Biology Preliminary Notes 8.2 A Local Ecosystem Britt Gardiner 2017 1. The distribution, diversity and numbers of plants and animals found in ecosystems are determined by biotic and abiotic factors. + Compare the abiotic characteristics of aquatic and terrestrial environments AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT: An environment existing mainly in water; freshwater, saltwater or both TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT: An environment existing mainly on land Abiotic Factor Aquatic Terrestrial Temperature + Only small changes in temperature occur + Temperature changes in water are gradual + Temperature is fairly constant in large bodies of water + Easy for water organisms to adapt + Large variations in temperature over a short period of time (range can be over 20°C) + Seasonal changes between ‘summer and winter are significant + Different altitudes effect temperature, generally every 1000m above sea level is another 4°C cooler + Land organisms must be able to adapt to temperature changes Light Availability + Water surfaces reflect 55% of light. Only 1% of ight reaches 100m or more. * When the sun is high more light is absorbed by water + Different coloured wavelengths of light are absorbed better than others e.g. blue and violet penetrate furthest + Aquatic organisms must have adaptations to cope with changing light availability + Light availability is abundant on land + Cloud cover may only reduce a ‘small amount of light availabilty + Rainforests (forest floor) don't get ‘as much light as other terrestrial environmentsBiology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 Salinity and ion + More ions are available in + Dissolved ions available in soil availability | abundance water + Ions from decomposing * Amount of ions in soil water is organisms are distributed by called soil salinity currents throughout different water | + Different soils contain different soil depths and are made available to | salinity levels, plants must have many organisms adaptations to cope with these different levels pH (acidity! | + pH varies between different. + Soil pH varies depending on alkalinity) | environments depending on terrestrial environments organic material and dissolved gasses available * Carbon dioxide can lower pH and make it more acidic + Dissolved salts play a large role in determining the pH of soil + Plants must have adaptations to the soil pH of their environment + Identify the factors determining the distribution and abundance of a species in each environment. ABUNDANCE: Determines how many members of a species live throughout an ecosystem DISTRIBUTION: Describes where a species is found ic factors Aquatic Terrestrial Saltwater; + Temperature range + Salinity + Light availability + Dissolved gasses (02 & CO2) + Water availability + Tidal movements & wave action Freshwater; + Temperature + Dissolved gasses (02 & CO2) + pH (acidity) of water + Light availability + Clarity of waterBiology Preliminary Notes Biotic factors (affecting both environments) + Availability and abundance of food + Number of competitors + Number of mates + Number of predators + Number & variety of disease-causing organisms Abiotic Factors Britt Gardiner 2017 Abiotic factor Measurement Humiaity Hygrometre (%) Water Temp Digital Thermometre (°C) Turbidity Turbidity tube (ntv) pH pH scan/metre (pH) Light intensity Light metre (Lux) Wind exposure ‘Anemometer (km/h) Water Depth Water markers + process and analyse information obtained from a variety of sampling studies to justify the Use of different sampling techniques to make population estimates when total counts cannot be performed Types of distribution Example Possible explanations of distribution Regular distribution - Deveney eee. | Territorial species Very rare go93c0cc0cs55 Random distribution (no oc : Random distribution of clear pattem seen) : + | resourcesBiology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 Clumped Distribution - ‘Most common, reflects that species need resources that are not distributed uniformly Patchy distribution of resources Transects A transect is a narrow strip that crosses the entire length of an area being studied. Transects are used to create sketches which give an idea of the variation and distribution of species that occur in an ecosystem. There are two types of transects; Plan sketch transe: shows to scale the distribution of organisms in a measured and plotted view. Aerial or surface view of a representative area within an ecosystem. It ot Fone Teme? Key oO woodland eucalypt @ woodland eucalypt wattle (yellow box) {ecribbly gum) 1. Surface view of a woodland ecosystemBritt Gardiner 2017 Profile sketch transect: A side-on view of the area showing to scale the distribution of organisms along a line. Figura 1.7 Fite w ses ff sane ercayman po Ew Eooy 8 . de 4 6 8 we oe OH we oe me imaros ay i avn syne @ vaeetaetairsint Quarts feamenem | ara ‘er ed tayo resus 1. Profile sketch of a woodland ecosystem ‘Abundance Population size has a direct bearing on the ability of a given population to survive. The number of individuals of a species found in an area is the abundance of that species. Plants It is much easier to calculate the abundance of plant species as they stay in the one place. ‘There are different sampling techniques ecologists use to estimate plant species abundance. Sampling techniques are used to gain a representative number of the total population ~ Percentage-cover sampling method ~ This method is simple and easy to use. This method uses quadrat 1 x 1 metre squares to cover randomly selected areas for representative data on the percentage cover of an area.Biology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 Method: 1, Plot a number of quadrat (e.g. 10) 2. Estimate the percentage coverage of each plant in the quadrat, 3. Find the average percentage cover Ifthe area of the ecosystem is known or estimated then the percentage cover can then be converted to area Finding average percentage cover; Add total percentage grass cover of all quadrats and divide by number of quadrats used. + This method is beneficial when plant species are too high in number to count individually. » ADVANTAGE: Easy and inexpensive for measuring large populations, minimal disturbance to environment, quadrats can be used for determining distribution of species along a transect » DISADVANTAGE: Only suitable for plants and slow moving animals Animals + [tis more difficult calculate abundance of animals than plants as animals move around ‘Abundance of animal species is estimated and is an easier way to find out roughly how many species live in an area. The sampling technique used is: - Mark-release-recapture ‘Animals are captured, the sample animals are tagged then released, these animals are given time to mix again, recaptured and the number tagged in the sample are counted. Given by the formula; Abundance = number captured x number recaptured + number marked in recapture Method: 1. Capture - A random sample of animals from the population is selected (e.g 20) 2. Mark and release - Marked animals from the first capture are released back into the natural population and left for a period of time to mix with unmarked individuals 3. Recapture - A sample is captured again to look at the proportion of animals marked from the previous sample (e.g 10 recaptured, 4 marked)Biology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 4. We now insert the numbers found into the formula; Abundance = 20 x 10 + 4 = 50 This means we have estimated the total population size in that area as being 50 = This technique is based on a number of assumptions for accurate estimates of the total population to be calculated: + There is no population change through migration, iths or deaths between sampling periods. + Allanimals are equally able to be caught (individuals are not trap happy or trap shy) + Marked animals are not hampered in their ability to move and mix freely with the rest of the population. — DISADVANTAGE: Only suitable for mobile animals, can be time consuming depending on type of species being counted, method of tagging, and waiting time for recapture, can be disturbing the environment + Describe the roles of photosynthesis and respiration in ecosystems PHOTOSYNTHESIS: The process in which plants use energy from sunlight (absorbed by the green pigment of Chlorophyll) to convert carbon dioxide and water to glucose and oxygen. Photosynthe: Sunlight Carbon dioxide + Water + Glucose + Oxygen Chlorophyll » The sun is the main source of energy used to sustain all ecosystems = The energy given from the sun is captured by plants in their leaves + Photosynthesis uses CO2 and water to make food - all organisms rely on this = Respiration refers to how the cells gain energy » Organic molecules are broken down and that is how energy is produced — Energy is never recycled - it requires constant input » Photosynthesis powers ecosystemsBiology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 + Identify uses of energy by organisms — Growth of cells —+ Repair or maintenance of old or damaged cells. — Active transport of materials across cell membranes — Functioning of special cells that need extra energy (e.g Nerves, Muscles) + Transport or materials within ecosystems (e.g Phloem, circulatory system) + Identify the general equation for aerobic cellular respiration and outline this as a summary of a chain of biochemical reactions ATP: Adenosine triphosphate (one adenosine attached to three phosphate groups) RESPIRATION: Takes place in the mitochondria of all living cells and result in the release of energy for organisms to use. — All living things need energy to survive — Respiration is the breakdown of glucose with oxygen to release energy —+ Carbon dioxide and water are produced as waste products in the process Respiration Many chemical reactions Glucose + Oxygen - Carbon dioxide + Water + energy (ATP) — Aerobic means requiring oxygen — The energy is held in the glucose bonds; when they are broken, energy is released. » Respiration involves around 60 different reactions ATP: The energy carrier in all cells — The energy produced by respiration is kept in these molecules + The energy is stored in the phosphate bondsBiology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 occurs =yteplasm & Qa, 36 AT? serobie respiration anaerobic respiration aware Fr (ermelslon) mtcohendra alechol 1 CO; lactic acid (yecsil, plarils) (quiets) There are two stages of respiration (as seen above); 1. Glycolysis (does not require oxygen) = Occurs in cytoplasm — Splits the 6-carbon glucose into two 3-carbon molecules + 2 ATP molecules are gained 2. Kreb's cycle (requires oxygen) = Occurs in the mitochondria — Pyruvate is broken down into water and COZ = 36 ATP molecules are gained 2. Each local aquatic or terrestrial ecosystem is unique + Examine trends in population estimates for some plant and animal species within an ecosystem AOS: Badu (grey mangrove forest) Homebush Bay: As the water level rose, the amount of mangrove seedlings decreased, but the amount of semaphore crabs increasedBiology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 = This pointed out that mangrove seedlings do not prefer to be covered in water, while crabs do + Outline factors that affect numbers in predator and prey population in the area studied = There are a number of different factors that may affect the numbers of predator and prey populations: + Number of predators competing for same proy — Availability of preys food — Birth rate (depending on the age of reproductive episodes per lifetime > Death rate (increased by exposure to disease) —+ Number of males and females » Size of ecosystem for supporting the predator and prey numbers —+ Movement between ecosystems » Number of shelter sites available — The amount of food available » The salinity of the water = The amount of water available — Not all factors are as relevant to Mangrove ecosystem eg. you may find that the factors affecting numbers in predator and prey populations are directly related to human impact. + Identify examples of allelopathy, parasitism, mutualism and commensalism in an ecosystem and the role of organisms in each type of relationship ALLELOPATHY: is the production of specific biomolecules by one plant that can be beneficial or detrimental to another plant. PARASITISM: Relationships where one species benefits and the other is harmed. MUTUALISM: Relationships where both species benefit from the association COMMENSALISM: Relationships where one species benefits and the other is unaffected — Allelopathy: The example studied was the Casuarina. Its leaves contain allele-chemicals, so as, they dropped to the floor, they released the chemicals, preventing the growth of other plants in the area + Parasitism: The example studied was the pimple wasp. It lays its eggs on the leaves of the mangrove. The larvae eat through the leaf when they hatch and the leaf is damaged.Biology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 — Matualism: The example studied was lichen. This consists of a fungus and an algae joined together. The fungus provides structure and the algae provides food. — Commensalism: Epiphytes on tree trunks such as mosses, small ferns etc benefit from living on the trunk of host tree by catching rainwater to dissolved nutrient and by being closer to sunlight. However the host tree is not affected negatively + Describe the role of decomposers in ecosystems BIOMASS: Mass of organisms at a particular trophic level —+ Decomposers absorb nutrients from dead tissue or waste products of organisms and retum the organic material to the soil. Bacteria and fungi are the main decomposers in an ecosystem. — Bacteria and fungi secrete digestive enzymes, which break down detritus (dead organic matter) into soluble organic molecules such as sugars and eventually into organic molecules such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen. ~ They enable the materials of decomposition available to plants — Process of nitrogen cycle is kept in balance by decomposers — They keep the biomass in circulation.Biology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 + Explain trophic interactions between organisms in an ecosystem using food chains, food webs and pyramids of biomass and energy + Trophic interactions are feeding relationships between organisms + AFOOD CHAIN represents the flow of energy from one living thing to the next — Food chains start with producers (plants), which are eaten by herbivores, which are eaten by carnivores. — The first consumer is the organism that eats the first other organism, Itis usually a herbivore —+ FOOD WEBS are a complex set of interacting food chains within an ecosystem — Ecosystems are composed of food webs, not just food chains. — At every step of a food chain, energy is lost, Itis lost as heat, and wastes » This energy loss is represented in an energy pyramid, as the lowest level is the biggest, and the levels shrink as they go up » At every step of the food chain, BIOMASS is lost. — Biomass is lost as undigested material and wastes > This is also shown in a biomass pyramid which shows total weight of organisms at each level for particular habitat + Biomass pyramids and energy pyramids are usually similar in ecosystems NOTE: The direction of the arrow used in food webs/chains means ‘is eaten by’ = Increasing trophic levels; biomass decreases — 10kg (large fish): 3rd order consumer — 100kg (small fish): 2nd order consumer Secondary —+ 1000kg (waterlilies): 1st order consumer Primary ‘ist + 10000kg (Detritus): Consumer Producer Procucer — Each level 90% of biomass is lost — Decomposers and detritivores do not fit readily into one trophic levelBiology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 = Increasing trophic levels; population decreases » 4 (Cat): 3rd order consumer Ternary) 3rd » 90 (Willie wagtail): 2nd order consumer Secondey | and + 900 (Leaf beetle): 1st order consumer Primary 1st » 9000 (Eucalyptus leaf): Consumer Producer Producer Autotrophs and Heterotrophs AUTOTROPHS: or producers; are organisms that make their own food by converting inorganic molecules to organic compounds HETEROTROPHS: or consumers; must consume other organisms in order to gain the organic molecules they need for life. Heterotrophs: + Primary consumers ~ herbivores: organisms that eat plants only (e.g. koala) —+ Secondary or tertiary consumers — omnivores: organisms that eat both plants and animals (e.9. ants) — carnivores: organisms that eat animals only (e.g. crocodile) + Among the heterotrophs there are also organisms that feed on dead organisms and organic waste from different trophic (feeding) levels. = These are called degraders, which include: + Scavengers: animals that eat dead organisms + Detritivores: animals that ingest organic litter or detritus (and then ligest it) + Decomposers: fungi and bacteria that cause chemical decay of organic matter and absorb the broken-down material. + Define the term adaptation and discuss the problems associated with inferring characteristics of organisms as adaptations for living in a particular habitat ADAPTATIONS: any characteristic that increases an organism's likelihood of survival and reproduction relative to organisms that lack the characteristic.Biology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 = There are three types of adaptations; + Structural: a physical characteristic (long, narrow leaf structure to reduce transpiration in desert environments) + Physiological: an organism's function or process (Vasoconstriction: constrict their bodies to reduce surface area exposed to the sun) + Behavioural: the way in which an organism acts. (animals that burrow under the ground to avoid the sun in a desert environment.) —+ Adaptations are always genetic; they are the result of natural selection. They help an organism to survive and reproduce = Problems associated with inferring characteristics: + Past environments: An organism's current characteristics may have been inherited a long time ago when the organism existed in a different habitat. The organism may still possess that characteristic (or adaptation) but itis now not of any use or related to its survival in its current habitat. + Studying the environment: To be able to determine if a characteristic is an adaptation, biologists need to study the organism's environment. Itis difficult to relate a characteristic to a specific feature of an organism's environment when we do not know the exact habitats it has lived in over generations. + Using fossil evidence: Interpreting the characteristics of organisms from fossil evidence in Particular may lead to incorrect assumptions. + Identify some adaptations of living things to factors in their environment Plant Adaptations: ‘Animal Adaptations: Dry environments: plants reduce surface area, waxy or hairy Lack of water: surface, sunken stomata, deep root system and flattened leaves - Kangaroos don't sweat oriented toward the ground to minimize water loss thus avoiding losing water through sweating Bilby hides in burrows to reduce water loss by evaporationBiology Preliminary Notes Eucalyptus: waxy cuticle reflects heat and light to minimize water loss from evaporation ‘Cyprus pines: Tiny leaves reducing water loss through transpiration Porcupine grasses: Allow fewer stomata to be exposed thus less water is lost from transpiration Britt Gardiner 2017 High Temperatures: — Generally small in size to reduce heat gain and loss — Bilby has large vascular ars for extra surface area for heat loss High exposure to sunlight: = Lizards constrict their bodies to reduce surface area exposed to the sun Lizards have pale external colour to reflect sunlight - reducing heat absorption + Identify and describe in detail adaptations of a plant and an animal from the local ecosystem Mangroves = Roots: » Mangrove species have pneumatophores (aerial roots) which are filled with spongy tissue and small holes that provide structural support and transfer oxygen from the air to the roots trapped below the ground in low-oxygen soil — The roots are also adapted to prevent the intake of a high amount of salt from the water. = Leaves: + Some types of mangroves have leaves with glands that excrete salt. Grey mangroves. can tolerate the storage of large amounts of salt in their leaves which are later dropped when the amount of salt gets too high. —+ Mangroves can restrict the opening of their stomata, pores in the leaves responsible for regulating the exchange of gases and water during photosynthesis. This conserves fresh water within the leaves which is vital for survival in a saline environment. + Mangroves are also able to reduce the leaf surface exposure to the hot sun by turning leaves side-on. This reduces excess water loss through evaporation.Biology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 = Seeds: —+ Mangrove species are viviparous, meaning they retain their seeds until they have. germinated (shoot). —+ When dropped into the water from the parent tree, the seed is able to remain dormant (some surviving after a year at sea) until it finds soil when it is immediately ready to put out roots. Mangrove Crabs = Claw: The male fiddler crab has a distinctive single large claw. — Ituses this to burrow into the intertidal zone and as the tides recedes it comes out to feed on algae, microbes and organic matter. — Sometimes it may drag leaf liter into its burrow to be eaten. = Nocturnal — The red crab is nocturnal, leaving its burrow at night to feed on fallen mangrove leaves, inctive hole in the soft mud under trees at the back of, — The burrow leaves a large di the mangroves + Describe and explain the short-term and long-term consequences on the ecosystem of species competing for resources. + Competition occurs when members of the same or different species need the same limited resource, i's the struggle between organisms for the same resource. — Competition occurs mostly in organisms with similar niches. Intraspecific Competition: Interspecific Competition: — Competition between members of the same | — Competition between members of different species species = Short-term effects: = Long-term effects: + Availabilty of resources will + Degradation of the environment; decrease resources become depleted — Then the growth of the population = Diversity of organisms may be may slow or decrease reducedBiology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 — If population decreases there will be —+ Extinction of an organism; as a result less pressure on available resources of ‘survival of the fittest Plants + Plants compete with other nearby plants for soil nutrients, water and space or for access to sunlight. » Some plants are better able to compete than others in certain parts of ecosystems. These species exclude their competitors from that part of the ecosystem. Animals — Animals compete for a number of different resources within an ecosystem. Animals may compete for mates from the same species. = Animals also compete with the same and other species for: = Food + Shelter or hiding places to avoid predators = Shelter or hiding places in defence of territory or young » Shelter for nest sites. + Identify the impact of humans in the ecosystem studied + Itis our over-population, and our complex, industrial technology that impacts on natural ecosystems. = Human impacts include: + Land clearing and forest degradation — Erosion and soil loss » Salination of soils — Pollution of air, water and soils » Contamination of soils and waterways through use of fertilisers and pesticides — Species and biological diversity loss » Exploitation and depletion of natural non-renewable resources — Production of non-biodegradable and poisonous waste products — Introduction of non-native species of plants and animals — Pressure on environment as a result of increasing population and higher demand for resources.Biology Preliminary Notes Britt Gardiner 2017 — In Homebush Bay, significant industrialisation and urbanisation has drastically changed the natural environment — The bay has been almost destroyed, and the wetlands have been almost totally removed from the bay — Sedimentation of the river has also been done + Dredging the bay for land reclamation has also been done by humans.