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Abstract
This paper highlights current trends in consumption and production patterns in Asian developing countries and emerging
economies. It describes the main challenges and opportunities for Asian countries making the transition towards sustainable
consumption and production patterns. The main challenge for Asian economies is to address the unsustainable consumption
patterns of urban consumers, which entails a policy shift from the current focus on pollution and inefficient industrial
production. In view of future consumption trends and the global convergence of consumption patterns, the characteristics of
the emerging ‘global consumer class’ are examined, with particular focus on urban ecological footprints and carbon
emissions. Furthermore, the difference between urban and rural consumption is discussed, together with opportunities for
low-carbon urban development in the megacities of Asian developing countries. To conclude, the paper presents an overview
of current policy measures taken in Asian countries to green economic development and realise sustainable consumption and
production patterns. narf_1275 4..15
Keywords: Sustainable consumption and production; Asia, Carbon footprint; SCP policy.
1. SCP — a comprehensive approach for direct material consumption in countries like Germany,
addressing global environmental change Japan, the UK and Austria since the 1970s as GDP
continues to grow. While relative decoupling through
Sustainable consumption and production (SCP) is a efficiency gains has been achieved at national and local
comprehensive approach based on lifecycle thinking. It is levels, an ‘absolute’ decoupling of global resource use,
increasingly recognized as an analytical perspective to environmental degradation and socio-economic
understand the complex social, economic and political development has, however, not been realised. As a result of
drivers of global environmental change, including the the current resource-intensive economic growth paradigm,
current challenge of global climate change. In addition, the annual global extraction of biotic and abiotic resources has
SCP approach offers a multitude of practical approaches constantly increased from about 40 billion tonnes in 1980 to
and policy tools to achieve a resource efficient and low- about 58 billion tonnes in 2005. It is anticipated that this
carbon economy and to support societies in adapting to trend will continue and annual resource extraction rates will
changing global and local environments. grow to 80 billion tonnes by 2020 (Bleischwitz et al., 2009).
SCP has developed out of the approaches and initiatives Relative decoupling of resource use and environmental
for cleaner and efficient industrial production that have been impact has been happening to some degree in OECD
implemented in the industrialized countries of Europe, countries over the last decades, but increases in overall
North America and Japan over the past 30 years. As a result, global consumption levels have worsened absolute
the economies of these countries have improved resource environmental impacts and the condition of the natural
productivity (or eco-efficiency) in many production systems environment, including the atmosphere.
and industrial processes. An example is the stabilization of The main reasons why absolute decoupling has not been
realised on a global level include, among others, unrealised
Wei Zhao is the Team Leader of the SWITCH-Asia Network Facility at the potentials in resource efficiency, inability of markets to
UNEP/Wuppertal Institute Collaborating Centre on Sustainable successfully disseminate cleaner technologies, subsidies for
Consumption and Production, SWITCH-Asia Network Facility,
Wuppertal, Germany. E-mail: wei.zhao@scp-centre.org.
fossil fuels and resource-intensive industries and the
Patrick Schroeder is a short-term expert for the SWITCH-Asia Network globalization of value chains which has resulted in
Facility. outsourcing of polluting and inefficient industrial
© 2010 United Nations. No claim to original US government works
Wei Zhao and Patrick Schroeder / Natural Resources Forum 34 (2010) 4–15 5
rural poor and many slum dwellers continue to suffer from As cities consume the majority of the world’s energy,
lack of access to basic services such as energy, clean water, urbanization is a crucial factor in climate change.
food, health care or communication technologies. While the Particularly in developing countries, where 90% of growth
urban rich need to reconsider their lifestyle choices, the in urban areas is projected to take place over the next 20
poor still need to increase their material consumption levels years (World Bank, 2009), cities will be key to the future
in order to escape poverty and achieve acceptable standards evolution of global warming. The urban solution to climate
of living — in a sustainable way. change lies in cities’ density. While most cities derive more
than 70% of their energy from fossil fuels, people who live
2.1. Comparing urban ecological footprints and CO2 in more dense city centres, on average, often produce 30 to
emissions 50% less greenhouse gas emissions than inhabitants of
spread-out cities with extensive suburbs (World Bank,
Taking the case of China as an example, ecological 2009). Denser cities use less energy for transportation,
footprint analysis shows that there are large differences which lowers transport-related emissions, can provide
between rural and urban footprints. The rural ecological access to services at lower cost, and better implement
footprint lies between 0.8 to 1.2 hectares per inhabitant, energy efficiency measures. This advantage of denser cities
while the urban footprint can be as high as 3 to 6 hectares is due to a range of factors, including among others well-
per inhabitant (Salat, 2008). The global convergence in designed public transport infrastructure, reduced need for
urban lifestyles has resulted in convergence of ecological motorized personal transport, waste management and
urban footprints. The megacity of Beijing has a footprint building efficiency. The World Bank Report (World Bank,
of about 4 hectares per inhabitant, which is comparable to 2009) shows that well-designed and well-governed cities
Tokyo. Shanghai has an ecological footprint of 7 hectares can combine high living standards with much lower
per inhabitant, comparable to that of Singapore, estimated greenhouse gas emissions. Currently in industrialized
to be 7.2 hectares per person (ADB, 2008), which is countries, the highest carbon emissions can be attributed to
comparable to the average urban European footprint. people living in sub-urban and rural areas, while urban
Looking only at China’s mean ecological footprint of 1.6 consumers often have up to 50% lower carbon footprints.
hectare per inhabitant, which is still below the global
average of 2.2 (CCICED & WWF, 2008), is therefore not
giving a complete picture of the situation. High urban 3. Housing, mobility and food: projections and
ecological footprints are closely related to per capita sustainable options for Asian countries
energy consumption, CO2 emissions and carbon
footprints. In most Asian counties per capita emissions are Studies analysing consumption and production patterns in
still below world average. However, urban per capita the European Union have shown that in modern urban
carbon emissions are much higher than rural emissions. consumer lifestyles currently three ‘demand areas’ are
For example, in China the ratio between urban and rural responsible for about 70–80% of the overall environmental
per capita energy consumption is 6.8 (Dhakal, 2009). impact of consumption and production. They are also
This comparison of cities globally shows that urban thought to be the causes for about 70% of the global
consumer lifestyles of people living in Chinese and other warming potential in the European Union (Tukker et al.,
Asian megacities are becoming comparable in terms of their 2006). These demand areas are housing, mobility and food.
environmental impact to those cities in the industrialized Even though reliable data are missing, it is likely that these
countries of Europe and Japan. In 1999, Beijing’s and three main demand areas of human consumption are also
Shanghai’s annual per capita CO2 emissions were 6.9 responsible for the highest environmental impact in Asia —
tonnes and 8.2 tonnes, respectively (Satterthwaite and but the underlying characteristics are contextually different.
Dodman, 2009), and rose to 11.9 tonnes and 16.7 tonnes, Traditional Asian lifestyles, which are still common in
respectively in 2006 according to a study by the Global many countries, particularly in rural areas, are generally
Carbon Project (Dhakal, 2009). Comparing cities globally, less damaging to environment and climate. For example,
the carbon emissions of many Chinese urban citizens are there is more communal than individual housing in Asia, the
now higher than those of their counterparts living in, for number of occupants per unit is much higher, and
instance, Tokyo (5.8 tonnes in 2003), London (6.95 tonnes traditional construction is based on natural materials like
in 2003) Seoul (3.8 tonnes) or Barcelona (3.4 tonnes) wood and mud. For food production and consumption,
(Dodman, 2009; Dhakal, 2009). Similarly, in 2005 the city traditional and organic agriculture are still common, there is
of Bangkok had annual per capita carbon emissions of 7.1 less packaging and refrigeration of food, less processing
tonnes, which is equal to the carbon emissions of New York and fewer “food miles”. In the mobility sector, private car
City (ROAP-UNEP, 2009) The comparison of urban carbon ownership is still the exception, rather than the norm. While
emissions also shows that compact cities tend to be more it is obvious that Asia’s future development path should not
resource efficient and climate-friendly and sustainable than mirror that of Europe or the US, consumption trends in
sprawling cities. many regions have changed and are approaching western
© 2010 United Nations. No claim to original US government works
8 Wei Zhao and Patrick Schroeder / Natural Resources Forum 34 (2010) 4–15
potential for saving energy and reducing emissions (WWF- to feed the country’s growing pig population which had
UK, 2008). Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) systems are suitable risen by 5% to more than 469 million head by the end of
solutions to address these issues and have already been 2009 (Reuters Analysis, 2009).
successfully implemented in several Asian megacities. An In the case of South Korea, population and food
example is found in Jakarta where the first BRT corridors consumption patterns have already outrun the country’s
were introduced in 2004. The BRT shows high performance own land and water resources. South Korea is now heavily
and has generally been well received by users, with dependent on corn imports. It has recently also become a
relatively low capital investments for infrastructure and leading country in land acquisition overseas. For example, it
small or no operational subsidies (Hidalgo and Graftieaux, signed a deal for some 690,000 hectares (1.7 million acres)
2008). in the Sudan for growing wheat — mainly to sustain its
The impacts of food production on ecosystems, livestock and poultry production (Brown, 2009).
biodiversity and the global climate have long been under- Not only production of meat and dairy, but also that of
estimated. Until recently most discussions relating to the luxury food products such as coffee, often planted for the
food and drink sector have focused on ‘food miles’ and consumption in industrialized countries, is causing severe
transportation. Food is often transported over long damage to ecosystems in Asia. For example, nearly half the
distances, which accounts for around 10% of the food- rainforests in Sumatra have been lost since 1985 as a result
related climate impact. But the food production phase, in of coffee plantations. In addition to the negative effects to
contrast to the demand areas of housing and mobility, has a the global climate through rainforest loss, illegal plantations
much higher impact, and contributes more than 80% of in protected areas are pushing endangered species such as
food lifecycle emissions (Weber and Matthews, 2008). forest elephants, rhinos and tigers towards extinction
In particular, emissions and environmental impacts (WWF Indonesia, 2007).
from meat and dairy production and consumption require Companies and retailers can use sustainable supply chain
attention: they have the highest impact and are responsible management practices to ensure sustainable food
for up to 80% of all emissions from agriculture, and for production upstream in the value chain. Consumers have
18% of global greenhouse emissions. The latter figure is the power to influence how food is produced by exercising
even expected to double by 2050 (FAO, 2006). On choice when making purchases and this can be strengthened
average, red meat is around 150% more greenhouse gas by eco-labelling food products. ‘Carbon footprint’
intensive than chicken or fish, and beef, lamb and shrimp information is useful, but issues such as water use,
are even worse (UNEP, 2008). World meat consumption eutrophication or land-use change should also be
increased from 47 million tons in 1950 to 260 million tons considered. Again, awareness-raising activities targeting
in 2005, with consumption per person more than doubling consumers can help them avoid diets which are having a
from 17 kilograms to 40 kilograms (FAO, 2005). negative impact on the environment. Interestingly, ‘high-
Traditionally, Asian diets have been low in dairy and meat impact diets’ are also usually unhealthy. Being able to make
products, with fish and soy as the main sources of protein. choices based on organic, seasonal, and local food, and to
With around 55 kg consumed per capita per year in China, cut down on meat and dairy products, offers good potential
25 kg in Thailand, 10 kg in Indonesia and less than 5 kg in for both improving health and reducing the impact of food
India (Richter et al., 2009), they still are low relative to production on the climate — potentially by a factor of three
the 112 kg consumed per person in the United States, or (WWF and SEI, 2005).
even the 89 kg per person consumed in Europe (FAO,
2006). But, as Asian incomes rise, meat and dairy
consumption are rising too. This is driving overgrazing, 4. The role of policy to promote SCP1
water consumption and desertification not only in Asia,
but is also contributing to deforestation in South America. 4.1. Global economic crisis — realised opportunities or
One of the main feed supplements for animal farming business-as-usual
today is soybean meal. In 2005 only 15 million tonnes of
the 220 million tonnes of the world’s fast-growing Against the backdrop of the global financial crisis and
soybean harvest was consumed directly, while the rest was economic recovery plans, many Asian countries have
used for beef, pork, poultry, milk, eggs, and farmed fish implemented stimulus packages, partly dedicated to
production. In Brazil, large-scale soybean cultivation ‘greening’ the economic structure. The effects of some of
started in the late 1990s and has become one of the main these measures are now visible in the recovery that is
drivers for deforestation. The area of soybean plantations occurring across the region. The Thai government’s “Strong
in the Amazon has grown by 3.3 million hectares between Thailand” programme is nominally worth around US$ 42
2000 and 2006 (Volpi, 2007). China, the world’s largest 1
We would like to thank Mr. Sudkla Boonyananth from the Thailand
importer of soy, is expected to import about 40 million Environment Institute (TEI) and Ms. Han Wei from the China Standard
tonnes of soybeans in 2009, mainly from Brazil, Argentina Certification Centre (CSC) for providing us with information about
and the US (China Daily, 2009), most of which is destined national SCP policies.
China The Law on Circular Economy (2006) Ecological efficiency in economic development;
Construction of eco-industrial parks;
Public participation;
Extending producer responsibility
Indonesia Sustainable Consumption and Production Support for Indonesia National Action Plan on climate change
Programme (under development)
Japan Fundamental Plan for Establishing a Sound Restrain the consumption of natural resources;
Material-Cycle Society (2003) Reduction of material input and resource extraction;
Waste minimization (3Rs);
Reduced energy consumption
Korea SCP as “Implementation Task” in the National Eco-labelling;
Strategy for Sustainable Development (2006–2010). Procurement of environmentally friendly products in public and private sectors;
Dissemination of cleaner production technologies;
Establishment of Eco-Industrial Parks
Thailand SCP strategy is one of the four national strategies Provide basic needs and quality of life;. balanced state of happiness, self
of the 10th National Economic and Social sufficiency, and social security;
Development Plan (2006–2011) Education and public awareness campaigns;
Reduce government subsidies for dirty production;
Taxes on dirty industry sectors;
Promote government green procurement
often still under-developed, not implemented across all August 15, 2008. A Presidential Commission on Green
sectors or even missing altogether. The lack of integration Growth was established in February 2009. In July 2009 the
between policies often stems from lack of coordination and National Strategy of Green Growth was adopted along with
division between principal institutions of governance. To the first 5-year (2009–2013) rolling plan. South Korea is also
accelerate progress towards SCP in Asia, government working to enact a Framework Law on Green Growth. As a
agencies dealing with finance, trade and economic means of green transportation, the expanded use of rail and
development and those dealing with SCP, climate or the bicycles will be promoted. A green lifestyle index will be
environment can cooperate on many issues. Table 1 developed for citizens and a nationwide green life
provides an overview of already established National movement, dubbed Green Start, will be launched.
Action Plans in the Asia-Pacific region. Furthermore, a carbon footprint labelling system for goods
In Thailand, the National Sustainable Consumption will be enacted.
Strategies have been developed to accommodate the 10th In China, SCP is officially promoted through the Circular
National Economic and Social Development Plan, which is Economy Law, adopted in 2007. It has the potential to have
effective from 2006 to 2011. The plan aims to achieve a very significant impact, especially for new developments
sustainable development via traditional Thai cultural and in the metals and mining, petrochemical and construction
religious principles of moderation and sufficiency. industries. It includes stricter controls on emissions and
Thailand’s National Economic and Social Development waste, promoting the re-use and recycling of water and
Board (NESDB) together with environmental NGOs, energy efficiency in industrial production. Since the
particularly the Thailand Environmental Institute (TEI), implementation of the Circular Economy Law, carbon
have played an important role in the drafting of the relevant emissions intensity has decreased by 10.1% and sulphur
strategies. This cooperation and design of national SCP dioxide and chemical oxygen demand (COD) has already
strategy is the first step towards implementing clear and decreased by 8.95% and 6.61%, respectively (Xiong, 2009).
continuous policies, public infrastructures, and mechanisms The circular economy policy framework is, however,
to create knowledge and awareness of sustainable mainly concerned with reducing industrial pollution
consumption. The SCP strategy is a comprehensive through effective industrial waste management. Issues of
systematic approach with the overarching goal to increase unsustainable consumption practices are so far not
the happiness of the Thai population through sustainable comprehensively addressed at the national policy level. In
development (see figure 5). addition to the circular economy law, other policies dealing
The government of South Korea is developing a policy with consumption behaviour are also emerging in China.
framework vision of “Low Carbon, Green Growth” strategy, One policy example addressing the issue of unsustainable
which was presented by President Lee on the occasion of the use and disposal of plastic bags is the ‘Plastic Bag
60th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of Korea on Restriction Order’. Plastic bags have become a major
© 2010 United Nations. No claim to original US government works
12 Wei Zhao and Patrick Schroeder / Natural Resources Forum 34 (2010) 4–15
source of pollution across the whole country. From June 1st main consumers of energy-saving lamps in China are
2008 the order prohibits the free distribution of plastic high-income urban groups. They have higher awareness
shopping bags by retailers and shopkeepers. Furthermore, of environmental protection and can afford the higher
the production, sale and use of plastic shopping bags price for CFLs. In July 2009, the third stage of the
thinner than 0.025 millimetres has been banned in China programme which addresses quality standards was started.
under a State Council decree. So far, after over a year of Presently the third version of CFL performance standards
implementation, the policy has shown some degree of and the limited quantity requirement of toxic and
success. Large retail chains and supermarkets have hazardous substances in lighting electrical appliances are
significantly reduced the number of plastic bags handed out. being updated (China Standard Certification Centre,
However, surveys undertaken by Chinese environmental 2009).
NGOs and researchers show that the current policy Regarding urban transport, increase of private vehicle
design and implementation is insufficient to address the ownership and air pollution continues to be a major
issue of increasing waste through plastic bags in the long issue for many Chinese cities. To control the growth of
term. In street markets and smaller cities, plastic bags are vehicles in China’s urban centres, policies have been
still widely used. Often the main obstacle is the implemented at the city level. The examples from Beijing
unwillingness of consumers to change their purchasing and Shanghai show that different demand side
behaviour. Other issues that need to be addressed are management policies influencing private car ownership
“double charging” by supermarkets (as the cost for plastic and car use can have very different effects. To reduce the
bags prior to the legislation was included in the prices for use of cars the Beijing Municipality has adopted a number
products), lack of sustainable substitutes, and lax plate regulation, while the Shanghai Municipal
enforcement (Xing, 2009). Government has adopted policies to restrict the purchase
To address energy consumption in buildings from of private vehicles such as high registration fees for
lighting, China has now initiated the third stage of the private vehicles. The result of these different policies is
Green Lighting Programme, which started in 1996. The that, although personal income level in Beijing is lower
programme consists of several components including than it is in Shanghai, private vehicle ownership is much
among others pricing, product quality standards, market higher. New policies for SCP can also be conflicting with
promotion and consumer awareness. As part of the existing ones. An example is the Beijing Municipal
programme the Chinese government started a financial Government which has adopted policies to stimulate the
subsidy plan for compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) purchase of private vehicles, such as the provision of
promotion in 2008. The main goal of this subsidy plan is mortgages for vehicles and the reduction of relevant fees
to make CFLs more affordable to consumers. So far, the for vehicle use (Liu et al., 2007).
© 2010 United Nations. No claim to original US government works
Wei Zhao and Patrick Schroeder / Natural Resources Forum 34 (2010) 4–15 13
While not all countries have established national action million Euro for the five-year period from 2008–2012,
plans for SCP, some Asian countries are planning to around 60 projects in Asian countries will be carried out
implement some specific polices targeting unsustainable particularly targeting SMEs from various industry sectors,
consumption patterns and development trends in the but also consumer groups, public authorities, and other
areas of housing, mobility and food. In Singapore, for stakeholders. The SWITCH Asia Programme further
instance, an Inter-Ministerial Committee on Sustainable includes a policy component through which collaboration
Development (IMCSD) was set up in January 2008 to with policy-makers is sought to find opportunities in which
formulate a national strategy for Singapore’s sustainable successful project results can contribute to successful
development. The strategy sets targets to achieve policy frameworks for SCP.
reductions in environmental impacts through changing
unsustainable consumption habits and becoming more
resource efficient. For instance, a 35% improvement in 5. Conclusion
energy efficiency from 2005 levels by 2030 is planned.
The country wants to attain a recycling rate of 70% and The approach of sustainable consumption and production
aims to reduce domestic water consumption to 140 litres (SCP) offers possible and practical solutions to address a
per person per day by 2030. In the area of mobility the range of global environmental and socio-economic
plan is to improve accessibility for pedestrians and cyclists challenges, including climate change. SCP offers the
and have 70% of all trips made via public transport. The potential and necessary tools to create low-carbon and
instruments through which to achieve these goals include resource efficient economies. While the resource-intensive
setting energy prices to reflect the environmental impact lifestyles of industrialized countries historically and
of energy production and to encourage conservation. A presently are responsible for the highest impacts, in the
further aim is to have 80% of existing buildings achieve at emerging economies of Asia similar patterns are taking
least a Green Mark Certification rating by 2030. The hold. The so-called ‘global consumer class’ comprised of
Green Mark Scheme is a rating system to evaluate the mainly urban consumers already ‘enjoy’ equally high-
environmental impact and performance of buildings. impact material lifestyles.
Buildings can be awarded Certified, Gold, GoldPlus or For most Asian countries and policy-makers the current
Platinum ratings, corresponding to an energy efficiency environmental challenges mainly stem from inefficient and
improvement of about 10–15, 15–25, 25–30 or more than polluting industrial production. Within the next one to two
30% respectively. Other criteria include water efficiency, decades the challenges in the three consumption areas with
site/project development and management, indoor the highest environmental impacts — housing, mobility and
environmental quality and environmental protection, as food — will become equally important. Through decisive
well as innovation. The government will introduce action the setting up of sustainable consumption and
minimum energy performance standards for household production systems in the early and medium stages of
air-conditioners and refrigerators by 2011. Furthermore, to development can still be realised and Asian societies can
encourage civil society participation, the government will avoid becoming locked-in by unsustainable infrastructures
make available funding to help NGOs spearhead new and consumption behaviour.
initiatives, facilitate more networking platforms, both Against the backdrop of the current economic crisis, the
locally and overseas, to promote cooperation among the coordination of SCP and economic development strategies
NGOs and encourage the exchange of ideas on sustainable is an important challenge for policy-makers. While many
lifestyles (Singapore Ministry of the Environment and stimulus packages have earmarked ‘green’ spending for
Water Resources, 2009). environmental sectors of the economy, in practice many
In addition to national policy approaches, regional opportunities for greening economic development have not
initiatives exist to support the transition to an economy been realised.
based on sustainable consumption and production patterns So far the gap between existing policies and strategies and
in Asia. One is the Asian Green Growth strategy, lead by the challenges implied by increasing consumption trends is
UNESCAP. This strategy has identified five pillars, one of the main obstacle to realising sustainable consumption
which is the promotion of SCP in Asian countries. patterns. However, multiple options for innovative policy-
UNESCAP is undertaking a range of initiatives to assist making for SCP already exist; some have been applied in
governments and policy-makers in the design and different Asian country contexts with some success although
implementation of effective policies to address further adjustment is necessary to improve the effectiveness
unsustainable consumption and production patterns through of policies. This goal can be achieved through better dialogue
regional policy dialogues, workshops and partnership and involvement of civil society organisations and
building activities. businesses, the so-called ‘triangle of change’.
The European Union has implemented the SWITCH Asia Most policies currently in place aim to address the
Programme to support sustainable consumption and immediate impacts caused by urban transportation, energy
production in Asia. With a total funding of more than 90 and water consumption in housing, or waste reduction.
© 2010 United Nations. No claim to original US government works
14 Wei Zhao and Patrick Schroeder / Natural Resources Forum 34 (2010) 4–15
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