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Effect of Acute Fatigue and Training Adaptation

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Snowboard Cross Athletes

Article in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · July 2014

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 EFFECT OF ACUTE FATIGUE AND TRAINING
ADAPTATION ON COUNTERMOVEMENT JUMP
PERFORMANCE IN ELITE SNOWBOARD
CROSS ATHLETES
ROB J. GATHERCOLE,1,2 TRENT STELLINGWERFF,1,2
1
School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada; and 2Canadian Sport
Institute Pacific, Victoria, Canada
ABSTRACT
Gathercole, RJ, Stellingwerff, T, and Sporer, BC. Effect of
acute fatigue and training adaptation on countermovement
jump performance in elite snowboard cross athletes. J Strength
Cond Res 29(1): 37–46, 2015—Countermovement jump per-
formance was examined in response to acute neuromuscular
(NM) fatigue (study I) and chronic training (study II) in elite
snowboard cross (SBX) athletes, through both typical
(countermovement jump [CMJ]-TYP) and alternative (CMJ-
ALT) CMJ variables. Seven (4 men and 3 women) elite
(Olympic-level) SBX athletes participated in study I, and 5
of the same athletes (2 men and 3 women) participated in
study II. Countermovement jump variables relating to force,
velocity, power, and time were measured during both eccen-
tric and concentric jump phases, with CMJ-TYP variables
reflecting CMJ output and CMJ-ALT variables reflecting
CMJ mechanics. In study I, CMJ performance was assessed
before and after a fatiguing lower-body exercise protocol,
and in study II, CMJ performance was examined before
and after a 19-week structured training block. Meaningful
differences in CMJ performance were examined using the
magnitude of change (effect sizes [ES]) for group and indi-
vidual changes. Acute fatigue decreased peak force and
eccentric function, while the duration of the jump increased.
The structured training block increased peak force and
eccentric function, while jump duration markedly decreased.
In both study I and study II, the largest ES were associated
with CMJ-ALT variables. The CMJ test seems a suitable
monitoring tool in elite SBX athletes for the detection of both
acute fatigue and training-adaptation. Compared with CMJ
output, CMJ mechanics exhibits more marked and divergent
changes after both acute NM fatigue and a structured
Address correspondence to Rob J. Gathercole, gatherco@uvic.ca.
29(1)/37–46
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó 2015 National Strength and Conditioning Association
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
AND BEN C. SPORER1,2
training block. CMJ-ALT variables should therefore be incor-
porated into CMJ analysis.
KEY WORDS athlete monitoring, neuromuscular fatigue,
technical sports
INTRODUCTION
T
he countermovement jump (CMJ) test is com-
monly used in high-performance sport to deter-
mine changes in neuromuscular (NM) function
resulting from training and NM fatigue. Counter-
movement jump analysis is typically limited to analyses of
CMJ output (i.e., peak/mean values specifically relating to
the concentric phase) such as jump height and peak power
(9). However, this approach provides limited information
regarding the mechanical changes associated with longitu-
dinal training-adaptation (9) and fatigue.
The CMJ test variables most sensitive to fatigue in elite
athletes is unclear (29). Previous investigations have reported
no decreases in CMJ output and concentric variables (e.g.,
jump height, peak power) after fatiguing exercise (5,6); these
variables may therefore lack the requisite sensitivity to detect
fatigue-induced changes in NM function. In contrast, NM
fatigue may also manifest as a deviation in technique or
strategy (12,18), which could have important implications
for all activities, with a strong technical component, planned
by coaches and conditioning specialists. Examination of
CMJ force-velocity and power-time traces can provide
insight into CMJ mechanics (9,12); thus, incorporation of
such analyses into CMJ testing practice may reveal impor-
tant information regarding athlete fatigue state.
Cormie et al. (8–11) have used analysis of CMJ mechanics
to examine chronic training-induced changes in NM func-
tion, gaining insight into the nature of training-adaptation,
and the differences between athletes and untrained individ-
uals (9). However, no examination has yet been performed
on the effect of structured training in an elite athlete group.
Given their highly trained status, it is possible that elite
VOLUME 29 | NUMBER 1 | JANUARY 2015 | 37
 CMJ Monitoring in SBX Athletes

Figure 1. The 19-week training program, the number, type, and total hours of conditioning sessions, and the period of pre-and posttesting for study I and study II.

TABLE 1. Acute fatigue effect (study I): group mean and SD, ES, and interpretation between pre- and postexercise
(n = 7; 8 CMJ per participant) for (A) CMJ-TYP and (B) CMJ-ALT variables.

Pre (mean 6 SD) Post (mean 6 SD) %CV ES (ES; interpretation)

A Absolute peak power (W) 4,093.9 6 1,027.6 4,205.8 6 998.5 3.9 0.70 Small [
Absolute mean power (W) 2,298.1 6 642.4 2,287.9 6 632.0 3.1 20.14 Trivial
Absolute peak force (N) 1,571.4 6 395.8 1,493.7 6 343.4 2.3 22.15 Large Y
Absolute mean force (N) 1,220.8 6 253.0 1,201.3 6 254.3 1.3 21.23 Moderate Y
Relative peak power (W$kg21) 53.9 6 5.5 56.0 6 5.4 5.0 0.78 Small [
Relative mean power (W$kg21) 30.2 6 3.9 30.5 6 3.9 4.0 0.25 Trivial
Relative peak force (N$kg21) 20.7 6 2.3 19.9 6 1.4 3.1 21.25 Moderate Y
Relative mean force (N$kg21) 16.1 6 0.8 16.0 6 0.9 2.0 20.31 Small Y
Peak velocity (m$s21) 2.98 6 0.30 3.03 6 0.24 4.7 0.36 Small [
Jump height (m) 0.45 6 0.09 0.47 6 0.08 9.4 0.47 Small [
B F@0V (N$kg21) 20.0 6 2.8 18.6 6 2.1 4.6 21.52 Moderate Y
F-V AUC (N$m$s$kg21) 21.2 6 10.4 16.9 6 8.0 16.2 21.25 Moderate Y
EccConMP (W$ms21$kg21) 5.93 6 1.57 5.14 6 1.38 6.6 22.02 Large Y
EccDur (s) 0.38 6 0.09 0.43 6 0.09 6.9 1.91 Large [
ConDur (s) 0.39 6 0.01 0.40 6 0.02 2.9 0.88 Small [
TotalDur (s) 0.77 6 0.09 0.83 6 0.11 4.1 1.90 Large [

ES = effect sizes; CMJ = countermovement jump; CMJ-TYP = typical countermovement jump; CMJ-ALT = alternative counter-
movement jump; CV = coefficient of variation; F@0V = force at zero velocity; F-V AUC = force-velocity area under the curve;
EccConMP = mean eccentric and concentric power; EccDur = eccentric duration; ConDur = concentric duration; TotalDur = total
duration.

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importance of jumping to SBX

performance, the assessment of
CMJ mechanics may provide
an additional means of identi-
fying potentially beneficial
training-induced adaptations.
Consequently, utilization of
acute and longitudinal CMJ
testing could provide a highly
relevant feedback tool in elite
SBX training periodization.
This study reports on 2 sub-
investigations using a small
cohort of elite SBX athletes
(Olympic level), in which the
suitability of the CMJ test to
examine the effect of acute
fatigue (study I) and the effect
of a 19-week training program
on CMJ test performance (study
II) are examined. Here, CMJ
test performance is analyzed in
2 ways: (a) through typical
CMJ (CMJ-TYP) variables that
typically relate to the CMJ out-
put (i.e., concentric performance
focused on jump outcomes; e.g.,
jump height, peak power) and
(b) alternative CMJ (CMJ-ALT)
variables, referring to those vari-
Figure 2. Acute fatigue (study I): force-velocity (A) and power-time trace at pre- and postexercise (n = 7; 8 CMJ
ables that are less common in
trials from each participant) (B). Mean jump traces were calculated by normalizing each jump to the same number CMJ analysis and relate to CMJ
of data points. For the power-time trace, time was then reintegrated, with each jump standardized to the same mechanics (i.e., the movement as
zero-second start.
a whole, describing both eccen-
tric and concentric performance
as well as jump duration).
athletes may exhibit different training effects compared with METHODS
lesser trained athletes. Experimental Approach to the Problem
The 2014 Olympics in Sochi marked the third appear- This investigation adopted a longitudinal descriptive design.
ance of snowboard cross (SBX) at Olympic games. How- Subjects were Olympic-caliber SBX athletes examined during
ever, at the time of writing, only 7 articles have been their daily training environment; consequently, participant
published on the sport, with 5 of these focused specifically numbers were small and no control group was included. In
on injury rates. Evidently, although associated injury risks study I, participants performed CMJ testing before and
are clearly of significance, published research on SBX also 30 minutes after a lower-body fatiguing exercise protocol
seems lacking. involving repeated stair climbs to fatigue. Presession data from
Snowboard cross is a demanding sport requiring high levels study I were used in study II, with study II posttesting
of aerobic fitness and leg power (26). Snowboard cross ath- performed after a 19-week structured training period.
letes therefore typically experience high levels of fatigue dur-
ing training and competition. Snowboard cross also includes Subjects
a large jumping component, with technical errors at jump Four male (26.5 6 5.8 years; 86.2 6 3.4 kg; 183.4 6 3.8 cm) and
take-off considered the cause of most SBX injuries (4). 3 female (26 6 6.1 years; 64.4 6 4.5 kg; 165.7 6 4.4 cm)
Accordingly, fatigue-induced changes in jump mechanics as national level snowboard-cross athletes participated in study I
Gathercole et al. (12), and others (27), have previously (n = 7), whereas 2 of the same male athletes (28.5 6 9.2 years;
observed may be of much importance to both SBX perfor- 88.9 6 2.1 kg; 181.6 6 4.7 cm) and the same 3 female athletes
mance and the injury risks associated. Moreover, given the participated in study II (n = 5). Four athletes had at least 1

VOLUME 29 | NUMBER 1 | JANUARY 2015 | 39

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 CMJ Monitoring in SBX Athletes

Figure 3. Acute fatigue (study I): effect sizes (ES) (mean 6 90% confidence limits [CLs]) for the change between pre- and postexercise. [ = increase; Y =
decrease; substantial = 690% CL exceeds either 60.3 (i.e., trivial ES); probable = if .75% of 690% CL exceeds beyond either 60.3 ES; trivial = if ,75%
of 690% CL exceeds beyond either 60.3 ES; unclear = If 690% CL exceeds both 60.3 ES thresholds; F@0V = force at zero velocity; F-V AUC = force-
velocity area under the curve; EccConMP = mean eccentric and concentric power; EccDur = eccentric duration; ConDur = concentric duration; TotalDur = total
duration; T = trivial; S = small; M = moderate; L = large; VL = very large; EL = extremely large; trivial ES boundaries are shaded in gray.

TABLE 2. Chronic training effect (study II): group mean and SD, ES, and interpretation (p # 0.05) between pre- and
posttraining (n = 5; 8 CMJ per participant) for (A) CMJ-TYP and (B) CMJ-ALT variables.*

Pre (mean 6 SD) Post (mean 6 SD) %CV ES (ES; interpretation)

A Absolute peak power (W) 3,907.7 6 1,104.0 3,938.2 6 969.3 4.7 0.17 Trivial
Absolute mean power (W) 2,167.7 6 672.4 2,238.3 6 562.2 4.2 0.78 Small [
Absolute peak force (N) 1,433.2 6 310.3 1,559.1 6 353.6 3.0 2.93 Very large [
Absolute mean force (N) 1,161.3 6 672.4 1,168.7 6 241.6 1.7 0.37 Small [
Relative peak power (W$kg21) 53.4 6 6.2 56.9 6 4.9 4.3 1.52 Moderate [
Relative mean power (W$kg21) 29.6 6 4.3 32.2 6 2.9 3.9 2.25 Large [
Relative peak force (N$kg21) 19.6 6 1.2 21.5 6 1.8 3.0 3.23 Very large [
Relative mean force (N$kg21) 15.9 6 0.8 16.5 6 0.8 1.8 2.10 Large [
Peak velocity (m$s21) 2.99 6 0.34 3.08 6 0.28 5.1 0.59 Small [
Jump height (m) 0.46 6 0.11 0.48 6 0.09 10.3 0.42 Small [
B F@0V (N$kg21) 18.8 6 1.8 20.9 6 1.7 4.6 2.43 Large [
F-V AUC (N/m.s/kg) 18.8 6 7.5 29.1 6 7.6 12.0 4.57 Extremely large [
EccConMP (W$ms21$kg21) 5.47 6 0.99 7.45 6 0.80 5.5 6.58 Extremely large [
EccDur (s) 0.41 6 0.05 0.34 6 0.05 6.1 22.80 Very large Y
ConDur (s) 0.39 6 0.02 0.37 6 0.04 3.2 21.60 Large Y
TotalDur (s) 0.81 6 0.05 0.71 6 0.08 4.0 23.09 Very large Y

*ES = effect sizes; CMJ = countermovement jump; CMJ-TYP = typical countermovement jump; CMJ-ALT = alternative countermove-
ment jump; CV = coefficient of variation; F@0V = force at zero velocity; F-V AUC = force-velocity area under the curve; EccConMP =
mean eccentric and concentric power; EccDur = eccentric duration; ConDur = concentric duration; TotalDur = total duration.

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Olympic, World Championships or World Cup podium, and all acute fatigue was present in athletes before testing. The same
had been on the World Cup circuit a minimum of 3 years, standardized warm-up was performed before all testing sessions.
recording multiple top 16 finishes. All athletes provided written
Countermovement Jump Testing Session
informed consent. Informed consent and all aspects of data
Participants performed a 15-minute dynamic warm-up
collection and management were conducted in accordance
consisting of light cycling (;5 minutes), dynamic stretching
with the Declaration of Helsinki.
(;5 minutes), and 10- and 20-m sprints (5 each) of progres-
Procedures sive speed completed within 5 minutes. Participants then
In all testing sessions, participants performed a set of 6 CMJs. In performed 5 practice CMJ trials of increasing intensity, with
study I, pretesting was performed at approximately 0800 hours, session testing beginning approximately 2 minutes after. The
with posttesting taking place at approximately 1030 hours, CMJ was a familiar training exercise for participants, thus,
30 minutes after the lower-body fatiguing exercise protocol. On additional familiarization was deemed unwarranted.
the day before study I, participants performed a full-body power Subjects performed 6 CMJ trials with 1-minute rest
workout and 60 minutes of low-intensity cycling. The same between. Trials were sampled at 200 Hz using the
pretest data were used in both study I and study II. Posttesting in Ballistic Measurement System and software (BMS; Fit-
study II was performed at approximately 0800 hours. On the day ness Technology, Adelaide, Australia; Version 2012.3.7),
before the posttraining test session, participants performed an consisting of a force plate (400 series; Fitness Technology,
upper-body maximum strength workout (;1 hour 15 minutes) Adelaide, Australia) and position transducer (Celesco,
and 60 minutes of low-intensity cycling, so a similar level of PT5A-0150-V62-UP-1K-M6, Chatsworth, CA, USA) situated to
the side of the force plate and
attached to a wooden dowel.
The dowel was placed across
participants back, as in a back-
squat. Participants were in-
structed to limit dowel
movement, and the position
transducer was zeroed to par-
ticipant height before every
jump. Data were collected
immediately after zeroing until
the jump was completed.
Experimental Protocols
The fatigue protocol performed
in study I consisted of repeated
stair climbs of different work-
recovery durations. Participants
were instructed to work at a per-
ceived exertion of 9 of 10. This
approach has been found to be
an adequate gauge of exercise
intensity in elite athletes (28).
Work-recovery durations com-
prised a 1-minute sprint followed
by 5-minute rest, 3 3 45 seconds
with 4-minute rest between, 3 3
30 seconds with 3-minute rest
between, 3 3 10 seconds with
1-minute rest between, and a final
1-minute sprint. Total protocol
time was approximately 35 mi-
nutes with 6 minutes 15 seconds
Figure 4. Chronic training (study II): force-velocity (A) and power-time trace at pre- and posttraining (n = 5; 8 being all out maximal effort
CMJ trials from each participant) (B). Mean jump traces were calculated by normalizing each jump to the same
number of data points. For the power-time trace, time was then reintegrated, with each jump standardized to the (;29 minutes of recovery time).
same zero-second start. The chronic training block per-
formed in study II (Figure 1)

VOLUME 29 | NUMBER 1 | JANUARY 2015 | 41

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 CMJ Monitoring in SBX Athletes

statistical analyses. Pre-to-post

differences were examined
through the magnitude of
change. Effect sizes (ES) were
based on within-individual vari-
ability (i.e., typical error [TE]).
Group ES were determined
using the mean TE in the pre-
test session, whereas individual
ES were determined using the
TE for each individual within
the pretest session. The follow-
ing inference thresholds used
(trivial: ,0.3; small: ,0.9; mod-
erate: ,1.6; large: ,2.5; very
large: ,4.0; extremely large:
$4.0) (15,32). Effect sizes were
based on previously used meth-
ods (6) and classified as sub-
Figure 5. Chronic training (study II): effect sizes (ES) (mean 6 90% confidence limits [CLs]) for the change
between pre- and posttraining. [ = increase; Y = decrease; substantial = 690% CL exceeds either 60.3 (i.e., stantial, probable, trivial, or
trivial ES); probable = if .75% of 690% CL exceeds beyond either 60.3 ES; trivial = if ,75% of 690% CL unclear. Substantial changes
exceeds beyond either 60.3 ES; unclear = if 690% CL exceeds both 60.3 ES thresholds; S = small, M = were identified when 690%
moderate; L = large; VL = very large; EL = extremely large; trivial ES not shown. Note: ES are calculated using
pretest within-session SD instead of intersession SD. This may have contributed to the high ES observed. confidence intervals (CIs) of
the ES did not exceed either
trivial ES boundaries (i.e.,
60.3). Probable changes were
consisted of 19 weeks of various loading and unloading weeks determined when there was a .75% likelihood of the
as well as maintenance phases, while athletes were training on 690% CI of the ES being equal to or greater than trivial ES
snow. Total hours of conditioning sessions are included in Fig- boundaries. If the likelihood of the 690% CI of the ES was
ure 1. Study II took place during the precompetitive phase and ,75%, then ES were deemed trivial, while if the 690% CI of
was directed by the head coach to maximize performance out- the ES spanned both trivial ES boundaries, then changes were
comes and so was not a dependent variable in study II. deemed unclear.
Countermovement Jump Variables RESULTS
The techniques used to derive these variables have been
Study I
described in detail by our laboratory previously (12).
The intrasession CV ranged from 2.0 to 16.2% for all
Briefly, the BMS software was used to calculate CMJ-
variables (Table 1), with smaller CVs generally observed
TYP variables, whereas CMJ-ALT variables were calculated
for CMJ-TYP variables (intrasession CVs of 5% or less
using custom-designed software written in Python (Python
[excluding JH]). Figure 2 shows the mean force-velocity
Software Foundation, www.python.org, USA). Relative
and power-time traces for pre- and postexercise for all ath-
force at zero velocity (F@0V) and area under the eccentric
letes. The power-time trace clearly shows an increase in
phase of the relative force velocity trace (F-V AUC) were
jump duration (EccDur and TotalDur; Table 1), whereas
calculated using the force-velocity trace (Figure 1A). Mean
the force-velocity trace highlights the decreases in eccentric
relative eccentric and concentric power (EccConMP) and
function (F@0V and FV-AUC; Table 1) postexercise.
eccentric (EccDur), concentric (ConDur), and total dura-
Body mass decreased pre-to-post exercise (pre: 76.0 6
tion (TotalDur) were calculated using the power-time trace
12.8 kg; post: 75.1 6 12.7 kg). Eight CMJ-TYP and all
(Figure 1B).
CMJ-ALT variables displayed changes with ES greater
Statistical Analyses than trivial (Table 1), whereas moderate and large
The 4 most consistent CMJs from the 6 collected were used changes were observed in peak and mean force, F@0V,
for analyses. Selection was based on our previously used F-V AUC, EccConMP, EccDur, and TotalDur. Small in-
methods, which determined the 4 most similar jumps in creases were also observed in peak power, peak velocity,
terms of jump duration and mean power output using the and jump height.
EccConMP variable (12). The coefficient of variation (CV) Figure 3 illustrates the mean and 90% confidence limit for
was calculated using raw data. Other analyses were performed the individual ES between pre- and postexercise in compar-
using log-transformed data, with back transformation after ison with the mean intrasession CV for select variables. Five
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42 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

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variables (peak power, F@0V, EccConMP, EccDur, and
TotalDur) displayed probable or greater changes.
Study II
The intrasession CV ranged from 1.7 to 12.0% for all
variables (Table 2). The mean force-velocity and power-
time traces for pre- and posttraining for all athletes are
shown in Figure 4. The power-time trace highlights the
increase in eccentric and concentric relative power produc-
tion as well as decreased jump duration, whereas the force-
velocity trace highlights the increase in eccentric loading and
take-off velocity after training.
Body mass was decreased after training (73.2 6 13.5 kg;
post: 71.1 6 14.3 kg). Nine CMJ-TYP variables (all but abso-
lute peak power) displayed posttraining increases (Table 2),
with large increases in peak force (absolute and relative),
mean force, and peak and mean power (relative only). All
CMJ-ALT variables exhibited large posttraining changes,
with increases in F@0V, F-V AUC, and EccConMP, and
decreases in EccDur, ConDur, and TotalDur.
Nine variables (peak power, mean power, peak force,
mean force, F@0V, F-V AUC, EccConMP, EccDur, ConDur,
TotalDur) showed probable or greater changes (Figure 5).
DISCUSSION
This 2-part investigation examined the suitability of the CMJ
test to monitor acute fatigue- (study I) and chronic training-
induced changes (study II) in NM function in a group of
world-class SBX athletes. Our results suggest that the acute
fatiguing protocol decreased CMJ force production and
prolonged jump duration. Conversely, chronic training
decreased jump duration and increased force and power
production. The larger magnitude of change typically
evident with CMJ-ALT variables indicates that the changes
associated with CMJ mechanics were greater than the CMJ
output. CMJ testing, with examination of both CMJ-TYP
and CMJ-ALT variables, therefore seems a useful athlete-
monitoring tool for both acute fatigue and training-induced
adaptive responses in highly trained populations, particularly
for athletes involved in large jumping-component sports
such as SBX.
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first investigation
to examine fatigue-induced changes in CMJ mechanics (i.e.,
CMJ-ALT variables), specifically in a group of elite athletes.
The workload, described in the methods, was targeted to an
athlete’s RPE score of 9 of 10, which has been shown to
induce significant fatigue previously (28). We therefore spec-
ulate that athletes were acutely fatigued by the protocol.
Typical countermovement jump variables displayed trivial
to large group changes pre-to-post exercise in response to
acute fatigue, with small increases observed in peak-power
(PP), peak velocity, and jump height. Previous studies have
reported various PP changes after fatiguing exercise, with
increases (5,6), no changes (6,13,14,17,31), and decreases
(12,22) all observed. These investigations used either specifically
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
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Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
designed fatiguing protocols or competitive matches, and so the
degree of fatigue likely differed. Interestingly, Cormack et al. (6)
reported increased relative PP but no change in absolute PP
after a competitive Australian Rules Football match. The alter-
nating use of absolute and relative values may therefore have
also contributed to differences in the literature. Nevertheless,
our results show similar changes for both relative and absolute
PP, and so it seems that PP production was perhaps enhanced,
or at least maintained, despite acute fatigue.
In contrast, both absolute and relative peak force (PF)
displayed large and moderate decreases after exercise
indicating decreased force-generating capacity. Previous
research has reported decreased PF (5,6,22) or no changes
(13,14,17,31) after fatiguing exercise. In this study, peak
velocity and jump height both exhibited small increases after
exercise. Although increased jump height and decreased PF
seem contradictory, jump height was determined directly
from linear position transducer-derived velocity data and
so, as peak velocity increased, so did jump height. Decreased
peak velocity has been observed after a simulated handball
match (31) and a fatiguing running protocol (12), whereas
jump height has been found to increase (5), remain the same
(19), or decrease (2,6,31,34) after various fatiguing activities.
Accordingly, fatiguing exercise seems to elicit inconsistent
responses in CMJ-TYP variables, with factors such as athlete
training status and genetic make-up, the multifactorial mech-
anisms of fatigue, the activity performed, and the time after
the fatiguing exercise bout, likely to contribute to the varied
responses.
Alternative countermovement jump variables tended to be
associated with larger postexercise changes (Table 1 and
Figure 3) and so may provide greater insight and sensitivity
to NM fatigue compared with CMJ-TYP. In a previous
study, we observed decreased F@0V, F-V AUC, and Ecc-
ConMP, and increased EccDur and TotalDur after a fatiguing
running protocol (12). In contrast, Thorlund et al. (31) re-
ported no changes in eccentric, concentric, and total CMJ
duration after a simulated handball match. However,
Thorlund et al. (31) did not use the same standardized jump
start threshold as this study and examined only 1 jump per
participant, thus, they may have lacked the sensitivity to
detect such changes.
In this study, postexercise testing took place 30 minutes
after exercise cessation. Postactivation potentiation dissi-
pates after 5–6 minutes (20), and so the small increases in PP
and peak velocity seem unlikely the result of a potentiating
effect. Wadden et al. (33) concluded that at around 40 mi-
nutes after fatiguing stretch-shortening cycle exercise, de-
creases in PF were the result of mechanical changes within
the muscle rather than central or metabolic changes. Mean-
while, excitation-contraction coupling failure has also been
suggested to affect force production (1), and so these mech-
anisms may explain the decreased PF observed here. Post-
exercise changes in CMJ-ALT variables suggest that
participants took longer to perform the jump and that
VOLUME 29 | NUMBER 1 | JANUARY 2015 | 43
 CMJ Monitoring in SBX Athletes
eccentric function had diminished. The mechanical effi-
ciency (i.e., the ratio of work performed to energy expendi-
ture) of a CMJ is determined by the force produced and
duration of the eccentric phase (21). Our findings therefore
indicate mechanical efficiency was decreased postexercise,
possibly through decreased elastic energy storage and utili-
zation (21).
Changes in CMJ-ALT variables point to the adoption of
an alternative CMJ NM strategy. Interestingly, our results
suggest that concentric CMJ variables are not necessarily
decreased as a result of a fatigue-induced shift in CMJ
technique. Similar observations have recently been made by
Schmitz et al. (27), who found no change in jump height in
response to fatiguing exercise, although CMJ biomechanics
were markedly altered. Given that NM fatigue may elicit
deviations in technique without decreases in capacity (18),
such observations likely reveal important information about
an athlete’s NM fatigue state. Accordingly, the detection of
acute NM fatigue and its interpretation may be enhanced
through incorporation of CMJ-ALT variables into CMJ
analyses.
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first investigation
to examine the effect of training on both CMJ mechanics
and output in elite SBX athletes. Chronic training markedly
improved CMJ performance, with moderate and greater
improvements in both CMJ-TYP and CMJ-ALT variables
(Table 2 and Figure 5).
Notably, the posttraining decrease in body mass contrib-
uted to many of the CMJ-TYP changes, as the largest
changes tended to be demonstrated by the CMJ-TYP
variables in their relative forms. These changes would still
however confer a competitive edge in SBX. Previous
investigations have reported increases in CMJ PP, PF,
velocity, and jump height after 10 (10,11) and 12 weeks
(9,16) of varied strength and power training regimens. How-
ever, these investigations examined nonelite cohorts, and so
the extent of change, or potential room for increase, was
likely greater than in trained elite athletes. For example, 4
weeks of strength- and speed-power training produced no
change in absolute PP in elite rugby athletes (3). These re-
sults mirror our findings, as we also observed no change in
absolute PP after training. It has been suggested that the
extent of power development slows after a year of high-
performance training (24), and so these SBX athletes may
have had limited capacity to improve PP. Nevertheless, our
results highlight that although PP development may have
been trivial, other components of NM function can still show
marked improvements.
One such example is PF, which demonstrated very large
improvements in both absolute and relative values, whereas
individual mean ES showed extremely large changes (Figure 5).
Training-induced improvements in PF are considered to
result from morphological changes increasing contractile
capacity (10,24); therefore, the chronic training performed
here seemed to elicit such adaptations in the SBX athletes.
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44 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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Although the improvements in both PF, and to a lesser
extent, peak velocity, may seem incompatible with the
unchanged absolute PP; this is because PF does not occur
at the same time as PP. This is illustrated in Figure 4A, which
also displays the similarity in force produced at PP at pre-
and posttraining, despite the distinctly different PF. These
results highlight that changes can occur within the CMJ
movement that may be overlooked in traditional analyses.
Large changes in CMJ-ALT variables reveal that CMJ
mechanics differed markedly between pre- and posttraining,
with posttraining jumps taking substantially less time to
perform with greater eccentric power production (Figures
4A, B). Previous studies have reported improved eccentric
power production (9,11) alongside decreased (10,16), or
unchanged (9,10) jump duration, after strength and power
training. Determining the specific NM adaptations behind
these observed changes in CMJ mechanics is complicated
by many factors (e.g., muscle fiber composition or neural
activation) (10); however, the enhanced eccentric function
and decreased jump duration point to a more time-efficient
NM strategy. Improved eccentric capacity is considered the
result of enhanced stretch-shortening cycle function,
possibly through increased musculotendinous stiffness (11),
and/or superior mechanical efficiency. Optimization of the
stretch-shortening cycle is also thought to increase PF (10),
possibly contributing to the large improvements in PF
observed here. Therefore, chronic training seemed to elicit
marked changes in CMJ mechanics, possibly through
improved stretch-shortening cycle function; thus, the inclu-
sion of CMJ-ALT variables into CMJ analysis seems to per-
mit clearer interpretation of chronic training-induced
changes in NM function.
A limitation of this study design is the lack of control
group. Because participants comprised more than half of the
nation’s elite SBX athletes and were in the midst of preparing
for World and Olympic championships, an elite control
group was not feasible and the use of a general population
control group is unsuitable, as comparisons between these
groups would be meaningless. To account for the small sam-
ple size, we have however based our analyses and interpre-
tations on the magnitude of change. In addition, we
collected 4 CMJ trials from each athlete at each time point,
reducing the typical error of measurement (30), and so we
believe the precision of our measures to be greater than most
previous CMJ investigations. Although we lack a control
group, the repeatability of CMJ-TYP variables is well estab-
lished (7,12,23,25,30) and has also been reported for CMJ-
ALT variables (12). Moreover, Cormie et al. (11) observed
that a control group maintaining normal activity levels dis-
played no changes in CMJ force-velocity data over a 10-
week period. As such, the changes that we have observed
here seem due to training effects alone.
These investigations clearly demonstrate that acute NM
fatigue and a training block elicit marked changes in CMJ
mechanics (i.e., CMJ-ALT), with the magnitude of these

changes typically greater than associated with CMJ output
(CMJ-TYP) variables. It is therefore recommended that
practitioners incorporate CMJ-ALT variables into CMJ
analyses practice to better determine the acute fatigue state
of their athletes and/or to longitudinally assess NM training
adaptations over weeks to months.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Our investigations suggest that the CMJ test is a useful tool
for monitoring both acute fatigue- and chronic training-
induced changes in NM function. Nevertheless, current CMJ
methodology (i.e., CMJ variables focusing on single points
[e.g., peak power] and/or jump output [e.g., jump height])
may overlook a wealth of information. For example, NM
fatigue seemed to influence the CMJ strategy (i.e., mechan-
ical and time-efficiency of movement) more so than the CMJ
output (Figure 2), whereas chronic training elicited opposing
effects (Figure 4). Incorporation of CMJ mechanics (CMJ-
ALT variables) into CMJ test analysis is therefore likely to
enhance the usefulness of the CMJ test.
Given the importance of movement speed, timing, and
mechanical efficiency in many sports, these results have
many important performance and training implications. For
example, in SBX, a longer duration spent achieving maximal
push-off in response to a passing move or avoiding another
rider will likely affect race outcome. Similarly, an indirect
effect of decreased mechanical efficiency when fatigued may
be an acceleration of further fatigue-induced performance
declines through increased energy expenditure performing
the same movement. Interestingly, the greatest injury risk in
SBX is associated with technical error at jump take-off (4).
Fatigue-induced shifts in NM strategy, as revealed through
CMJ testing approaches highlighted in this article, may
therefore directly relate to enhanced monitoring and the
potential for reduced injury susceptibility. Consequently, in
highly technical sports such as SBX, where altered or mis-
timed movement can result in injury, it is perhaps ill-advised
for athletes to perform technical practices in a fatigued state.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the contribution of Ryan Brodie in
developing the software to perform the CMJ analysis, the
athletes, and coaches for their participation and support of
this study, and Anthony Findlay for his assistance with the
testing and training of the athletes. No funding was received
for this research.
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