‘A GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. (Genel Emr: Denys Hy For many yet the volume of Denys Hay’ itingsisbed Genel Hiory f Faroe have been stad ecommerasons for university salen, sath rc ad nr ele Thy ofr ol sree of Eons iter, in which che dead dann (on spool o contnen nde {so} of sot. ecnemie,alminerstive snd itlccl heme oven int clear farsework of pola event They ve otto combae who Lip wih aces it tents whch are hoch nrcively ten nd inelecally vga Now the entie sequence under revson by ‘Sigal author.” meat ofthe volumes forthe Rt te since they mete falihed and the books ne bang tedegnad and rect The rvbed ener Hincry of Europe, when comple, sil comin rele volumes thie of them whl ne + THE DECLINE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD A. HLM Joes ‘THE LATE ROMAN WORLD Dan fa EUROPE FROM THE Thome EX. Noble + EUROPEIN THE CENTRAL MIDDLE AGES 962-1154 Chrisp Brake ¢ EURGPEIN THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES 1150-1309 Jo 1. Mindy ‘$ EUROPEIN THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES DoH ‘¢ EUROPE IN THE SDx TENTH CENTURY 11 G. Komen Gage Mowe and GQ Bowl EUWOPEIN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY D.H. Psion EUROPE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 1713-178 (Third Edison) MS Andon EUROPE 1780-1830 FronknL ed EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 1830-1890 Ht EUROPE 1880-1945 be Raber EUROPE SINCE 1943 8) Oy FIH CENTURY TO THE TENTH elt in ‘New edion pale in the revi format 5 New ule pepsrtion EUROPE IN THE CENTRAL MIDDLE AGES 962-1154 SECOND EDITION CHRISTOPHER BROOKE LONGMAN LONDON AND NEW YORKLongman Group Limited {ongnan Howse il, How Ene CMQ0 6 Eng ‘nt Aol Cop got th word ‘Pal nh iad Str of Aria {Langan aig, New Yo © Chriopher Brooke 1964 Revie litem © Longman Grogp tel 1973 ‘Sten elton © Longman Group UK Le 1987 All igh see pa of his ution maybe ced, ood in a ecicral yem, ot tamed [Eity form or by any mean, elon mechan Thorcopring meording or here thou cher {he pt webs pen ofthe Paige ov iene permiting sarctedcopyag tthe Une ingot nd by the Coppi Eceang Agency La 5 Face Cot Ro! Lonion WHF HE elton “ io and open nor 1975 Son lve 1969 in Fines 1995 Brith Library Cataloguing in Publication Dats Brooke, Cheaper Earope nth coral Mile Ages 62154308 aegis = 76.1492 Soi’ pao ISBN 0-582-00533-7 oso SBN 0-582-49391-9 PPR Library of Catsloging-in-Publiation Data Bigot, Chesropher Nogent Lowi ope inthe cn Mile Ager 62-1154, (A General sory of Europe) Bisiogpy: Inet Ide IT Foyope = Flstory 476-1492, Tle. Sees DALE W967” 90 8627883 ISBN 0-582-00835.7 ISBN 0.3#2-49991.9 (bk) Sein 10/12 pe embo Roman Linton 202 Produced by Longs Singapore Pater (Pe) La Prine in Singapore CONTENTS LIST OF GENEALOGICAL CHARTS LIST OF Maps ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS PREFACE LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 1 INTRODUCTION (Changes and movement ofthe period «962 to 154, ps SOURCES. ‘Their we, ps 4th catnt, 4 Chronicle and History PSI Liudprand to Lampers, p53 Order to JoRO S€ Salsbury. P12 — Byzantine Ustoins p19 Eaeepe onal naraies, p29" AngnSason, Chto, Baye Tapesey and Coat Framer p 2) Biogapyy pat Enuimer, p23 Abelard, p33" Guibert Se Nepent p23 “Testers 'p 25~ Gerber, Se nari, ps 26 Oder littary Sources. p26 Documents y= charter and wrt, p38 “Torgery. p30 ~ Vernacular lieature pad = Archer, aan archaeology, p. 5 ~ Com, p46 ~ Orber eras por THE SHAPE OF EUROPE ‘Mam, p.-~ Mion Spain, p42 ~ the beginning of che rmongubiasp #8 The Byrne Enpires pole decuenee (of Macedonian yay, p47 = poison of the emperor, 1p #8—Easer and Wester Churches, p= the province, 50 The Viking wort, p. 51 caveron of Scandia {ian peoples pest = Adam of femen, p52 Olt “Tryggvason and St Ob p¢ ~ piracy ad trade, p58 — Rosin, p36 = ogin of Novgorod and Kits p50 — reltinswith Bysantiom, p57" Con Europe, 7ape in th Coal Mile Ager Germany and Boemia, p58 = Potnd, p58 ~ Hungary, Sieve Parapet teens pial boundaries, Pd) —2 Poll fonts, p. 0 ~ inberiance of Oxo the Geet p 63s distor, pt ~ dso of Feiner 9. Say! pts the Br es, pp 66 The Tangges of xropep 67 ECONOMIC LIFE [Agel Soi. p72 ~ comparison wih similar econ hie p70 e The economics Of bulking, p74 the Gece ier p78 — Chaat 976 =e Normans aller, ps $8 ~ Abbor Suger of Seine Dens nls peoblems, pS Cusseny,p. Me Markets sd the frowth of tome, pt Theslve ade, p.8b= Trade in Fone p-oTehnologeal advance, . 88> rotor opp watermila p 89 Agere and colon fom pl gecimaton of land, p31 colonizing om the Fema, p92 "The condita of coonomie progres pot socieTy Poplin .96—sh sen pps, p97 expectation Drie and age merge, p99 erkeron of sea under Senay, PD) the soc cree, p10) = Batons In psp 102 = the feudal Bond sh Vasa po Meade carr, p08 ~ extent of sol dy, TTT = From, acs and livery. p. 113 ~ Merchants and Sram pe LiB =the fs, p. 122— The devgy, p23 The pine of women, pr 1 CITIES AND TOWNS Tngnd, Tascomy and Unmbris 2 comtast, . 130 — The Tealan cy scpablcn p32 ~ Rome, pL = Venice, Verona Mil ps 138.= Bologna, Genon, Pia, p. M2 ~ ‘Fou San Gimignano, pe L&4= Spat = Corda, p16 — Nontorn se pi? = Londen poi Northern SSmnmanes= Laon Briges pS ‘TRAVEL Prolog john of Salisbury, p- 153 ~ Monastic sabi ard fnoveinen, p54 = Digrmages wo Congus,, Very, Campout. I~ Rome and Jerslem the Cradle, prise = The popule view ot the Crusades, pe — Bicchant, bolts and ade, p. 1) — The wandering scholars. 72 KINGSHIP AND GOVERNMEN’ Kinship. p03. Warand mariage p 178 Weapons and Fecinne p 1 te ce iMD ~armiey .T8D = 153, 15 0 2 the ecratment, py 18D ~ mereonaries, p84 — Lave aed Miminstoon, pi 189"= ature of le. 186 — cores Frpulr royal and feo p. 196 other apes of smi ‘acon, 189." royal otc: chapels ad chances, 193 = Divine night spot ad ip 9 © Chasemagoe and the Teper es, PT" the Coronation of Ons the Cress p10? King fivking, p300-" secon, ihentance and dsignation, B20 he German eeeson of 17, p. 208 ~ Se Margate Se Seon, p20, “THE EMPIRE, 962-1056 “The Ones, p. 213 ~ Cua Lp. 213 ~ Oxo I, p. 218 ~ Oxo Isp eoon Fenny Go Hem Mp. 28 Henry Ih paB6~ Conrad Ip 309 Honey p22, FROM THE SALIANS TO THE HOHENSTAUFEN, Hany IV, pe238 — Henry V, p24 = The rae of the oheneauf, po 247 ~ Lothar and the Wels, po 247 = (Cones ps2 THE KINGDOM OF THE FRENCH The resources of the owatehy. p25 — contrast wih Grsmany p 231 = end of Carolingian, p_ 252 the French ‘napa, 255 power af Capenan monsecy po 288 Efi prinapies of Northern France, p 285 The Cape fan hinge p. 297 Hugh Caper p97 ~ Rober I the wap 288— Henry p29) ~ Dp p20 ~ Los Yip 2h = Low and ehe Chore, 201 ~ ed Again. 283 ~ Lous Vil 284 the Church, snd te Angew, Ps BRITAIN AND THE VIKINGS, 959-1035 Wale, Scotland and Irland, p. 268 ~ Viking cement, P20) "beat and he Br ngs, S70 Edgars Seceesor p27 th sgn of CP 23 THE NORMANS ‘The Nowmate ad thee my p. 278 ~The Normans in Normandy, ps 277 — The Notun in England, p27) {icep Si! Norman senkmene std Domesay” Bock, post The Nowane and nai, p. 283 — Wiliam Fiemry 1 and Stephane pe 286 ~ inhetionce and reg of Will pF = Hey I, p28) = Stephen andthe aorchy, p20) = hs Hay and Sy p 292" the carer of FRotert scar, p. 293 —"o Roger she Gree, pe 204 — Roger's hangdons, 295, au 2st 267ape th Cota Mie Ages 4 THE CRUSADES, BYZANTIUM AND SPAIN The Byzantine Empire he regs Of Alesis bp 2B he Crave berwecn HS and WH, p. 98 = cay yeas of ‘ides Comers, p- 30) his appeal o she West p01 Me Fae Crs p30 =the ege of Amo: 308 = Caputo Jers p37 =the gdm of arc, Alt" Byun ad the Lan kingdom, p38 The coms Cena p11 Chrniaty an Rm the Spaih pe 34 — bene p= Allon ‘nd the Ci. p. 513 Queen Urac sntArago, 317 aloes Wil'g 317 = Spain the resect comry, pate MONASTICISM AND PAPAL REFORM Chun. Goete and Glastonbury. p40 the Rae of Se Benet p2t"= St Benedict of Amine, 329 = tenth etry ovement, pe 324 compan of Chany and Gora" ceres of reform. po 325 relations with sear owes, p32 he proprictry church 330 hinge and Ishops p_S30 ~The organ 8 the Papel Reform pe reltion of menanic to wider movements of efor: po 3SE “papal nator to 046, p38) =the papal form, pS the Church i the eaty lever cemary. p36 — ips ‘ation and programme of the reformer, 337 — Peer Damian: p39. the work of Lop Xp 3 hs count p32” Redenck of Lorine, Card Humbert. pe 383 pl eleesons andthe decree of 189, p, othe cardia Pr; = Hildebrand (Gregory VID, p35 ‘THE PAPAL CONFLICTS Geogory Viland Henry 1 the sce, p 384 ~ rations of secleical and ly powers the papal View, p88 ~ fap ews, p358Thomo of Alb, p33) — the Newman ‘Rnoaymeus, p39 = Lior ional toma posi T3277 the wad to Canon, th “vent isan, p61 ~ breach betwcen Gregory Ulla Flory pid” Canon p 366 TOTP TT p30 = Haney I Sd he anepopes, 3 acess of Pope Orban ep 2 "the Investore have tn England and France, 9.572 = Paschal Anselm and Heny Lot England po 372 end of severe Frnce p34 = Pope an cipro, 1-2 p34 Fngy V and Pcl I. S14 the Conconta of Worms, po376 ~ siguicance of the contest. pS? = The papeey. 1122-55, pO ‘THE NEW MONASTIC ORDERS. St Roma and his disaple, p.383 ~ che Augustinian inom p33 the sol patton and the ew ere 8 320 354 8 a Contes 2384 appeal of monastic, p. 385 — inl bass of few onder p88-~ Alger, p89 "the Chanwete, ‘Tiron Ssvigay, p. 358 orga Of Cau p= the Goteran' Orde organization pS) spec cxacer, posi is appeal, pOl sence om stber order: the aight, pias the Gites ps 304 the Caran SCHOOLS AND SCHOLARSHIP “The schoak, p97 Grammar thtoric, and dialect; "ppb the ceaton of Lat ye St Bersard of Clr Sepa crt ss aclfexpreon, po aOE rowing Infcoteof fog alt), p 8 Theology Se Anson Pp. 406 Theolpgy and Humanism: Abele, p49 — Canon bw. p 413 the Ansey case, p. 414 ~ the caletions of Cano aw, p_416~— Burchard of Worms and to of Char, Beil? ~ Gracias Deo, p. 418 the cours: appeals to Rome, pi. POPULAR RELIGION Religion. at and architecere, p 421 ~ popular raion, 43" church bing. p 423" the Norms as chee 105 the atom sit p #27 prin an elo pa fom Kemanesquc to odie, p30 pati ed Ease ‘anak ‘Thoplls “On the Various any p12 the Monte St Hctnard an! Pos of Bray, 34 Heres 133 ~ ekvendcomury herctie, p86 ~ rcs a forest pi3?~the Parabens! p48 ~ the Cathars fF 00 Lie inthe world the nymar’s scligon, p49) he Char an lay moray, ps 439 the layman at church, Pratt hic fanedon inthe ork he Chitin warn pM MEDIEVAL MARRIAGE Georges Duby and the two modes, p. 444 = Law and pesc- tice the ely Mille Age, . i ~ The Chute takes “ontolp. $89 annulment and comanguiny, p30 Jak Goody td Peter Damian, po 451 — What 6 mariage? GGratan and. Alexander ih p45 The Chote and she Satara, petS6"= Marge fom swt Helse and ‘Mts, p47 — The eters, 458 Peter the Venerable “omslatin to Heo, p48 ~The history of matings ps EPILOGUE ‘Men and ovement of dhe mid wlth century, 467. APPENDIX: CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS ‘BIBLIOGRAPHY 2 “4 467 5nope inthe Col Mile Age GENEAI MAPS. INDEX SICAL CHARTS 49 495, 53 LIST OF GENEALOGICAL CHARTS 1. The Saxons and Salans and their Connexions 0 1, The Kings of England, France and Scotland 92LIST OF MAPS 1. Europe: physical 2. Europe in 962 3, The languages of Europe, 10uh-11¢h centuries 4, France Europe in 1154 6. Monasteries and pilgrim centres 7. The Crussdes 196 07 os 49 500 sor 502 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We ae gratfl tothe following for permission to include copy right material Burns & Oates Lud and Henry Regnery Company for extracts from The Leters of St Berard of Clairvaux translated by BS. James, Copyright 1953, Henry Regaery Company, Chicago; Professor Dom David Knowles and Cambridge University Press for extracts from The Monastic Order in England and The Histrion and Charaer by Dom David Knowles; Chapman & Hall id and the Executor ofthe late C. Scott-Moncrieff for extract from his transltion of The Song of Roland Chatto & Windus Led for ‘extracts from The Rule of St Bendis eraslted by FA. Gasquet: ‘Columbia Universiy Press for extracts from Th leer of Gebet transbted by H. P, Latin, in the Columbia Records of Civiiz~ ation series, 1961; Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd for an extract from Waler Dane's Life of Aired of Rievate edited and tanslated by Sir Maurice Powicke in Nelson's Medieval Texts, 1950; Profesor R. Hill for extracts ftom the Gea Francona in the same series, 1962; Dr Joan Evans and Oxford University Press for an extract from Monastic Life at Cluny by Joan Evans; and Routledge and Kegan Paul Lud for extracts from The Alewad translated by E, A Dawes, Guibert de Noent's Autbigrephy translated by ©. C Swinton Bland and The Works of Lidrand of Cremone translated by FA. WrightPREFACE 1 fest made the acquaintance of the subject of this book when, atthe age of ten, helped my father with the proofs and index fot his History of Europe, 911-1198. Over the years which followed learned much from him, but not enough to have written another ‘book like his. Those who wish to read a fall and coherent naera- tive of thee centuries will find win his book. Although I have tried to sketch the politi history of my period, che main design fof this book & to sketch the life ofthe age under every aspect which can now be viewed, Ihave tried eo make ie wide-ranging, bot not complete. There is no more false ides about the study of history than that a period may be grasped from single book. To thore who with to make these centuries thei own, 1 commend first of al the sources Hsted sn Chapter 2, next the hooks which have especially guided me, those by my fer, by Dom David Knowles and Sir Richard Southern, and finaly all the good books which Ihave listed and many more which I have by ignorance or oversight or shortage of space omied. ‘The frst and greatest of my debes has already been indicated: and there ate many more. When f fist wrote the book I had invaluable help fiom Professor Denys Hay, Profeesor R.A. ‘Markus and my wife, who read all of ic in manuscripe and the two former in proof as well; and also from Professor Lord Bauer land Professor Philip Grierson, who read parts of i, Dom Acled ‘Watkin, the late Professor G. M. Richards and other fiends and collegues, who helped me on many particular points, and the Publishers. All these helped to eradicate many errors and infel- fetes, and many have costinued to help me ~as have generations Pre of students whose sceptical eyes or welltimed enquiries have reveled co me that was expounding nonsense to them, When this book was frst published over twenty years ago one generous critic observed that iF those who planned i had been Content with fewer stools dey might have achieved a firmer sea another sighed for some gret traditional theme, like empire and papacy, to give its central thread; 2 third claimed chat “a new history of "Europe should give readers the opportunity of surveying the work done by continenal historians during the ase Uhirey years o 40, and might ideally have given English scholars anew view-point from which to survey thir own histor which I had not." The aspirations ofthe fist «wo could only be smet by expanding the political chapters of omitting them alto gether. I wished, and stil wish, to provide an intelligible frame fn which any studene of the Middle Ages can construct a picture ofthe past, and Have yet to mest one who could seriously grasp the period with no knowledge of the politcal frame at all. But to make the politics of the central Middle Ass the cove ofthis book would fun counter to al my convictions of what is most worth studying, and to erect empire and papacy into a dominant theme would bea retreat into the 1920s. The filth volume ofthe Cambridge Medco History was 2 cuiph in its day. the best of it broughe English historical sudy firmly into the twenticth century, and my father’s chapters on Gregory VIL and Henry 1V remain the best study in English of the central story, and the most deeply considered. Fo their story the evidence copious; but for (Ouo Hand Henry Il of Germany ~ or Rober the Pious snd Henry of France —or the Alfontos past counting ofthe Iberian penin- sula ~ the narative evidence i slender indeed the pois history ofthe era ofthis book is 2 tiny part ofthe rich historical deposit of these creative centuries (See pp. 4-38, 397-420). One great naeratve history of this era has been published in the Ini fifty years, + book #0 link the world of Macaulay with our own; but it was not about secular polis, or th history of the Papacy: it tide is The Monastic Order sn England, 940-1216, se author a 1K. B. MeFalze ia New Staeaman, 17 Jay 196; G.R. Elton, The Pra of Hor Sydney and London, 1960, pp. 191-2 RH Das In Hiory, ol XUIX (106, pp. 339-40.pein he Coal Mile Ages devout disciple of Macaulay deeply imbued with aiodern schol ship, Dom David Knowles.” To present ‘the work done by contiaental scholars dating the last chy year’s beyond my lesming. I wish it could be done: but this isnot the kind of book in which to doit. No doube for every page a dozen papers might be found, altering an aperc, confirming or correcting 2 date. Yet fo all but the copnoscente Widukind and Liudprond and Thietmar remain the core of out knowledge of Germany under the Saxon emperors ~ and purely for the politics ofthe age they remain the only essential reading (ut sce p. 211 m1) The Bayeux Tapestry and Domestay Book have been accepted as the cental documents of the Norman Conquest of England for well over a hundeed years; much splendid work has recendly been done om thet interpretation, and Domesday has had a kind of pocheosis in thi, its centenary year of 1986, But the effect has been essentially to say if you want to understand eleventhecentury England, grb about inthe text of the great survey; if you wane to understand what happened in 1066, pay a vst to Bayeux. By the same token, the mort lating work in many fields of scholarship has comprised the editing oF receding of texts, of which Matjrie Chinas Onerie (pp. 2-16) is an cxceptionaly’ distinguished example. There are, however, ateas of study where the ctetive efforts of scholars have pointed in quite new direcsons. In 3 lige measure this has happened in the history of the religiowe orders, of schools and Scholarship, of popular religion, of arcitectute sid art. All these themes were represented in the edition of 1964, however inad= ‘quately: and the culture of the age can never be fly presented in a book without piccures. Something ofthis Ihave steeped csewhere in The Twelfth Century Renasonce (1968), The Monastic World (1974), i which some attempe at 2 text is attached f0 the marvellous photographs of Wim Swan, and Popular Religion in the Middle Ages (1984), in which I assisted my wife. Their essence is here. Meansshile, «wo major felds of sidy have broken through the walls suerounding those outmoded eategorss, social and economic and polital hitory: medieval society has been 2 Cambridge, 1940 nd edn 1963 (when the opening date was akered| From O48 to 40, osring to revson of the date af Se-Dursas aval 2 Ghatoniey). Pre specially Tluminated by an entiely fesh approach tothe study of cites ~ the urban renaissance of the central Middle Ages — and the study of the family and mariage. In the fist the atchacal= ogists have added 2 dimension to our knowiedge, and mote, fat "mote, is to come: here is 4 region in which the study of physical femains, below and above ground and from the ait, will add immeasurably to our knowledge in the generations ahead, Mean while the wide field of socal and economic history, which dominated the most fashionable fields of scholarship twenty years ago, has given place inthe minds of scholars and in innumerable Seminars to a cluster of themes which ignore such aril cate ‘egories; and one of these isthe history of mariage. Both these themes have occupied much of my own time since 1964, and 50 T have added chapters which survey 3 pare of what we have learned or ought to lear ~ for the history of marriage as ‘commonly studied is martd by insufficient attention to ideas, and ‘specially religious ideas. I put it 38 the end, where the channels flowing through social snd political history, through religion and the history of idess, may join together. A major problem ofthe central Middle Ages is t6 discover how and why, in 4 strange diversity of ways, growing aspirations to tavel made possible flsvour in culture and trade alike stangely cosmopoliin. This { would reckon to be one of the leading themes to emerge in the nnext twenty years, and so the chird of the three new chapters (Ch. 7, looks at travel, while incorporating sonic old pages onthe Fst Crusade and the Song of Role, For the rest, Thave praned the wayward pasages and chastised the errors of my former text; have reatranged afew chapets to make the polities of the Normans and the Crusades more coherent; I have made some allowance for RH. C. Davi’ exciting suggestion that the Normans hardy, fever, existed.” In all these nbours 1 have been indebted to the kindness and ‘encouragement of the General Editor and the publishers, and in ‘countless ways, faom instruction in popular tligion in Vereay and Assisi to less exciting work on proofs, t0 Rosalind Brooke, 3 This perhaps 2 litle ovetstats the message of The Nims and their inthe pp. 275-7), bat hardly snpact om the Norman achieve. iene Som schol hd terete ipein he Cal Mile Age iy wife, My stady of marriage im Ch. 20 owes mach to discus- sions with Dr Carolyn Moule over the years in hich she Was preparing ber thesis “Entry into marrige inthe late eleventh and twelth centuries, «) HH0-1181" (Cambndge Ph.D., 1983). | owe 2 Special debe 10 my colleague David Abulaia, whose detailed Comments on the old text ~ and generous advice in many regions fof modern scholarship ~ have made i possible co bring the book into the 1980s, They encouraged me t® do if, and abetted me in the task; and I by no means release thems from eesponsibility for fis estence the errs are mine, the virtues a theirs ~ and for the help {amy indeed gratfl (CHRISTOPHER BROOKE LIVERPOOL, 1964 CAMBRIDGE, 1986 ABBREVIATIONS Columbia Records Columbia Records of Civilization MGH Monorene Gemmaniae Hisovice (SRG Serptree Rerum Gemanicarum wim ‘hola NMT. Nelson's Medieval Texts (formerly Chassis) or (Oxford Medieval TextsTO MY MOTHER IN MEMORY OF MY FATHER INTRODUCTION Between the tenth and the twelth centre great changes took Place in western Europe. Almost everywhere population grew, rnew lands were brought under culvation, new techniques of agriculture devised to save the increasing numbers from star vation. Some of the peasantry looked out for new lands away from their old villages: many of the younger sons of knightly and baronial families had to find land hundeeds of miles from their homes. Economic life revived in 2 variety of ways: towns sprang up, and markets; industry grew ~ a small afi by modern stam dards, but gargantuan by those of the carly Middle Ages ‘merchants in ever greater numbers pled the Mediterranean and the trade routes of northem Europe. Wester Europe expanded its frontiers, and the iniative in wari, in rade and in culture, passed from Islam and Byzantium to western Christendom. & [popular religious revival flowed through many diferent channels, In reforms and massacres, in orthodoxy and heresy, in the quest for the earthly Jerusalem by crusades and pilgrimages, and the ‘quest of the heavenly Jerusalem in monasteries and hermitages rcarer_home. The papacy was ansformed and the papal ‘monarchy was established a5 the headquarters ofa wide and deep ‘movement for reform. Closely allied withthe papal reform was the intellectual revival ofthe eleventh and twelfth centuries, and all the many scholarly, literary and artatc movements comprised Under the abe the Owelth-cntury renaissance’ ‘The changes were dramatic; and it ix only too easy for the historian, now that he is. gradually becoming aware’ of thet exten, 10 overdramaize them. To those sho lived through them, 1pen the Con Mile Agr little of this was known. They were aware of some dramatic vents ~an eclipse, a food, of + rasade, but most of the mover ‘nents ofthe time only impinged on them in agement. The few zen who fad the feching of living through a revolution atesbuted| it'to the advent of Anti-Christ! and presumed thar they were ‘witnessing, not the end of the ‘Dark Ages’, as the moder historian assumes, But the fist sign of the ead of the world. I ‘we had the chance fo explain our ated ~ our interest, even our acitement~ at this vision of new ideas and new forces a work, four conception ofa "renaissance ae both a rebirth and anew bie, ven the most alert of contemporaies Would have been hori ‘To them the word new" was synonymous with the word ‘bad “novelty” was aterm of abate. [eis ue that they were not merely reactionary or wholly conservative in their outlook. But progress (in their view) was only posible im 2 very limited degree, and only posible at al f one based enesel” securely on the models fof the past, The most radi) propossls were put forward 2s Sreempts to enforce existing law, to live up to well-known ideals, to resstablish ancient customs, Perhaps they were a lide aware ff what they were doing: but they were nota all aware that they ‘vere living through an era of change such 36 Europe had not seen fince the fll ofthe Roman Empire “The historian of this pesiod is thus faced with a dilemma and a paradox. Of the larger movements he knows far more chan Contemporaries knew: ofthe details of daly lif, of the ordinary {ideas and assumptions of men ~ even, for instance, of the religous beliefs of the enormous majority of Wwestem Europeans ~ he Knows extremely lite, Hei thus compelled t portray the world in very diferent colours from thore in which i appeared to contemporaries; and it would be disingenuous of him not to Confess 2s much, The aces of ove ignorance ae almost infinitely feat. To anderstand cis ic is peculiarly necessary for us to start by considering, however briefly. the sources of our knowledge. We also have to consider with great cate what i included in the Europe of this period: for its Boundaries and is local varieties, Social cconomie, cultural and poitial, profoundly affected is history. From this we pass on to an analysis of its economic, social and constitutional organization, whichis essential £0 an 1 Not, however, parity aiocited with the yat 1000 a5 the omen fend his (but ee H.),Foilon, Lan ml Par, 1952) Intocion underitanding of it history a story, and of the ecclesiastical reform, dhe investicure contests, and the crusades, which must fill 2 substandal pare of any book on this peiod.? (Our period then, was one of rapid change. But ro the men who lived through it, change came as tht in the night. They 13% too ltde of it; we are in danger perhaps of seeing too much, 2 Readers with no previous knowlege ofthe events of hee centuries fray find tee toad sme of te naratve chapter before hey bark oa Chapters 42 SOURCES Uhave always thought that hitory wat more profitably and ples ty staid from sour than fom secondary work, ahd that 2'aigh acquaintance wh contemporary writes maker 3 period inoweincligile and ives lly sgh ino than ows ‘St patent plodding though the best modern authors. But we ‘Snot stay hiory by reading woares alone. We need experts to comment on them and ofl to alte them fr ws and tere is mach materal tht fe notin readable form and mich more Shich docs not eevea te mesage unl a great del of eres Ind anayss ha taken place Ire very ofen tv, none ce ee, that moder historias have ted Yo pur themuclvs bewecn at fn the somces an snorranable wy o convince that hey iow more thn the sures ctl that what they ca el Ahisin some vay more sign than what we ca len rom in modern history the vast quam ofthe surviving material snakes it necessary for mont of tobe highly slcive fn our feadng ofthe sources, and to rely onthe sleins which scholars Ive made ru rch ofthe Mile Ae 0. ‘There nothing to preven student ofthe period from reading 2 hgh popoton of the Iterry sedence fora top which povoclry nce hin this ay the period covered by thi Took i paaanly. well served. The soures are not only ompaavely fe: many of them ar aso excesdingly eable ieons the golden age ofthe naratve sone. shor en only {ovr very limited extent be reconstructed rom docoment: + feat tent the hatoran recs on chronic nd tones ment fo be cead a8 literature. Their purpose was to entertain and (0 elif: almost all of them have a preface in which they ly stress fon the value of learning ftom che experience of the past and of seeing, God's purposes 2 work. Their frm was in part tational when the period opened: But the idea of writing erary history received a great flip from the intellectual revival ofthe eleventh and twelfth centuries. This was a period when men. were becoming increasingly interested in expressing their thoughts on paper, and in revealing thet leaning, thie trary skill. and their femotions and feelings. The age of medieval humanism passed fairly soon: by che chiteenth century Latin had become desteated ‘once again a 2 vehicle for human expression. Bat in the interval 2 wide variety of books had boon written, including histories works, biographies, amobiographics and letrs, which provide direct evidence to the historian tn a highly readable form CHRONICLE AND HISTORY 1. Liudprand 0 Lampert. By conteast the lat tenth century had ‘ben a bad period for the writing of history. The few men in that, century who took the rouble to note the events of thet own times, orto compile a record of the past, dd so in one of thee ways. They might use an Easter Table. These tables were inthe first place tables of the caborate arithmetic connected with the ‘computation ofthe date of Easter, aid out foreach year of grace ‘The year of grace, the year AD. #30 estenil part Of our mental ‘equipment thae is dificul for we to imagine 8 world in which it was unknown, Yet even inthe tenth century its general accept ance as the method of computing yeas was in some counties ‘comparatively recent, in others not yet complete: and everywhere it sell had older rivals. The ute of the year of grace had been perfected and popularized by the Venerable Bede inthe eighth ‘century, and he had also used his mathematical skill in popular ining the technique for determining the date of Easter. The result of both these endeavours was summarized in the Easter Tables, which were kep in numerous monasteric in later cones, Such 4 table established the dates of the feast and elated the Jest of [ace to other cycles, and a0 it performed one ofthe fonctions ‘of the modem diary: and, a in a diary, space could be found inape the Cot! Mille Ager it to note important events. Thus in 3 manscrpe sil preserved in the Swiss abbey of Einsiedeln, 4 monk ofthe same abbey noted fon an Laster Table in the tenth century, among, other things where Otto the Great spent Christmas each year beeween 963 and 5366. In another manuscript writen at Einscdein about the same time the computiic material has een simplified, and space let fora note on the events of the year ~ space which allowed, vith t good deal of crowding, for upto thirty words fora single year, find casionally 2 hile moe." "These bref, june annals, which cell somedimes in almost telegraphic style of the deaths of kings, of the accessions of bishops, of earthquakes and eclipses, were glosses on Easter Tables They were aso decadent descendants of the noble chron icle of Se Jerome, the bass of 2 great deal of medieval historical tering, which had been written before the year of grace was Invented, but had managed to lay outa. great deal of information year by year~ she years Being distinguished by the Greek Olym- prads {the four-year cycle of the Olympic games), the Roman onsuls, the regnal years of king, and other ertria. From Jerome find his immediate soccesors the men ofthe early Middle Ages Inherited the idea of arranging history as» series of chronological tvents, year By year and chronicles considerably more substantial than the annals of Einsedeln were written throughout our periods they were rather rare inthe mid tenth century, very common in the wel “The Easter Table had been made possible by the work of the Venerable Bede; and if he may dherefore be called the stepfather Of the most jeune form of historical Iteraure of the tenth Century, he was cetdnly the father of history in che best sense inthe period of this book.? The idea of history as che reconstuce thon of the past in literary form, not confined by the boundary Of sinals, was never quite forgotten: Bede himself owed much {o the classical and post-clssical historians whose works he knew Sind historians of the eleventh and twelth centuries were also inspired by Besk’s models and by Bede himself. Literary history feat very tacly attempted in the tenth century: t0 this the bursting exception wat Liudprand of Cremona, who ses to 1 See RL. Po, Chie and Amul (Oxford, 1926, Ch. 1; ing bp. Sand 6 are fms ofthe Esedeln manusenps BP aipecally Foal Chi, ef G- Bonne (London, 197. have owed nothing diteedy 10 Bede, but much co the classical historians and eo Roman ierature in general Liadpeand reminds us thar the waditon ofculcvated Latin was fat fom dead in tenth century Italy, and gives us hint of one of the sources to which ‘we may look forthe origin ofthe intellectual revival of century lates” Ludprand, bishop of Cremona in north Ily, lived from ¢ 920 to 972. He was brought up in the court of one ofthe Lombard princelings, fll foul of his successor, and so entered the service of the Emperor Otto the Great. He was a descendant of the Lombard invaders, and so in origin a German; but he was abo 2 thoroughly well educated Christian bishop, and he wrote some ofthe best Latin ofthe Datk Ages; he was lively and sophisticated 23 writer, yet shows no sign of profound reflection on any epic Save his own misfortans. He verote thre books: the Antpoderis (Tieforsat), an account of recent history leading up t0 the vietories of Otto the Great; a shore chronicle of Otto's visit to Italy in 962-3; anda letter to Otto describing Liudpran’s second visit to Constantinople in 968-9. The Antpadoss is a shapely book, carefilly planned, yet fall of enterainment. Everything LLiadprand wrote was informed with the observant eye of «comic artist, but with a violence of prejudice and fancy which he would and could do nothing to conteel. He is our chet, indeed almost ‘ur only, evidence for large stretches of tenthcentury history, in particular forthe lala afuics of Oto che Great and the internal history of the papacy. Some historians have lamented that #0 important a source should contain so much that i trivial should be so impervious #0 dates and so free with lively and fancifel, ‘opinions. Ie is true that some of his prejudices are unattractive both the papacy and the Iaian Ladies of the period have satered from his stitude to women. Bat this apart, Liadprand war 2 shrewd and lively wtner. If oar knowledge of Victorian England wae reduced to 3 single weiter, we could do worse than be left swith Dickens.® 13 Liudprand of Cremona, Works ans FA. Wight (Londen, 1930) Tors more serious side SceK Leer sp The ile the Meta Win ays in Aener) of Bel Sale, 2K. Walsh and D. Wood (Oxted, Im), pp 400 4 Ti baaogy must oot be pred eg. ech of Dickens major novels is many tines the length of Lvdprands colled. work. But the Tingling of comic and serious elements of preaching td ght, Charset of bothBop in the Conia Mile Ages Perhaps his greatest interest, however, ies im is accounts of| his visits to Constantinople. He went in 949 as an envoy of 2 Lombard prince, and again in 965-9 on 2 mistion For Oreo the Great. On the fist visit he was well recived, and wae enchanted by the Byzantine capital andthe Byzantine court. On the second visit he was old and il and badly treated, and he could find nothing good to sty of Byzantium. Thus the two descriptions Complement one another, and show ws two ses of the gest city fn the one hand the splendour and magnificence of the court, the chborate ceremonial, the fanustic mechanical devies of the Impesial audience chambers, the survival of Roman traditions of | banqueting on couches; on the other the foreigners difficulty in accommodating himself ¢o a new country, with draughty houses, appalling fod, and undeinkable wine, che squalor ofa lage ay. the less elegant aspect of the court ceremonial ~ bad discipline, illteing costumes. His disgust on che second visie was summed ‘up in his account of the Emperor Nicephorus Phocss Heiss monstrosity of «man, doar, fcheadd and wih ny roles eyes: dsigueed bya short, row thick beard hall going grey Cdngaced by 4 neck sete an inch long gtk by feson of He ig flor bese his headin colour an Etpian, sod the post ifovenal ssyer"You would mot Mke to mec him inthe dat The King of the Grecs fas long hai std wears atric wa lng sleeves. and bonne, bes lying crafty, mercies, foxy, proud, ely Fre, misery and grey; he ents gti: ono and leks, and be Shnks bath water. ‘The hang of che Franks [Onto], on the other band, ‘besuily shor, and wes garmene quite dierent om» ‘oman’ drs ands ht he i rth gael, eral when ht svete when neesay, sways tly humble, sever mel he doc fot lv on ge onone and leks Thus the blinding effect of Liudprand’s eccentric temperament has teveuled tus bor the grandeur and something of the squalor fof Byzantine hfe: we sce an ancient and. glorious cvlization| rejoicing inthe maintenance of the Roman heritage, and court ‘where delight in mechanical contrivances blends with elaborate situa we see also an ordinary city where thee is poverty and ‘wretchedness as well as wealth, andthe ordinary variety of aman Tife, whereby some men are welressed, some are threadbare, Tuan FA, Weigh, pp. 26, 289. Bath wate may meas “mine Sources and the foreigner is altemately delighted by the novely of the scene and repelled by the strange food which tums his stomach But we aso see why East and West were drifting apart inthis ge, and when Liudprand and Nicephorus became realy heated, theit