
Actual stress l N\Ac for axial tensile load, N (9)
Actual stress l M\S for a bending moment, M (10)
Actual stress l VK\Ib for a shear force, V (11)
where S is the section modulus, K is the moment of
area above the shear plane, and b is the width of the
shear plane. Other notation is standard. Tensile and
bending stresses in the cracked section in the linear
elastic range of behavior can be similarly computed as
described in Sects. 3 and 4.
Thus the allowable stress design criterion can be
generally written as follows :
E G
1 tribution exists along the concrete section up to
σi σn (12)
F
SF H
where σi is the stress due to loading i, σn is the
equivalent elastic stress at nominal resistance, and SF
10
is a safety factor larger than one. The summation is
done over the applied load combination of interest.
Assuming, for instance, a combination of dead load
and live load (often termed service load (DjL)) leads
to :
E G
1
σDjσL σn (13)
F
SF H
where σD is the stress due to dead load and σL is the
stress due to live load.
Since, under elastic bending, stresses and moments
are directly proportional, Eqn. (13) can be rewritten
as :
E G
1
MDjML Mn (14)
F
SF H
where Mn is the nominal bending resistance. The
safety factor is often taken equal to 2.5 in the
WSD–ASD approach.
In comparing Eqns. (4)–(6) with Eqns. (13) and (14),
it can be observed that in the USD–LRFD approach
the effects of loads are multiplied by a factor (different
for each load) and compared to the nominal resistance,
while in the WSD–ASD approach the load effects are
used without modification and the resistance is divided
by a factor. The difference, however, lies in the fact
that in the USD–LRFD approach each load has a
different load factor, while in the WSD–ASD ap-
proach the same safety factor is applied to the effects
of all loads. Figure 13 graphically illustrates the two
approaches assuming a bending member.
7. Analysis of Structural Concrete Sections at
Ultimate : Nominal Bending Resistance Mn
The purpose of the analysis at ultimate or maximum
load is generally to determine the nominal moment
resistance in bending (moment at ultimate behavior)
of the section, assuming that cross-sectional dimen-
sions, materials properties, and amounts of reinforce-
ment are given. As pointed out earlier, the stress in the
steel and in the concrete at ultimate are well outside
their linear range of behavior. Although very accurate
methods of analysis exists, a most efficient method
used for everyday design is followed in the ACI
Building Code (ACI 1995) where a rectangular stress
block for the concrete is assumed and the reinforcing
steel is considered to be at yield. Widely accepted
assumptions for most codes are as follows :
(i) Plane sections remain plane under loading.
Consequently it is assumed that a linear strain dis-
ultimate load.
(ii) A perfect bond exists between steel and concrete.
A direct result of this assumption is that any strain
change in the steel due to an applied load is equal to

Figure 14
Internal resisting moment of the section at ultimate (or
nominal bending resistance) assuming a concrete
rectangular stress block in accordance with the ACI
Building Code.
the strain change in the concrete at the level of the steel
due to the same load.
(iii) The tensile strength of concrete is neglected.
Thus the point of zero stress represents the boundary
between the cracked and the uncracked part of the
section.
The ACI Building Code (ACI 1995) proposes the
following additional assumptions (Fig. 14) .
(iv) The limiting compressive strain of the concrete,
εcu, is equal to 0.003, regardless of the strength of the
concrete, the shape of the section, and the amount of
reinforcement. It is also considered the same for
normal weight and structural lightweight concrete.
(v) The maximum total force in the concrete
compressive zone can be well approximated by con-
sidering a uniform stress of magnitude 0.85fc over a
rectangular block of width b and depth a l β c, where
c represents the depth of the neutral axis and " β is
a factor defined by the ACI Code as follows (see " Mn l nominal bending resistance or ultimate
Fig. 14) :
β l 0.85 for fc  4000 psi (28 MPa)
" pression (usually assumed to be 0.003 for mortar or
β l 0.65 for fc  8000 psi (56 MPa) (15)
" concrete)
β l 0.85k5i10−&(fc k4000)
" ment of type i
for 4000  fc  8000 psi
β l 0.85k5i10−#(fc k28)\7 for 28  fc  56 MPa
" that the compressive force in the concrete compression
While other shapes of compression stress block have
been used in the technical literature, the rectangular
stress block described above leads to the simplest
prediction equations of bending resistance with little
loss in accuracy.
7.1 Rectangular Section (or Rectangular Section
BehaŠior)
Specialized texts treat in detail various cases of
reinforcement such as the case of reinforced, pre-
stressed, or partially prestressed concrete rectangular
or flanged sections (T-sections) with and without
Reinforced Concrete
reinforcement in the compression zone. Here only the
case of a reinforced concrete rectangular section is
illustrated and some simplifying assumptions are made
to accommodate prestressed and partially prestressed
concrete as well.
The following notation is used :
a l depth of rectangular stress block as per the ACI
Building Code
aib l area of rectangular stress block for a rec-
tangular section of width b
Ar l area of tensile reinforcement considered (if
only one type)
Ari l area of a particular type of reinforcement
such as of reinforcing steel or prestressing steel, or
both, or two types of reinforcing steel having different
yield strengths
b l width of concrete section
c l distance from extreme compression fiber to
neutral axis at ultimate
dr l distance from extreme compression fiber to
i
centroid of reinforcing material i
fc l specified design compressive strength of
concrete or mortar
fr l modulus of rupture or stress range in rein-
forcement
i l the type of reinforcement such as reinforcing
steel, prestressing steel, or a reinforcing steel with
different yield strength ; in Fig. 14 the value of i is taken
as 1 for the reinforcing steel and 2 for the prestressing
steel ; in many textbooks the subscript s is used for the
reinforcing steel and p for the prestressing steel. The
proposed notation allows for several layers of different
steel reinforcements such as for ferrocement. It is
assumed that all reinforcements are in the tensile zone
moment
β l factor defined in Eqn. (15)
" l ultimate strain of concrete matrix in com-
εmu
σryi l specified yield strength of tensile reinforce-
Referring to Figs. 12 and 14, the force equilibrium
equation (of the internal couple) can be set by writing
block is equal to the total tensile force in the steel
reinforcement, thus :
ClT (16)
or
0.85fc ba l Ariσryi i l 1, 2, 3… (17)
Thus, for instance, if we had a reinforced concrete
section containing only one type of reinforcing steel in
the tensile zone, Eqn. (17) would read :
0.85fc ba l Ar σry (18)
" "
11
Reinforced Concrete

For a section containing reinforcing steel and pre- the neutral axis at nominal bending resistance, c, by
stressed steel, Eqn. (17) would read : the following relation (Figs. 12 and 14) :
0.85fc ba l Ar σry jAr σry (19) alβ c (24)
" " # # "
where the subscript 1 refers to reinforcing steel and 2 or inversely:
to prestressing steel.
Equation (17) allows us to compute the value of the a
cl (25)
depth of the stress block at nominal bending re- β
sistance : "
in which the factor β is defined above (Eqn. (15)) and
Ariσryi a is from Eqn. (20). "
al i l 1, 2, 3… (20) In an analysis situation, the above equations of
0.85fc b equilibrium (e.g., Eqns. (20) and (22) for reinforced
concrete) have two unknowns, a and Mn, which can be
where the summation is taken for all different rein- solved. In a design situation, the value of Ar is
forcements, provided they have yielding behavior such unknown. By setting Mu l Mn a third equation is
as typical reinforcing steel or prestressing steel. introduced, thus allowing one to obtain a unique
Generally in prestressed and partially prestressed solution for a, Mn, and Ar. Hence, for design, Ar is
concrete members with bonded tendons, the pre- obtained from Eqn. (22) where Mn is replaced by
stressed steel has a stress at nominal bending resistance Mu\φ.
somewhere between its yield strength and its ultimate
strength. Since the yield strength of most prestressing
steels exceeds 85 % of their ultimate strength, as- 8. Design for Bending by USD or LRFD
suming the stress to be at yield introduces a relatively
small error. This is suggested by the author in Eqns. 8.1 General Criteria for USD of Bending Members
(17) and (19) ; however, various codes such as the ACI To satisfy strength design requirements in bending the
Building Code (ACI 1995) and the AASHTO bridge following general conditions must be satisfied to insure
code (AASHTO 1994) recommend computing the strength and safety.
stress in the prestressing steel using a prediction (i) Condition for strength :
equation or a strain compatibility approach. The
author believes that the approximation suggested Mu  φMn (26)
above is sufficient in many cases of design and is
generally on the safe side. where Mu is the factored moment due to external
Once a is determined from Eqn. (20) the nominal loads, Mn is the nominal moment resistance, and φ is
bending resistance (i.e., the moment of the internal the strength reduction factor in bending (see above).
couple of Fig. 14) can be estimated from the equation (ii) Condition for maximum reinforcement : this
of equilibrium of moments : condition would guarantee some ductility for the
member by forcing yielding of the steel prior to failure
E
a
G of the concrete.
Mn l Ariσryi drik i l 1, 2, 3… (21) (iii) Condition for minimum reinforcement : this
F
2 H condition insures that the amount of reinforcement is
sufficient in order to warrant that failure\collapse does
which, for a section containing only reinforcing steel, not occur just after cracking.
leads to :
E G
a 8.2 Strength Criterion
Mn l Ar σry dr k (22)
" " F
" 2 H Whether an analysis, investigation, or design of a
given section is carried out, once the nominal bending
resistance, Mn, is calculated, the following design
For a section containing reinforcing steel and bonded criterion must be checked (Eqn. (26)) :
prestressed steel Eqn. (21) gives :
Mu
E
a
G E
a
G
Mn (27)
Mn l Ar σry dr k jAr σry dr k (23) φ
" " F
" 2 H
# # F
# 2 H
which implies for design that the nominal bending
resistance MnMu\φ. When used at equality, this
According to assumptions given in the ACI Building condition, combined with the two equations of equi-
Code (ACI 1995), the depth of the equivalent concrete librium, allows for the computation of the required
rectangular stress block, a, is related to the depth of amount of reinforcement.

12
 Reinforced Concrete

8.3 Maximum Reinforcement

Let us assume that a section satisfying Eqn. (27) has
been determined. To satisfy criteria related to the
maximum and minimum reinforcement, it is con-
venient to determine the depth, dre, from the extreme
compression fiber to the centroid of the tensile force in
the reinforcement. Its value can be calculated from the
following equation (Fig. 14) assuming all tensile
reinforcement is at yield :
dre l Ariσryidri\Ariσryi (28) Figure 15
Assumed model of composite with load applied to the
To guarantee ductile behavior or equivalently that reinforcement.
excessive reinforcement is not used, the following
general condition which is adopted in the AASHTO Ac l cross-sectional area of composite tensile mem-
LRFD Bridge Design Specification (AASHTO 1994) ber
is recommended : Am l cross-sectional area of matrix (concrete, mor-
tar, paste)
c Ar l cross-sectional area of reinforcement ; here
0.42 (29)
dre reinforcing steel only
Atr l area of transformed section assuming all
concrete
8.4 Minimum Reinforcement Em l elastic modulus of matrix
Er l elastic modulus of (longitudinal) reinforce-
To guarantee that failure does not occur at onset of ment
first structural cracking, the ACI Building Code (ACI n l Er\Em l modular ratio
1995) and the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifi- N l externally applied tensile load
cation (AASHTO 1994) provide different require- Nm l tensile load resisted by the matrix
ments for reinforced and prestressed concrete Nr l tensile load resisted by the reinforcement
structures. The author developed the following simple ρ l reinforcement ratio ; the definition for tensile
and unified condition which, while not given in any members is different from that of bending members
code, simulates very well the requirements given by u l subscript for ultimate
ACI and AASHTO. It applies to all types of y l subscript for yield
reinforced, prestressed, and partially prestressed εc l tensile strain in composite
concrete sections : εm l tensile strain in matrix
εr l tensile strain in reinforcement
c 0.033 σc l tensile stress in the composite
 (30)
dre β σm l tensile stress in the matrix
"
σr l tensile stress in the reinforcement
in which β is from Eqn. (15) and dre is from Eqn. (28). It follows from the above and from Fig. 15 that:
"
AclAmjAr (31)
9. Reinforced Concrete Tensile Members
Ar
The analysis and design of reinforced concrete tensile ρl (32)
members presents no mathematical difficulty. Since Ac
concrete is weak in tension and will crack under
service loads, its tensile resistance is neglected in Er
nl (33)
design ; thus the entire tensile load is carried by the Em
reinforcement. However, since concrete does have
some tensile resistance, it is necessary to provide a
minimum amount of reinforcement in tensile members For any applied external tensile load, N, the stress in
in order to avoid their sudden brittle failure and the composite at any section is given by :
collapse at onset of concrete cracking.
N
σc l (34)
Ac
9.1 Analysis
Consider the tensile prism shown in Fig. 15. The
following notation is adopted : The following assumptions are made.

13
Reinforced Concrete

(i) The load is applied to the reinforcement and then load is defined above in Eqn. (5). The nominal tensile
transferred to the concrete matrix ; this is the same as if a resistance in tension is taken as :
through-matrix crack is assumed to exist at each end
of the composite. NnlArσry (41)
(ii) Under tensile load, cracking in the matrix occurs
at an early stage when the stress in the matrix reaches where Ar is the total cross-sectional area of tensile
its tensile strength, σmu. reinforcement and σry is its yield strength.
The detailed analysis of stresses in the tensile In designing for the reinforcement, Eqn. (40) is
composite in the precracking and postcracking stages taken at equality, leading to :
and during the multiple cracking process can be found
in other specialized texts (Naaman 1982, 2000). Here it Nu
will be sufficient to determine the necessary area of Nn l (42)
φ
reinforcement needed to carry the tensile load with a
sufficient level of safety reserve.
The stress in the composite at any section is given
by Eqn. (34) ; stresses in either the matrix or the Thus the required area of reinforcement can be
reinforcement, at a cracked section, are given by : obtained :

σml0 (35) Nn N
Ar l l u (43)
σry φσry
and

σrlN\Ar (36) It can be observed that for reinforced concrete

tensile members the ultimate strength of the member is
Thus essentially the same as that of the reinforcement. This
makes the computation of cross-sectional area of
reinforcement very simple as shown above. However,
σclN\Aclσr\ρ (37) one still needs to determine the area of the concrete
tensile member or of the matrix. For this the following
or approach is suggested. Select a reasonable reinforce-
ment ratio, ρ, such as from 2 % to 4 %. Thus :
σrlρσc (38)
Ar
Am$Ac l (44)
ρ
The minimum required value of reinforcement ratio
for tensile members, ρ, is defined as that ratio where Ar is from Eqn. (43). Make sure that
of reinforcement for which collapse will not occur ρ
ρmin (Eqn. (39)).
immediately after cracking. It can be shown that : It should be observed that while dimensioning the
area of reinforcement and matrix is very simple, there
1 is a need to detail the reinforcement in order to keep
ρmin (39) crack widths and stresses within acceptable limits.
σ
1knj ry Crack width is proportional to the stress in the
σmu reinforcement. Also, for a given load, the higher the
reinforcement ratio and the smaller the bar diameter,
where σmu is the tensile strength of the matrix, σry is the the smaller is the crack width. The design should also
yield strength of the reinforcement, and n is the be checked for maximum displacement or elongation
modulus ratio defined as n l Er\Em. of the tensile member, which can be controlled by
changing the area of the cross-section of concrete.
Once a preliminary cross-section is obtained, some
iteration may be needed to fine-tune the results to
9.2 Design select a safe, serviceable, and cost-effective member.
In prestressed concrete tensile elements, several
For design the following equation can be used : criteria are used to determine the amount of re-
inforcement and the area of the concrete section.
Nu  φNn (40) These include the ultimate tensile strength criterion
similar to Eqn. (39) as well as criteria setting limits on
where Nu is the factored tensile load and Nn is the compressive stresses, load to decompression, load to
nominal resistance in tension. The factored tensile cracking, minimum reinforcement, and maximum

14

deformation. Their treatment is covered in specialized
texts (Naaman 1982).
10. Concluding Remarks
This article presents an overview of methods of
reinforcement for structural concrete, which includes
reinforced and prestressed concrete members as well
as ferrocement and fiber-reinforced concrete. It
describes the current limit state design philosophy for
such members, and presents the underlying principles
for the analysis and design of reinforced concrete
beams and tensile elements. For additional details or
for the design of other typical members such as
columns or slabs, the reader is referred to more
specialized publications on the subject listed in the
Bibliography.
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Copyright ' 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means : electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without permission in writing from the publishers.
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ISBN: 0-08-0431526
pp. 8095–8110
15