EUROPE 1780-1830 FRANKLIN L. FORD LONGMAN London and New York‘roto oe mrad mae Pub nth Ud Sef Amaia conan, New Vk ‘Al is eerveNo part of thi pbltnn may be fp sored rica ue in el somo 6 any eo cn, ‘bot the poe penton fhe Caprio, Fon paid i gd i papal 171 brary of Congr Gaaopng in Pubeaion parape 8183 indus orp recs ad inde. ope Herat Fapen tery on Roxonssiiies Prove i Hos Kone by Youre Emirs eration i For Stephen and JobsContents “European rather than global scope ofthe volume, p. ~The prob- bles of continuity versus change, p. ~ Special attention to France required, p. 2 ~ Placing this period in the history of Europ, p. 3 Profuson bu lio limits of soures fr the age ofthe Revolution, [Napoleon and the Restoration, p. 4 ~ Collections of tex, p.§ ‘Legislative records, p. 6 ~ Administrative document, p. 7 Diplomatic paper, p. 8 Private correspondence, .9 - Memoirs snd aries, p10 = Newspapers, magazines and pamphlets p.12— Popular jingles and songs, p. 14 ~ Theoretical treatises, p14 ~ ‘Travel books, p.15~ Fiction and drama, p,16~Poety, music and other works of art as documents. 17 = Architecture p. x8 Une published documents i national repositories, p. 18. tn. soctery AND CULTURE IN 1780 ‘The late eighteenth century atime of change, p20 Populton smth, p21 ~ Seclsretjcaton, p2¢~ Legally defined orders ‘fe, p. 21 ~ Stats groups defied by gradations of bonou, .33~ Eeonomic cae. 24~ Teal and polit, p.25 ~Landholders urban magnates, higher ois, profesional men, 1. 26~ Rural producers won conser, p27 ~ Fart p27 ‘Merchants, craftsmen sevice personel, p28 ~‘Uapraduciv® clemeat,p 28 ~ Regional aration: Briain, p29 ~ Precocios ‘roth fetes, p.30~Sentand and Keland, p31 ~ lei ond ‘ray p.3~ Spanish nd Porras society. 3t~ Wie diver- ‘ig of conditions in Tay, p. 32 ~ Franc, p. 33 ~ The Low 2Countries. 34~ Scandinavia, p. 35 ~ The German lend, 9. 36~ astern Germany and the Junkers’, p. 36 ~ Free cites and southern principalities, p 37 ~ Seiteedand,p. 38 ~ Austr and Habsturg Central Ewope, p. 38 - Tae Habsburgs’ Slavic snd ‘Magyar subjecs,p. 39 ~ The Balkans under Ottoman ride, p. 39~ ‘Varying degrees of Turkish contro. 40~ Poland, p.4t Rusia, . 42 ~ ‘Soul’ as propery: the bonded peasants, p. 43 ~ The ‘ultra scenes, p. 43 ~ International use of Latin and French. 44 ~Leels of eduction, p.45~ Cosmopolitan ‘high culture: scholar ship and belles teres, p. 45 ~ Architecture and painting more clegant than orignal, p. 46 ~ Music, p. 47 ~The ow’ eulre of folksongs and verncular tales, p48. IV, THE BUROPEAN STATE SYSTEM. ‘Many states ether more of less than nations, p49 ~ The major ‘powers: Great Britain and France, p.50~ Ausra, p. 51 — Prstin and Russia, p. 54 = Lentr powers, p. 54 ~ Decline of formesiy powerful states: Poland, Ottoman Turkey, Spin, Portugal, che Dotch United Provinces, p. 55 = And Sweden, p. 36 ~ Other medium-sized states: Denmark and Swiverand, p. $6 ~ Iain ‘kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia, p. $7 ~ Lange dchies: Tuscany, ‘Bavaria, Stzony,p. 57 ~ The Venetian Republic, p. $7 ~ The ‘nearm of nat p.58~ Smaller ets: ecesistical and secular ‘einipalitis, fee ces, p. $8 ~ Diplomatic thor and practic. 58 ~ Importance of the French model since Louis XIV, p $9 Diplomats an international cast, p. 60 ~ Armies and navi, p. 6 — Oni mince and onde profond p. 62 ~ Nature and distribution of sea power, p 6 ~ Troivonal oes Britain and Front. 63~ Britain dtagerouy isolated in the War of American Indepea- ence p. 64~ Catherine I's League of Armed Neutrality, p.65~ ‘Peace negotiations of 1783-3, p. 66~ Dutch eis of 1785-7. 68 = Brts-French commercial agreement of 1786, p. 69 ~ Tradi- tional raves: Austria, rusia and Rusti, , 69 ~ Catherine I. seeks Austrian support aginst Turkey, p.70—Joseph aggresive {inthe Netherlands and Germany p. 71 ~ Frederick IT's League of Prinoss,p. 72 ~ The Russan-Turkish war of 1787-93 p73 — ‘Treaties of Sistova and Jasy, p. 74 ~ The European states 2789, .74~ France the heaviest lve of the decade, p. 75. vi ” ¥. pomestre PoLrti¢s 1N THE 17805 Divisions and disputes within stats, p. 76 ~ Unrest and Reform: material and ideological presses, p. 77 ~ Rising population and fear of famine, p. 78 - Enlightenment erticsm, p. 79 ~ The ‘American Revolution, p. o.~ Frustrations in diplomacy and ‘war, p-81~ Failures of elightened despotism, p.82~Diffsenest (of demands for reform, p. 83 ~ Conservative resistance to change, 1.84 ~ England and Ueland, p, 85 ~ The General Assocation and the Lord Gordon riots p. 86 ~ Grattan, Food and the Irish ‘Volunteer, p. 87~ The Usted Provinces, p. 88 ~The stadtholder saved by foreign aid, p. 89 ~ The Ausirian Netherland p. $0 = Expulsion and recur of Asstin forces, p. 9 ~ Habs conral uope,p. 92 ~ Joseph 1's reform projects resisted in Hungary and elsewhere, p. 93 ~ Plan, p. 93 ~ Achievements of the Four ‘Yeas’ Diet, p. 94 Reform and reaction in ether countries, 95 = asia and the Germanies,p. 95 ~ Sweden under Gusavas TI, .96~ Spin under Charles III and his minister, p. 97 ~ France, .97~ Necke's Compe rendu signals the ers, p 98 ~ Calonne ebutfed by the Assembly of Notables. 9 ~ Louis XVI forced to call the Estates Gener p. 100 ~ Peculaities ofthe French stain, p11 ~ Diet of ving «pet retain franc, p. 102. VI, THE UPHEAVAL IN FRANCE {tal appearance of victory for privileged groups, p. 103 ~ From ‘he Estates General 1 National Assembly p. 104 ~ Classes, tas sroups and politcal paris, as wells oder, in conic, p. 105 ~ ‘The Estates General lected and convened at Vera, p. 106 — ‘The Tennis Court Ouch and transition tothe National Assembly, 1.107 = The Declaration ofthe Rights of Mar, p. 107 ~ The fall of the Basile andthe ‘Great Fear p. 18 The National Assembly legistes, p. 109 ~ The monarchcalexperinen,p. 110 ~ Dilemma ofthe ing, p. 111 ~ Debates over the Constiton of 1791. 112 = Food shortages and administrative reorganization p. £24 ~The ‘aignats, p. 115 ~The Gil Costution ofthe Clergy, p. 116 — ‘he fall of the monarchy, p. 117 ~ Louis XVT's fight to Varennes, 1118 - Republican agitation by che Jocobinsin Pris p.119~ The sth of the Republi, p. 120 ~ The new Cosveaton dissolves the ‘monarchy, p. 120 ~ The Republican calendar and the metic i Page 6 103,system, p. 121 ~ The king and queen beheaded and the Terror ‘mounts, p. 122 ~ Miltary dificubies, the lee en mae of 1753, 1.123 Interal reat tothe Rep, p. 123 ~ economic prob Jems and regional revols, p. 124 ~ Repression under the Com- ries of Public Safty, p. 125 ~ The peak of the Terror ond ‘Robeper's Fall p. 125 ~ Execution of Girondins, Hébertsts and Danion, p. 126 ~ Execution of Robespiere, the Thermiorean reaction, p. 128 The goverment ofthe Directory. 129 ~ Miltary ‘suoeesses under Carnot, but mouating politi unrest p. 130 Bonaparte made one of three consul p. 131 ~ Interpreting the ‘Revolution. 132 ~ Political splintering from 17890 1799,. 133 = The role ofthe Terror, p. 134 ~ Individual roles, p. 135 ~ A vast vl war with several Bas lines, p. 136 VII, THE REVOLUTION OUTSIDE FRANCE ‘The European ferment, p. 138 ~ Fist reactions to the Reeoton, 139 Diversity of French dirs, p40 ~ Contrasting views in Briain, p. 142 ~ Eathuiasm of Dutch, German and Swit d- sides p. 142 ~ Relative lack of awareness in Tay and the Terian Kingdoms, p. 144 - Responses of Gustavus 1 and Catherine TI, p. 146 ~ Revoltionary France at war, 148 ~ French and ‘German responsbiltes in 1792, p. 147 ~ The ‘miracte of Valy’ p. 148 ~ Treaties of Base end the First Coali= tion, p. 149 = The fal parton of Poland, p. 149 ~ Europe taker stocks . 150 ~ Arrests for sedition increasing in Great Britain, . 152 Represion in acer counts, . 153 ~ The nrgnce of ‘Bonaparte, p.154~His fst Talan campaign 1796, p.155~The ‘Awstrians humbled by the weaty of Campo-Formio, . 156 ~ Bonaparte in Exypt, French deflats by the Second Coalition, 157 But the situation stabilized i 199, p. 158 ~ France and fe terial conquests, p. 158 ~ Policcal and religous policies in ‘ceupied aes, p. 159 - The burden of exactions in money and goods, p. 161 ~ Reactions euwhere in Europe, p. 362 ~ Poi tensions in Briain and cuewhere, decreasing dominate bythe "French question’, p, 162 ~ Death of Wolfe Tone, ule of naval, mutinies at Nore and Spithead,p. 163 ~ International warfare ‘ow the central eu, p. 164, 138 Bonaparte the Man, p. 165~ His personality p. 167A Cacsaran ealightened despt, ora condaser?,p. 169 The cmszrion of ‘the Empire, p.170~ Ministers and prefect, p. 170 ~ A threefold legslarare: Sete, Cars Ligia, Telbanate, p. 171 ~ Regional ‘and natonal ‘notable’, p. 172 ~ Judicial controls, the Cade [Napoldon,p. x73 ~ The internal economy, p. 174 ~ Industrial and ‘commercial regulation, p. 175 ~ Agriclrral and labour orgaiza- tion. 176~ Religious poz, p.176~ The mounting colic with ‘Rome, p.177 ~ The imperial catechism and the annexation of the Papal Stats in 1809, p. 178 ~ Education rearganized,p. 179 = ‘The Imperial University p. 180 The contol of ear, p- 181 ~ Censorship, p. 181 ~ Disipining drama andthe arts, p. 182 — The reintroduction of socal herarchy,p. 182 ~ Returning éxigeé nobles, p. 183 ~The Legion of Honour and the Imperial Nobility, 184 = Jncoatons ~ ephemeral and permanent, p. 185 ~ Many institutional changes not reversed by the Restoration, p. 186~ A ‘reappraisal of Bonaparte p. 187 1X, NAPOLEON AND THE NATIONS OF EUROFE ‘The dramatic structure ofthe Napoleonic wars, p. 189 ~ To the meaty of Lani, p. 191 ~ Napoleon's second Ttalian campeign succeeds at Marengo, p. 192 - Moreau's victory t Hobealindea, 193 ~ Britain andthe war, p. 196 ~ George TU rejects Pitt's Irish policy, p. 197 ~ Addington prime minister, p. 198 ~ Europe fer Ania, p. 198 ~ Brish financial eteachment during year ‘of peace. 199 —assasinaton of Tar Pal, p. 200 ~ Conslida- toa of German states by the Rechdepuatiomhaupichlas,p 201 = The war renamed: 1803 tothe treaty of Tilt (#807) p. 202 ~ Hngland decares war and Napoleon prepares to invade, p. 203 — Formation ofthe Third Colin, p, 204 ~ Nelson victorious at ‘Trafalgar, Napoleon at Auserl,p. 20§~ the Prssian disaster at Jena. 206 ~ Tsar Alexander I ind Napoleon make peace forthe Coane at Tis, p 206 the ‘Contnearal Sytem” proclaimed, 1.207 Napoleon Europe: fghing in bra and Ausra, p. 208 ‘The Spaniards rebel, p. 209 ~ Stadion’ Austrians defeated at ‘Wagram, p. 212 ~ The soaring Bonaparte dynasty, p. 212 ~ Napoleon? Berope: the nation? imternalafais, p. 283 ~ The femerpeace of Canning in England and the murder of Perceval, a Page 165 189contexts 213 ~ Adminitrative reforms ia Raia, p. 214 ~ Maal Beradate becomes cowa pic of Snes, p25 Swerping ‘hangs in Germany, .216~ The Prsisnerao frm. 307 = rom the inavon of Rusa to Water, p. 389 ~ Advance tnd ‘eta ofthe Grand Amy p30 = The Bat of he Nos ot Tepes . 221 = Nepleon defied fn France and ened Ea, p 222 ~ The Hundred Dag end at Water, p. 33 ~The an ofthe Napoleonic Eire, p. 223 ~ Bonaparte’ conception of hegemony, p. 224 ~ His recon of Franc’ ‘atu fone Sen p 235, X. THE CHANGING FACE OF WAR [Need to analyse methods of confit in watlike age, p. 236 ~ ‘Size and equipment of arms, p. 227 ~ Mass warfare, p. 228 — Evolution of uniforms, p. 229 Artery and band arms, p. 231 ~ ‘Supporting were, . 233 ~ Sopply tens and engineers, 9.232 ‘Medial, communication andinteligence services, p. 233 ~ Tactics, 1.234 Both disciplined lines and charging phalanxcs pers, p. 235 ~ Command machinery, p. 235 ~ Ofer and men, p. 237 = ‘Recruitment of oficers, p. 237~ Discipline and mor of woop, . 238 ~ Naval fre, p. 239 ~ Conservative dress and formal stiquete,p. 239 ~ But relive openness of social recruitment of Bish ofcer,p.240~ Marines, p. 24 =the design of fighting Ships) p. 248 ~ Tacs at sa, p. 242 = Trfulgar a victory for practised seamen, p. 243 ~ Amphibious warfare, p. 244 ~ British Jandings at Aboukir Bay and at Copenkage,p. 245 The ‘my of ‘England’ at Boulogne an the crossing that never came, p. 245 Economic warfare, p. 246 ~ Blockades and embargoes, P.247 — ‘Comparison of Brits and French oss, p. 249 Parsi propa- ‘ganda, p. 250 ~ Discouraging rumours and appeals to disaffected troupe, p. 251 ~ Decline in porvayal of enemy as inhuman, . 252 ~ Miliary theorists not influential a the time, p. 253 — familar of land and sea tcsics outweighed by mass and ia- tens, p. 254. XL, THE EUROPEAN STATE SYSTEM AFTER ‘Minute of old and new elements, p. 255 ~ The roo trata of Pai p. 256 ~ Meterich’s leniency towards France, p. 257 ~ x Page a5 contents The Congreso Vewna, p- 258 ~ Leading diplomatic igure, p.259 = Disputes over Poland and Saxony, p. 261 ~ Agreement a the Floal Act, p. 263 Congress Europe, p 265 ~ Castlereagh and the Quadruple Alliance, p. 268 ~ The Holy Alliance as viewed by Alexander I and by Meternich, p. 269 ~ Congress of Aixda- (Chapel, p. 270 - Congresses of Troppas, Laibach and Veron, 1.271 ~ Canning succeeds Castlereagh, p. 272 ~ Diplomacy after Vienna: Italy, Spain and Porogal,p. 273 ~ Intervention against ‘Neapolitan, Piedmontese and Spanish rebels, p. 273 ~ Briain ‘supports Portuguese constitutional. 274 ~ The Arias and the Monro Docring,p. 275 ~ Canning aod the initiative of the ‘United States, p. 276 — Grek Independonc,p- 277 ~ Archbishop Germanos denounces Turkish rule, p.277 ~The sulan alls ‘upon brahim Pasha’s Egyptians, p. 278 ~ Popular sympathy for the Gress, p. 279 ~ British, Freach and Russian intervention: the butte of Navarno, p. ao The treaty of Adrisnoplep. 281 — ‘The European powers in 1850, p. 282 ~ Fewer and larger states, 1.283 ~ Increased role of public opinion, p. 284. [oc just ‘a world restored’, p. 285 ~ Revolutionary Napoleonic legacy of passions, p. 286 ~ Revolutionary secret society and the ‘igure of Buonartip. 287 ~ Economic charge, p. 288 ~ Pubic SEnances,p. 289 ~ Continued population growth and expanding cites, p. 299 ~ Early industriasm, p. 292- British supeioriy fa ‘manufacturing, p. 253 ~ Customs barriers generally high, p94 ‘Birch ofthe Prussian Zeller, p. 295 ~ Religion, p- 295 ~ Con- servative and liberal Catholics, p. 296 ~ Other denominations, 1. 297 ~ Couereutive adminrative reforms, p. 298 ~ Spec importance of the Russian case, p. 298 ~ Patterns of Restoration ‘politics: central and northers Europ, p. 299 ~ Nationalism, con Stiutonalism, democracy, p. 300 ~ Metternich’s influence in ‘Austria and Germany, p. 302 ~The Carlsbad Decrees, p. 303 ~ The Mediterranean land p. 304~ Riego's revolt in Spin, p. 304 ~ Consutional movements in Portugal and Italy, p. 305 ~ The Balhans and Ease Europe, p. 308 ~ Beginning of the feud between hows of Obrenovich and Karagorgeich in Serbia, 1.308 Conservacive opponents ofthe sultan and theta, p. 309 ‘Sham constintionalism in Poland p.310~ Liberal secret societies 285fn Russa, p. 310 ~ France and Britain: authority vere libry, . 311 Louis XVII ex constitutional monarch, p. 312 = The accession of Charles X in rag, p.'313 ~ Repression in Britain: the Peterioo incident, p. 314 ~ The Cato Steet ploters,p. 315 ~ ‘Reform in Britain and the Irish problem, p. 316 ~ The era of Peek and Huskison, p. 317 ~ Wellington suppors modest reforms, . 318 ~ Founding afte Catholic Assocation in Ireland, p. $19 Repel ofthe Test Act and passage of the Catholic Emancipation Bl, p. 320 ~ The Restoration challenged in France and the Lew CCounive,p. 321 ~ Charles X and Polignac,p. 322 ~ The Dutch ing defied, p. 322 — Aucracy refurbished: Turkey and Rus, . 333 — Relative torpor of central and southern Europe, p. 324 ‘Mahmud TI destroys the Janissary Corps, p. 325 ~ The Rossen Decembrists, p. 326 - Reoraton and now thes revieoed p. 2 XENI, INTELLECTUAL FERMENT IN A Diticuley of characterizing the pesiod, p. 330 ~ Relationship of ‘theories to events, p 31 ~ Pata speculation: Enlighemmen and ‘Revolution, p. 331 ~ the Ealightenment's legacy, p. 332 ~ Con loroe’s tenth epoch, p. 333 ~ Enlightened officials, p. 334 ~ Revolutionary thinkers: Tom Paine, p. 335 ~ And Roberperte, . 336 ~ The proliferation of patel thoi, p. 337 ~ Bure, de ‘Maistre, Booal,p. 338 ~Eldon and Savigny, . 339 ~ Kant. 340 “= Hegel, p. 341 ~ Social shwgh,p. 342 ~ Robert Owen, p. 343 — Stint-Simon and Fourier, p. 344 ~ The romanticmedicralist resistance, p. 345 — Malthus p. 346 ~ Ricardo, p. 347 ~ Bentham. and the Pilowphical Radicals, p. 348 ~ Eihis: philanlropy, ltarianion, the categorical imperative, p. 349 ~ Scala human ‘sm replaces formal theology, p. 350 ~ Bentham’ creed, . 35% — Kansan morality, p. 352 ~ Notwal scone, p. 353 ~ Czvraity of French, British and German contribaios, p. 354 ~ Mathe- ‘matics and chemistry, p. 355 ~ Astronomy and physics, p 356 — Geology and Creation, p. 357 ~ Biologists at war over species, '.358~ The divorce between sicae and the humanities. 360 ‘Also bermeen science and technology, p. 361 ~ Hisurigraphy, . 361~ The challenge of the Reveluto,p, 363 ~ Archaenlogy® tole, p. 363 ~ Medievalism and documentary eallecions,p. 364 — Page 330 ‘German philosophers of history, p 365 ~Kantand history, p. 366 = Hegel, . 367 ~ Ranks p. 368 XIV, SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN 1830 “The remaining question: how much had changed, p. 370~ The growth and dirbuion of population, 370 ~ Mushrooming ‘his, p. 372 = Emigration delayed, p. 373 Some aspect of daily ‘We, p- 374~ Changes and cas lines rected in costume, p.375~ ‘What Buropeans at, p. 376 ~ Social groupings and behaviour, 1.378 ~ Changing theme in art and ler, . 379 ~ Neolassicism {nd romantic, p. 379 ~ Bieri, p. 380 ~ Music: Hadyn ‘and Beethoten,p.383~ Schubert and Berlioz, the opera p. 383 ~ ‘Romanticism in poetry, p. 383 ~ The historical noel: Sco and “Manzoni, p. 384 ~ Peycholopicl novels: Jane Austen and Sten~ dba, p. 385 ~ Nationalism and flor, p. 386 ~ Conclson: the balance Breen continty and change, p- 387 ~ The altered con ception of social structure, p. 389 ~ Status groups, economic clases and politcal paris, p. 390 ~ The true nature of the revolutionary-Nepoleonic ‘watershed’, p. 391 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE Page 370 392 3951, Burope in 1780 2. The French Republic by Departments (1790) 3: Parton of Pland 44 Europe fter the Treaty of Lundell (1801) 5: Europe in 812 6, Barope in 1815 (fer the Congress of Views) 17. The German Confederation in 1815, 8, Hialy in 1815 n3 ast 19465 er 37Introduction ‘This volume, ike ts companions in the present series, is concerned specifically with European history. It das, 0 be sure, with a period ‘which saw Europe's infuence spread across the world in mounting ‘waves, 2 period, too, when non-European forces were beginning 19 work tack with increasing effect upon the old continent and is principal islands. Neverthe, i would be folly for such a book to make aay pretence of global coverage—cepecially in view ofthe fact that many ‘European developmeats of the period mus themselves be passed over, or treated oaly bey. An America, despite inherited atid and attachments, must lok at Europe somewhat from the outside; but he fs bemer quale to do tha than to try to write world history a een ‘rough European eye. “Having scoepted the limits of the commission, we can concentrate on central problem of interpretation. Is the problem ofthe relation ship berween Europe before and Europe afer the general css ofthe revolutionary Napoleonic era. Was the quarter-century which began jn 1789 infact che great historical watershed we generally assume it ‘was? Or were the dep underlying trnds running fom the eighteenth {no the nineteenth century so important that we should dismiss any totion of a deep cleavage between one and the other at merely the product of over-emphass on exciting evens? ‘Obvious, the only way to atack the question of continuity versus ‘change, in any pesid, is through thoughtful atetion tothe “before the ‘fl’ and the in-between’ Hence, thsi book of maration, but ‘narration interspersed with reflections and preceded, a well a followed, by examination of European sociey around 1780, and then around 1830. The chronicle of public evenof treaties and bates, legilative coactments and executive decsions—is not ignored. Neither i the record of European thought and artistic accomplishment. If there cst a topical emphasis, it fll on relationships among groupe ofmernopucrion ‘people, variously defined in legal economic, honor and politcal terms, Her, it seme to me, the central issue can be most weflly tdvesed. Was European society st the end of our period only super~ feally diferent from wha tad been Sve decades eater? Or were the differences so fundamental as to mark the coming ofa new age? It ise sbsidary these of the ensuing chapters that public evens ideas fod man’s essays at beauty ia colour of form or sound or language Dave all conbuted to, even as they have reflected the patterns and movements of society in general. ‘One ofthe most dificult balance to maintain ina bok about Europe, 1780-1830 is that brween emphasis on France and adequate coverage of oer region or tats, There are dangers on both ses, Tt would be ‘crippling error to view this psid as above all «dramatic segment of | French history, in which the other peoples of Europe were obliged or ‘privileged, depending on the historians nationality, to play their pars. Perhaps less apparent, howeves, isthe opposie form of distortion, which would real if one dened the power and importance of the French engine, at ence destructive and creative in this epoch of the ‘Buropean past We sll therefore pay clove attention tothe France of [Louis XVI, of Robespiere, of Napleoa and ofthe restored monarchy after 115, We must ale, bowever, ty to keep the Bris Iles and the (Germanic, the Low Countries, the Tbvian kingdoms, Tay the Austrian ‘labsburg ands, Rosa, Poland, Scandinavia andthe Balkans before ws. ‘Because the alf-century here examined ws so filled with great ovations and vilen reversals there is a temptation to visualize the ehteenh century in excessively quiet colours. By the same token, we Sometimes speak of ‘the nineteenth century’ a though things seta ddoun after 1815, Actually, ofcourse, the Old Régie wa far from static. Te had seen the rise and fll of Kagdoms, churches and social group, amid a vociferous cumlt of argumentation and questioning. Evecy tate in Earope was in important respects fa diferent in the 17808 from whit it had been in 1715, to sty nothing of 1648. Siilcy, fone has cay to think of Germany and Tul, France and Brinn, ‘Russa and Avstro-Hlunguy, as they existed by the 18905 t realize ‘how much wat to change inthe three-quarters of a century after the flo the Nepoleoic Empire. Is wort emphasizing the imporance of ‘movement within the periods before and flloing the developments ‘treated inthis book, fr we shall nly confuse ou thiskng i we conceive ‘of thre development at sandwiched berween two glacial masses of rea- tive immobility. Europe has never been que, never tal sate. Our task of comprehension calls for 4 quite diferent approach. Tt {nolves examining the very end ofthe pre-evoktonary er, the gest cis iself and then the emerging olines of the post-Napoleonic uropean world. We should recognize that we are analysing ene slice cut from the annals ofa civilization a self-rtcal and changing as it has been proud and radionalistic, Our am ie to determing, if pos- sible, whether this slice represents someshing special. When we have finished, we must ry to decide whether the years between the beginning ofthe 178s and the end of the 1820 saw break between an old world and anew one too striking for any historian to ignore, ot wheter they simply witnessed the temporary disruption of European sytem hich resumed its earlier characteristics with remarkable speed and com- pletenes, once the storm had passed.I ‘The Sources No historian concerned with Burope in the age of the Revolution, Napoleon and the Restoration should complain of special dicutes ‘or chhim unique advantages in the mater of sources. He may some- times envy the medicvalistsconcentraon ona relatively small number arptiodRapsy. Aa eat guide 0 oer wots ether cooing or ening document sure &P. Carn nd M Jey, ete, Mold Lit {f HonratPesoals and ibgrapis ete, One, 199). Amore ‘esi iting ema, comependene ao ther materia wil be found In FM.Kichien, Biagrepy ¢ Nepolon (London, 1902). For stad Seles of ert ixprance ate Care's nd hn sccesie calibro” Sever Bigrapir ds raaur usu Pte de la Prone set 178, begining wih volume covering he jes 186697 (Pa 1992) 1B. ‘aaa, A Chet the Printed Meter for Engh Sol wa onic Hirt ontbs New York, 19a) and Geren agit Dabuna- ‘Wale, ution dr datchen Gach, iuaced by FC. Daten "yp tut sevned by varios connor down fo the Toh etn, eed by HL amp H- Geum o a (Statin, 1969), Ppes hang oo tere toa! wins re cealpued by D1. Tsar ad Me Ce ae he Diplomate Aho of Weer rope Palin 1959), wile, Tempeey fA LM, Penson A Cony of Diploma Be Bok 814914 (Caniide, 1990, combines 4 nung ot the Focign Ofer Pslanewtar paper eth ‘rons of rch ey Sgr at Caerengh and Caning Aster of alse {eeprom sna mates lean fo he eigtnenth toch ‘ent bve born usenbied by D. V. Gls andD. B.C. Even ets, ‘Popaonin HiryBaay be Matra! Deoerepy (Chicas, 196). Among Imporant wads of ewapapers snd pedis os toi source shoud ‘einely be inclded Arp, Pais and the Pn, e80-140 (Landen, 1949); th et alu of hia iro "Te Time The Thinkin he ‘Mag78 5184 (London 935); Ree de Lit He del re rane (Creag, 96s and K. Schotenoher, Fgh nd Zeng (ery 192) Final atough te works elf oe of ret stantive ve, Willan, (alu and Sosy, 2780-1950 (New Yat, 1960) ences mention orf fda’ suggion fr the tse of Urry tures in the wring of soc Sen ‘ of documents. On occasion he may wish that ke the analyst of very eoent history, he could lok at motion pictures and hear recordings of| his human sbjecte—or even interview them in person. Conversely he may take comfor fiom the grater range of published sources be- quested by the period 2780-1830, a» compared with ear times, pemmiting himelfs modicum of secongratulation over the undeniable Increase in both the quanty and the stastial exaciude of oficial records during his period, Esentily, however, the source problems fhe conffons are those faced by all students of history. His chief problems are best characterized by two terms which are only superially paradoxical incompleteness and profsion. No mater bow many pects of information are avaiable to the scholar, he is bound fiom time fo time to fee thatthe few indispensable ones are precisely those he lacs, There wil slwaye be gap a the fullest documentation. (On the other hind, the researcher cannot escape some consternation as ‘he scans the lists of materials which might, given limites time and invincible eyesight, be brought bear on any question of interpreta tion. Toalcompreheason of the past, lke rota real eludes us Te need hardly be pointed out that this volume is not based on cextesive mor in primary tources. By its very nature, such book [must draw upon specialized rtadies which in tum are founded on documentary inquiry. Some ofthe mest important ofthese monograph, ‘as wel as certain more discursive essays and syatheses, are cited with spprecation in the Bisiogrphicl Note (pp. 392-4) and inthe chapter bibigraphies. Even a general history, however, profs from some direct reference to primary materials, boch for the concrete dees ‘they provide and forthe sese ofthe period which they, and only they, ‘canoer. In any event, the reader deserves tobe reminded of the various ‘bases on wich our knowlege ress. For each major category of evi- ence a few examples canbe singled out it in erder of generality are wide-ranging collections of tas, such as HT, Colenbrander’s Gedenhrubhon dor algameoepeciadnt ‘van Nederland wan 1795 tot 1840 (The Hague, 1905-22). These twent)- {wo volumes bring together precious data on almost a halcentary of| Dutch history fom archives and private holdings not oaly in the [Nethelands, but algo in England, France and other counties, Another vast assemblage of diferent sorts of papery in this case Bearing on one ‘spect ofa astional history, isthe Collin de document inks sur Thistie économique dela Révohuin fargae (Pacis and other ete, 1906-), edited by numerous expert under the auspices of a special 5‘commission of the Miaisy of Public Tnstrucon. This seri, which slready rons t9 over 109 volumes, is still being extended, Mare Boaliers, for instance, i now ein frit the Cahiers de delones tu Tir tat du Bailioge de Roun pur es Eas gerade 1789, ia four volumes, «wo of which have already appesred (Pats, 19575 Rouen, 1960). Few undergraduate students, of cour, wil have much ned for those huge, detailed agglomerations of meri Maay shorter publcn- tins howeer, fe the chance to get aequsntd wth history though cviginal documents, under careful editorial guidance. The Historical Seminar ofthe Univesity of Bera, for example, has been suing a series of paperbound source books, Quillen sur neeren Gece (Berm, 194 averaging fewer than 10 pags apiece and vaabe for the welhcerted text they ncade. To state, the very frst tem in ‘the sce is entitded Vom Ancien Reine sur Franzsslen Revaluation and consis the lector regulations forthe Estates General of 1785, Sample petition of gricvancer—orcahers—addresed to that body 204 ‘the fall Constuton of 1791. Other numbers are Europa Poth =u Begin de 19. Jakrhunerts (Heke 2); Napoemische Frndemvertrge (es); and Bas Ende des Alor Reichs Heft 10, A wf volume sssembled by an American scholar J. H. Stewart isthe 8o-page Dacameary Seroey ofthe French Revsuton (New Yotk, 1951). For (Great Britain, the best and newest elecon forthe period we ar iner= ted in in Bgl Historical Decne, vl. 33, under the general ‘dirs of D. Douglas. This particular volume, prepred by A. Aspinall and B. A. Sith (London, 1959) comprises 567 tems fom the years 1783-1832 'An era of revolution, war and repression was incibly a ime of expanding goverameatal action in tmx every European. nation. Seae papers thus representa major clas of sources, subdivided by naionaliy, by originating agency and by typeof activity iavlned. Legiaive rezords are arch but exceedingly uneven source of ifor- ratio, being limited to countries which enjoyed a degres of pai rmestary rl, limited oto cea tine spans even in some of those ands fm the case of Grex Brian, there ino need to caborate oa the iinporance ef Wiliam Cabber’s 3-vlune Parlanentary Hitory of Eland coataning acl spezches nthe Hoste of Commrns dows 103. The Fist Series of Thomas Hansar's Parliamentary Debate ‘Hansard’ as we sll Kaow trans from 1803 to 1820 ia 4 volumes sand was hope up dae onan annual basi alfer 1813, when Hansard 6 ncIsLarive neconDs. took over Cobbet' interest inthe enterprise. The New (oow consid ered Second) Series covers the ten years of George IVs reign 0 1830, nas volumes. Much less familar, since they deal with the lepslerare ofa shore-lived Italian satelite ofthe revolutionary Franc, are the 11 volumes on the AusnBle della republicacapina (Bologna, 1017-48), elited by C. Montini, A. Albert al. More significant as 2 mational body, but far more dificult for the reader of western European lan- guages to gett, was the Diet of Hungary, though certain ofits debates ‘were summarized in German forthe beneft of Habsburg oficils in Vienna. ‘As might be expected, legislative documentation for France ia this eras particularly voluminous. Beginning with P.B. Buchez and. C. Roux, who edited the sll useful though haphazard iniveparenen- {aire in 4o volumes (Paris 1834-38), and continuing withthe Archives polementaires, See 1: 1787-9 edited by J. Mavidal, B, Laureat, 1 al Pais, 1875"), the publication of such records has proceeded to 4 point of almost incredible specificity. For example, the Instiute for ‘the History of the French Revolution has launched Recueil det daca iments relatifs ae sances des Bias gédrae, maui 1789, the Sst ‘olame of which, edited by G. Lefebre and A. Teroine (ats, 1953), ‘eal eoticely with preparations for the Estates General and with one ays session, chat af te opening on May §! In the publiction of administrative, as in that of legislative, records, intense concer with France (a concera by no means limited t French historians) has given the archives of revoltonary and Napo- leonic executive bodies a tremendous quantitative lead overall rival. Important segments of British ministerial tecords have been repro- duced, of course, as appendices to varius special suds. As will be noted later, the personal papers of maay public gues ofthe time, ‘whether German or Russian, Austian or Spanish, help us to guia partial entry into various cabines and counel chambers, Certsia collections of eighteenth-eatury papery, inctuing the nine diferent series of the Acta Bosca (Berlin 1892-1936) oa the Prusian ad- ‘ministration, contain scare items fr the period after 1780 a8 wel ‘Yer despite the need to reain some degree of European perspective, ‘the massivenes of the French documeatation mast again be acknow= Jedged. 1 constittes phenomenon which was visible fom the dine F. A, Aulard began publication of the 28-ralume Recui der acts di Comité de slur public Paris, 1885-1951). Leaving aside editors of papers fom the fies of individual prefectures and local goveraments, 7the biel catalogue for France would have to honour the fellowing song Aalard's sucesors:E. 5, Lacroix and R. Farge the Com ‘mune of Paris, 16 wos. Paris, 1854-1914); A. Debdoar on the Execu- tive Directory, 4 vols. (Pats, 1910-17); and C. Durand on the Napoleonic Couns! of State (Gap, 1954) Public records, broadly defied, inclade many special items such 25 published census reports, which became standard in some European countries during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, Governmental appeinoments, promodons and reorganizations were regulaly announced in such. publiions at the royal Bavarian Regirogslat (185 .). Papers of both oficial and private origin an feequenty be combined to good advantage, We should note a wel the rapidly growing body of busines archive, offen published in connec- ‘on with te histories of frous old commercial or industrial conceras. In thee collection, Les patron, ler oor et Véat: Le rig de Vine lustre en France de 184 & 1830 (Pais 1912), G. and H. Bourgin homed th ue tha could be made ofthe texts of prefectural an police reports on labour conditions, together with the proceedings of the Cont des Manufactures. "At the mere mention of the phrste “documentary source’, the category most Lely 10 spring to ind Is undoubtedly that of diplo- ‘atc papers. twas to such document or ‘ilomus’ (whence the name) thatthe learned archivists ofthe seventeenth and ightenth centuries prefered to tara when compiling their pioner edition. Many of the ‘magisterial Sigues of ainctenth-eatury historical wring, feom Leopold yon Ranke onward, tended to view ambassadorial repors, cabinet instructions to envoys, drafts nd final texts of treaties a5 at once the richest and the most selable sources for any student of the past. The faith ofthese historians in che ‘primacy of focign pli? swat daly reconfirmed by the very ature of thee favourite materials ‘Modern scholarship has tended to be more reserved i its enhusigs, for this admittedly clear, bot often thin and eles, stream of oserva- sons and opinions. Perhaps the dedine of secret, ound table diplomacy {nour ows century has influenced ou aitudevowsrds its funcuons and ‘worth i other tims. More Iely, the recogaition of intuences acting ‘uponal governmental policy decisions in was seldom clear tothe diplo- matic reporter have diminished the reverence once felt for those ‘eat tied bundles of foreign ofce dispatches. ‘Whatever is exwse however, no such reaction can, or should, rob diplomatic papers of their reskual valu, specially for the study of | a an age mired, like our own, in international confict—an age which produced auch famous diplomats a Talleyand and Caslereagh, (Gapo dstras and Czarorysh, Metternich and Canning. The number- less minutes, dal, instractons and dispatches published inthe pat century-and--half, whether in separate volumes or as documentary Appendices to monographic studies, remain indispensable aida 10 research, The sme is tac even of such hoary cllecions of treaty tes a8 Fde Martens and F. de Cassy, Recall maw! pratique des watts (Leipeig, 1846-57) in teven volomes, or single-nation compilations such a8 L. Neamana, Recall des traiés et conventions concus por “Autriche depuis 1783, 0s. 1¥ relevant fo this period (Leipzig, 1855-38), An lustration of the vale of ambassadorial reports for more ‘than jst the reconstruction of diplomatic manoeuvres will be fund in Gesandchafbriche aur Manchen, 1814-1848, edited by A. Chroust (Monch, 1935-s0). In these dozen volumes we have, rom the separate points of view ofthe French, Austrian and Prussian envoys to Bavaria ‘running analysis of general conditions within that south German dom ducing the frst half ofthe nineteenth century. isnot always easy to draw a clea ine between oficial sources and othe, overappng categves. Individual corespondence is a case in point, The lees of important public figures generally range all the ‘may from the level of sigiiant state papers to that of trivia albeit revealing, personal notes to fiends and relatives. An example of this variety is found inthe six volumes of Girerpondince of King George ‘the Third, edited by Siz John Fortescue (London, 1927-8). Thoogh the cllection ends at 1783, ery inthe pesiod here diseased itis now being supplemented by A: Aspinall’ projected five-olume edition of The Later Coresponience of George III, vl. tof which has appeared (Cambridge, 1962). The corespondenct of ‘Napoleon T began to teocive serous eivral atetion with the 32 volumes published in Paris, 1858-70. Today the number of the Empero’s leers in print exceeds 4,00, A wef selection of some 70 ofthese tems translated, is JE. Homard’s edition of Laters and Documents of Napoleon, vl. 3, Tie Rise to Poser (London, 1961). Much of the official, as well as personal, correspondence of Austria's leading statesman between 1809 Sod 1848 appears in the eigh-vlume collection, ur Metterics iackgelasenenPapiere, edited by hs son, Prince Richard voo Metter ‘ich Winnebarg (Viena, 18-4). More recently, an excellent new ceton of leters and other state papers of Freiher vom Stein, Briefe tnd amaiche Sco, bas bopon to appeae under the editorship of °‘W, Hubatsch sisted bythe preparations of the ate B. Borenhart. Six vofumes, one of them i two parts, have been published so far (Stat- tat, 1957", caryng the Pasian leader's carer through hs reform instr, tht sto 1808. "Not all worthwhile corespondence comes from the fle of rulers and leading minister, of course. The Swiss bargher, Peter Ochs, for ‘example, left a precious picture of social and plial developments in his mative Basel during the revolutionary period in his Korrespondenz, ‘ed. G, Steiner, 3 vols Basel, 1927-37). A diferent typeof eommen- tary, by an important English economic theorist but not a major politician, emerges fom the eters which fll ten volumes of The Works land Correspondence of David Ricardo, edited by P. Srafa and M. H. Dobb (Cambridge, 1951-55) Often we prof from the observations ofa relatively obscure individual who was nevertheless well placed 1 ‘comment upon scene or a movement of ret significance, Thus an ‘usparleled view of the Tealian liberal refugees in London, fore runners of subsequent revolution and unifestion, is afforded by Giovanni Berche’s Late alla marcha Gostanaa’Arconti, vol. 1: Febivao 1822-Laglo 1833 Rome, 1956). Another important example is Liddell Har, ed, The Leer of Private Wheel, 1809-1828 (London, tot) for which we are indebted to one of Wellington's infamy: ‘As shown by the examples of Metternich, Stein and Ricard, cores= ‘pondeace it frequen publihed as enly ne clement in 2callction Iwhich also inches the subjecr’ esays, notes, spesches and other personal papers. Or again, leters may be printed in company with their writer's more or ess atfly constructed memoirs. Asa means of check- ing and. verfjing memoir Utersure, correspondence has obvious ‘le; but one shouldbe wary of eitria techniques designed to make the leer, supposedly ‘primary’ sources, appear to coroborte the ssserions of the memoirs. The danger of misinterpretation because of omissions isa real one. All che same, it is quite commoa to find the comespondence published in combination with memoirs the most ‘valuable porion ofthe edton, sometimes revealing more, ne sts- ‘ees, chan either author or editor intended. This s true of oa ofthe ‘ey sources for Russian imperial policy and Polish acs in ee erly nineteenth century, the two volumes of Memoirs of Prine Adam (Ceartryhi and His Corspondece sith Alexander I, edited by A. Gietgud (Londoo, 1888). Tes copia tro of Pal Léon Talleyrand’s [Ménaires du Prince de Tallerand (Pais, 1953-55), sce the leters contained in there seven volumes are seemingly authentic, while the ‘orginal manuscript of the memoirs was hidden by the Prince's heirs and Girt collaborators and has never been recovered. ‘With espect to the memirs of most statesmen, che special pleading {stoo obvious to constitute much ofa threat. That to say, the student Irnows the circumstances under which the writer may have fallen frm ‘power, ofthe actions and policies he clay veets to justify. Armed ‘with that knowledge, a careful reader can teat the apologetics for ‘what they are, while making good wse of assertions which ether cor {oborte other accounts or are inherently probable ia the absence of| ‘ay apparent mative to fabify, Thos, the six volumes of Mamoias de ‘Don Manuel Godoy Paris, 1839-41) are a transparent defence of his ‘own record by Charles IVs chief minister from 1794 und 18073 but they ao provide a wealth of rections by Spanish courier and ad- ‘inistrtor who ws a shrewd inmost mater as he wat unscrupulous in some. Another minister, x Prussian asociated with bot reform and repression for «dozen years unt his dsmisa in 1819, was K.A. von Hardenberg, whove fve-olume set of Deskoindghiten (Leipag, 1877) was edited by Ranke, We are stil as indebted to the Mimoiret (4 nial de Caulencur, three Volumes edited by J. Hanteau (Pais, 1933), foe thee porac of Nepoleon tnd his policies from Tilt in 1807 tothe callaps in 18r4, a we are tothe s6-volume Collection des ‘Ménwires reais te Revoaton rane, elite by S.A. Beeville and thes (Pars, 1821-7), fora long svies of personal accounts. Or 10 tara to sll another quarer of Furop, the memcirs of Gencal Malrygannés, Srategou Makrugiome Apornenoncanata (20d edn ‘Athens 1947), have proven indispensable to specials in the history ofthe Greck ight for independence in the 18208. Direct, undoctored jottings in curret dives ae naturally more