Collection of Problems: EQ2410 Advanced Digital Communications

EQ2410 Advanced Digital Communications
Collection of Problems
2009
ROYAL INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY KUNGL TEKNISKA HÖGSKOLAN
Department of Institutionen för
Signals, Sensors & Systems Signaler, Sensorer & System
Signal Processing Signalbehandling
S-100 44 STOCKHOLM 100 44 STOCKHOLM
Introduction
This text constitutes a collection of problems for use in the course EQ2410 Advanced Digital Com-
munications given at the KTH School for Electrical Engineering.
The collection is based on old exam and homework problems. Several problems have been trans-
lated from Swedish, and some problems have been modified compared with the originals.
The problems are numbered and allocated to different chapters corresponding to different subject
areas. All problems are provided with answers and hints (incomplete solutions). In addition problems
marked “Sol” are provided with complete solutions.
Sha Yao, Ragnar Thobaben, and Mikael Skoglund, January 2009
1
2
Chapter 1
Bandlimited Channels and ISI
Problems
1–1 A PAM system for binary antipodal signaling uses the pulse
(
1 for |t| < τ /2
p(t) =
0 otherwise
The receiver consists of a filter matched to the pulse p(t), a sampling unit and a decision based on
the sign of the output from the sampling unit. The channel is a non-bandlimited AWGN channel.
How high data rates can be achieved with this system, if it is required that
(a) there is no intersymbol interference in the decision variables?
(b) the system is error-free in the absence of noise?
1–2 Consider a digital communication system using binary antipodal PAM. The received signal is
given by X
r(t) = an h(t − nT ) + n(t)
n
where an = ±1 and equally probable. This signal, sampled at mT , is used to detect am . Assume
that h(t) is the impulse response to a lowpass filter
1 −t/λ
h(t) = λe t≥0
.
0 t<0
(a) Assume that n(t) = 0. What is the largest possible symbol rate, 1/T , if the intersymbol
interference can be 25% at most?
(b) A receiver detects the transmitted data according to

1 r(mT ) ≥ 0
âm =
−1 r(mT ) < 0
Determine a bound on the bit error probability when the additive white Gaussian noise has
variance N0 /2 and the maximum symbol rate found in 1–2a is used.
1–3 Sol. Consider the PAM communication system depicted in Figure 1.1. Independent and equally
probable binary symbols bm ∈ {±1} are transmitted every T th second via a pulse-shaping filter
P (f ), a channel with frequency response H(f ) and a receiver filter G(f ). The transmission is
also subject to AWGN w(t). A decision b̂n about the nth transmitted symbol is taken based on
the sign of the variable yn = y(nT ), as illustrated in the figure.
Assume that the joint action of the three filters in Figure 1.1 can be modeled as
1
P (f )H(f )G(f ) =
1 + j2πf T
3
replacemen P
m bm δ(t − mT ) s(t)
P (f )
H(f )
w(t)
b̂ yn y(t)
G(f ) r(t)
nT
Figure 1.1: A PAM communication system.
That is, the overall transmission can be modeled as a low-pass filter. This will lead to intersymbol
interference in the decision variable yn . Determine the variance and peak value of the interference
term. Is it possible for the interference alone to cause errors (in the absence of noise)?
1–4 Sol. The limiting factor in many communication systems today is not the noise, but interference
from other users. In this problem, binary PAM signals are considered. The received signal is
modeled as
∞
X ∞
X
r(t) = a(m)g1 (t − mT ) + i(k)g2 (t − kT ) +n(t) ,
m=−∞ k=−∞
| {z } | {z }
signal of interest interference from other user
where n(t) is AWGN with power spectral density N0 /2, a(m) ∈ ±1 is a sequence of independent
and identically distributed (i.i.d.) symbols from the signal of interest, and i(k) ∈ ±1 is a sequence
of i.i.d. symbols from the interfering user. The waveforms g1 (t) and g2 (t) are illustrated in
Figure 1.2. Furthermore the receiver structure shown in Figure 1.3 is used. The receiver filter
g1 (t) g2 (t)
q q
E1 E2
T T
t T t
T τ
q
E2
− T
Figure 1.2: Signal waveforms.
z(nT )
â(n)
m(t) Detector
r(t) t = nT
Figure 1.3: Receiver.
m(t) is matched to g1 (t), and is for simplicity modeled as non-causal,

m(t) = g1 (−t) .
4
The detector works as follows
−1 z(nT ) < 0
â(n) =
+1 z(nT ) > 0
Determine the average error probability, Pr (â(n) 6= a(n)), for different values of 0 < τ < T .
1–5 Sol. Figure 1.4 illustrates a binary PAM system.
n(t)
z(nT )
a(n) â(n)
PAM m(t) Detector
p(t) r(t) t = nT
Figure 1.4: Binary PAM system.
The data sequence a(n) consists of independent and equally likely binary symbols a(n) ∈ {±1}
and n(t) is AWGN with spectral density N0 /2. The received signal can be modeled as
∞
X
r(t) = a(m)p(t − mT ) + n(t) .
m=−∞
The receiver uses a so-called “integrate-and-dump front-end”, that can be defined using a filter
with impulse response m(t), as shown in Figure 1.5. The mapping of the detector is defined as

1 z(nT ) ≥ 0
â(n) = .
−1 z(nT ) < 0
m(t) p1 (t) q p2 (t) q

3E1 3E2
1 T 2T
t t t
− T2 T
2 − T2 T
2 −T T
Figure 1.5: The pulseforms in Problem 1–5.
In an original implementation, the pulse p(t) = p1 (t), as illustrated in Figure 1.5, was used. For
some reason the pulse was changed to p(t) = p2 (t).
With p(t) = p2 (t) and 10 log10 2E2 /N0 = 20 dB the resulting error probability was estimated
to a value Pb . Which is the required ratio 2E1 /N0 to obtain the same error probability when
p(t) = p1 (t)?
1–6 Sol. A communication system using the signal constellation in Figure 1.6 is operating over a
symbol-spaced ISI channel with the transfer function
p
h(n) = 1 − α2 δ(n) + αδ(n − 1) ,
where 0 ≤ α < 1. At the receiver input, additive white Gaussian noise with power spectral
density N0 /2 is also present. The receiver does not take the ISI into account (i.e., no equalizer is
used, nor an MLSE receiver).
(a) For the ISI-free case, i.e., α = 0, determine an upper bound on the symbol error probability
as a function of N0 and the average symbol energy Es . For high SNRs, the upper bound
should be tight, i.e., 1 is not an acceptable answer.
(b) In absence of noise, i.e., N0 = 0, what is the largest value of α that can be tolerated for
error-free communication?
5
d
d
d
d
d
Figure 1.6: The signal constellation considered in Problem 1–6.
1–7 Sol. Consider the digital communication system shown in the dashed box in the figure below.
Assume that the input data to this system, dn ∈ {−1, +1}, can be modeled as a sequence of
independent and identically distributed data samples and that the pulse shapes employed by the
pulse amplitude modulator (PAM) as well as by the matched filter (MF) receiver are root-raised
cosine pulses with roll-off set equal to 0.5 i.e., p(t) is given by
3π π 1
2 cos 2T t + 4 sinc 2T t
p(t) = √ 2 .
π T 1 − 2t T
Further assume that the noise observed at the input port of the matched filter is Gaussian with
E{w(t)} = 0 and that its associated spectral density function is equal to Rw (f ) = N20 .
(a) In case of no synchronization error i.e., ε = 0, show that the given communication system,
assuming that the detector (DET) employs the optimal detection strategy (which is?), can
be represented using a discrete memoryless channel (DMC) model. Derive the transition
probabilities of the found model.
(b) Assume that 0 < |ε| < T2 . Derive the equivalent time-discrete model of the given commu-
nication system seen from the input port of the detector (DET). What properties will the
sampled noise process wn = w(nT + ε) exhibit? What is the optimal detection strategy of
the detector? Remarks?
w(t)
dn xn dˆn
PAM MF DET
p(t) p(−t)
nT + ε
Figure 1.7: Model of a digital communication system
6
Hint : It may be useful to observe that
 √ 1
 qT


0 ≤ |f | ≤ 4T
P (f ) = F {p(t)} = T 1 1 3
 2 1 + cos 2πT |f | − 4T 4T < |f | ≤ 4T
 3
0 |f | > 4T
1–8 Sol. Consider the following three signal waveforms

( √ ( √
+( 3 − 1) A, 0 ≤ t < 1 −( 3 + 1) A, 0 ≤ t < 1
s1 (t) = 2A , s2 (t) = √ , s3 (t) = √
−( 3 + 1) A, 1 ≤ t ≤ 2 +( 3 − 1) A, 1 ≤ t ≤ 2
√
with A = (2 2)−1 and si (t) = 0, i = 1, 2, 3, for t < 0 and t > 2. These are used in signaling
equiprobable and independent symbol alternatives over the channel depicted below,
w(t)
c(t)
where c(t) = δ(t) + a δ(t − τ ) and w(t) is AWGN with spectral density N0 /2. One signal is
transmitted each T = 2 seconds. A receiver optimal in the sense of minimum symbol error
probability in the case a = 0 is employed. Derive an upper bound to the resulting symbol error
probability Pe when a = 1/4 and
(a) τ = 2.
(b) τ = 1.
The bounds should be non-trivial (i.e., Pe ≤ 1 is naturally not an accepted bound), however they
need not to be tight for high SNR’s.
1–9 Sol. Consider the baseband binary PAM system depicted below.
δ(t − nT ) w(t)
An v(t) r(t) y(t) yn Ân
gT (t) c(t) gR (t) detector
nT + εT
The data symbols An ∈ {±1} are independent and uniformly distributed, the symbol interval is
T seconds, and the AWGN w(t) has spectral density N0 /2. The combination of the channel and
transmit/receive filters corresponds to a raised cosine filter in the frequency domain, that is

T
 |f | ≤ 1−α
2T

GT (f )C(f )GR (f ) = Xrc (f ) = T2 1 + cos πT
α |f | − 1−α
2T
1−α
2T < |f | ≤ 1+α
2T

 1+α
0 |f | > 2T
with 0 ≤ α ≤ 1.
As can be seen the discrete decision variable yn is produced by sampling the received waveform
y(t) at t = nT + εT with 0 ≤ ε < 1, where ε represents a fractional offset error in the correct
sampling instants. Decisions Ân for An are produced in the detector based on the sign of yn .
Determine an expression for the error probability Pe = Pr(Ân 6= An ) given that
(a) ε = 0
(b) 0 < ε < 1
7
wm
xm rm zm x̂m
H(z) G(z)
Figure 1.8: Discrete model of a PAM communication system.
in terms of the parameters N0 , ε (in (b)) and

Z ∞
2 2
σ = gR (t)dt,
−∞
and assuming for simplicity that α = 0. Motivate any approximations made in part (b).
1–10 A PAM system can be modeled in discrete time as in Figure 1.8. The information symbols
xm ∈ {±1} are independent and equally likely. The filter H(z), describing the joint action of the
transmit and receive filters and the channel, can in the z-transform domain be expressed as
(3z − 1)z
H(z) =
4z 2 + 2z + 1
The noise wm is independent and equally distributed. Decisions x̂m about the transmitted sym-
bols are taken based on the sign of zm . The filter G(z) is an equalizer.
(a) Show that it is possible to remove ISI completely using equalization.

(b) Consider the case when
a0 + a1 z −1 + a2 z −2
G(z) =
1 − b1 z −1 − b2 z −2
and determine the filter coefficients in order to remove the ISI and equalize the channel, i.e.
G(z)H(z) = 1.
(c) Assume instead that
G(z) = a0 + a1 z −1 + a2 z −2 + a3 z −3 + a4 z −4
Determine the filter coefficients in order to obtain
zm = xm + ε xm−3 + noise term
and state the corresponding value of the constant ε (with |ε| < 1).
1–11 Consider again the system depicted in Figure 1.8, and assume that
2z − 3
H(z) =
2z − 1
(a) Show that complete equalization cannot be obtained.
(b) Assume that a FIR filter of order three
G(z) = a0 + a1 z −1 + a2 z −2 + a3 z −3
is used, and determine the filter coefficients in order to obtain
zm = ε xm + xm−3 + noise term
Determine also the value of the constant ε (|ε| < 1).
8
w(n)
√
a(n) Eb z(n) â(n)
H(z) U (z) Detector
1–12 Sol. In Figure 1.9 a discrete-time model of a binary antipodal communication system is presented.
In the figure w(n) is white Gaussian noise with autocorrelation function
N0
rW (k) = δ(k) .
2
The channel, H(z), introduces intersymbol interference (ISI), and is modeled as

1
H(z) = 1 + γz −1 , 0<γ< .
2
The transmitted data is modeled as a sequence of independent and identically distributed symbols,
a(n) = ±1, with equal probability. The detector detects the transmitted data according to the
following rule
1 z(n) ≥ 0
â(n) = .
−1 z(n) < 0
Two different equalizers are proposed by the project manager
1) U (z) = U1 (z) = 1, i.e. no equalizer
2) U (z) = U2 (z) = 1 − γz −1
(a) Determine exact expressions for the average bit-error probability for the two proposals.
(b) The system is to operate at high signal to noise ratios. Which proposal is the best choice if
it is desirable to have low average bit-error probability?
1–13 Consider again the system depicted in Figure 1.9, with w(n) AWGN with spectral density N0 /2,
and assuming that
H(z) = 1 + bz −1 , |b| < 1.
As in Problem 1–12, independent and equally likely information symbols a(n) ∈ {±1} are trans-
mitted, and the detector makes decisions according to

1 z(n) ≥ 0
â(n) = .
−1 z(n) < 0
To improve performance a linear equalizer is employed. Its transfer function is given as

1
UZF (z) = .
1 + bz −1
(a) Determine the bit error rate (BER) of the system, when used with and without equalizer.
(b) Determine the BER when 10 log10 (2Eb /N0 ) = 0 dB and when 10 log10 (2Eb /N0 ) = 20 dB,
with b = 0.9.
1–14 Sol. Consider the communication system with equiprobable antipodal depicted in Figure 1.10.
In the figure C(z) = 1 − αz −1 and α = 2/3 is due to the channel and transmitter and receiver
filters. As you know, the ISI caused by C(z) can be mitigated in several ways. Most common
is the use of an equalizer in the receiver. However, another approach would be to use precoding,
i.e., to place the equalizer in the transmitter.
9
White noise, N0 /2
an Upre (z) C(z) UZF (z) Decision ân
(a) Compute the zero-forcing equalizer UZF (z).

(b) Compute the precoding filter Upre (z) suppressing as much ISI as possible.
(c) Comment on the advantages and disadvantages using precoding. Consider stationary/time-
varying channels, simplex/duplex communications etc.
1–15 Sol. Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a scheme that allows several simultaneous users to
use the same radio spectrum. Users are separated based on their individual code sequences. To
distinguish between different users the receiver (base-station) correlates the received signal with
all different code sequences (ideally sequences of different users are uncorrelated).
Consider the following simple model for a scenario with two CDMA users that transmit binary
information using binary PAM. In any symbol interval, the receiver forms two decision variables
y1 and y2 that can be modeled as
√ √
y1 = b1 E + b2 ρ E + z1
√ √
y2 = b2 E + b1 ρ E + z2
Here bk ∈ {±1} is the transmitted bit of user k = 1, 2 (assume that b1 and b2 are independent,
and that transmitted bits are equally likely), and E is the received signal energy (equal for both
users). Furthermore, ρ with |ρ| < 1 is the correlation between the code sequences of user one and
two, and zk is zero-mean Gaussian noise with E[zk2 ] = N0 /2, k = 1, 2, and E[z1 z2 ] = ρN0 /2.
Note that there is multiuser interference from user two in the decision variable y1 for user one
(and vice versa). In the case of orthogonal code sequences (ρ = 0) there is no interference, but
in practice it is not reasonable to assume ρ = 0 (for different reasons, one being that received
signals from different users typically arrive at different time-instances and hence received code
sequences may not be orthogonal due to an unknown relative time-shift). It is evident that the
multiuser interference problem is very similar to the intersymbol interference problem. In the
problems below we consider two different detection schemes.
(a) A so-called conventional receiver for the multiuser problem detects the bits b1 and b2 inde-
pendently based on the signs of y1 and y2 . That is,
b̂1 = sign (y1 ), b̂2 = sign (y2 )
where sign (x) = +1 if x ≥ 0 and sign (x) = −1 if x < 0. Derive an expression for the
bit-error probability Pe = Pr(b̂1 6= b1 ) (= Pr(b̂2 6= b2 )).
(b) Let y = [y1 y2 ]T . A linear multiuser receiver forms the vector r = [r1 r2 ]T = G y, where G
is a fixed matrix, and it then makes decisions based on the signs of r1 and r2 according to
b̂1 = sign (r1 ), b̂2 = sign (r2 )
The decorrelating detector is the special case when G is chosen so that the interference is
canceled. That is, G is chosen so that r1 does not contain a contribution from b2 and r2
does not contain a contribution from b1 . As can be seen, the decorrelating detector is the
equivalent for the multiuser problem of the zero-forcing equalizer and it also inherits the
main disadvantage of the zero-forcer, namely that of noise enhancement. In some cases the
decorrelating detector can in fact result in worse performance than the conventional detector,
due to noise enhancement.
10
Determine the matrix G to implement a decorrelating detector and derive an expression for
the resulting error probability Pe = Pr(b̂1 6= b1 ) (= Pr(b̂2 6= b2 )). Also, assuming E/N0 = 1,
for which values of ρ (with |ρ| < 1) does the decorrelating detector perform worse than the
conventional detector (approximate graphical/numerical solution sufficient)?
1–16 Consider the real-valued discrete-time input signal to an equalizer
y(n) = 0.7x(n) + 0.2x(n − 1) + w(n)
where x(n) ∈ {−1, +1} are independent and equally likely. The noise samples w(n) are i.i.d.
zero-mean Gaussian with variance N0 /2 = 0.1.
(a) Design an equalizer G(z) = a0 +a1 z −1 where a0 , a1 are determined using the MMSE criterion,
i.e., min E{|x(n) − u(n)|2 } where u(n) is the output of the equalizer corresponding to input
y(n + 1).
(b) Derive the difference equation for u(n), the output signal of the equalizer designed above.
(c) Determine the BER of the system if a decision is made based on the sign of u(n). Compare
with the BER when a decision is made based on the sign of y(n).
1–17 Sol. Above we studied a CDMA system with two users. The model used was the following: In
any symbol interval, the receiver forms two decision variables y1 and y2 that can be modeled as
√ √
y1 = b1 E + b2 ρ E + z1
√ √
y2 = b2 E + b1 ρ E + z2
Here bk ∈ {±1} is the transmitted bit of user k = 1, 2 (assume that b1 and b2 are independent,
and that transmitted bits are equally likely), and E is the signal energy per user (equal for both
users). Furthermore, ρ with |ρ| < 1 is the correlation between the code sequences of user one and
two, and zk is zero-mean Gaussian noise with E[zk2 ] = N0 /2, k = 1, 2, and E[z1 z2 ] = ρN0 /2.
Note that there is multiuser interference from user two in the decision variable y1 for user one
(and vice versa). It is evident that the multiuser interference problem is very similar to the
intersymbol interference problem.
Now consider a receiver that measures y = [y1 y2 ]T and produces decisions b̂1 ∈ {±1} and
b̂2 ∈ {±1} for detecting the bits b1 and b2 . We can identify two different error probabilities,
the joint probability of error Pjoint = Pr(b̂1 6= b1 , b̂2 6= b2 ) and the individual error probabilities
Pk = Pr(b̂k 6= bk ), k = 1, 2. Derive an explicit decision rule, in terms of the parameters E, ρ and
N0 , for a receiver that minimizes
(a) Pjoint
(b) Pk , k = 1, 2
1–18 A BPSK modulator and channel can be modeled in discrete time as shown in Figure 1.11. There
are a number of ways to decode the received samples, for example
(a) Use a feedback equalizer as shown in Figure 1.12 in front of a BPSK detector (observing the
sign of the decision variable).
(b) Use a MLSE Viterbi decoder with trellis as shown in Figure 1.13.
(c) Simply use a BPSK detector ignoring the channel.
Note that z −1 means, delay the signal by one unit in time.
Order these methods in terms of bit error rate versus Eb /N0 performance, i.e., which is the best
and which is the worst. Explain clearly and convincingly your ordering.
11
0.8 White Gaussian noise
+
BPSK
+
z −1
0.6
MODULATOR CHANNEL
Figure 1.11: BPSK Transmitter and Channel
1.25
z −1
0.6
Figure 1.12: Feedback Equalizer
1–19 Sol. The Viterbi algorithm is not only applicable to convolutional codes, but is also useful to
combat intersymbol interference (ISI). Consider a time discrete representation of a PAM signal
transmitted over a channel with ISI and additive white Gaussian noise, n(k). The information
signal at the transmitter, s(k), belongs to the alphabet {−1, 0, 1} and is transmitted over a discrete
time channel with impulse response h(l). For simplicity, we assume that h(l) includes the effects
of both transmitter and receiver filters together with the physical propagation environment. The
received signal, r(k), is sampled at symbol rate, as illustrated in Figure 1.14. Assuming that the
transmitted sequence is 7 bits long and that it starts and ends with a 0, that is, s(0) and s(6) are
zero, h(l) is given by h(0) = 1, h(1) = 0.5 and zero elsewhere, maximum likelihood decode the
following received sequence:
r(k) = {1.3, −0.6, −0.2, 1.1, 0.8, 0.9}
where r(1) (the first number in the received sequence) corresponds to
1
X
r(1) = h(u)s(1 − u).
u=0
1–20 Sol. Several commonly encountered channels introduce intersymbol interference, which can be
combated in several ways, e.g., by using maximum likelihood sequence estimation. An example of
a communication system subject to intersymbol interference is shown at the bottom of Figure 1.15,
where perfect knowledge of the symbol-spaced ISI channel is assumed available to the receiver.
The maximum likelihood sequence estimate is commonly found by using the Viterbi algorithm.
Consider the likelihood function given as
" N #
1 X (ri − dî )2
L= exp − ,
(2πσ 2 )N/2 i=1
2σ 2
12
r = 1.4 d = +1 r = 1.4 d = +1
r = −0.2 r = −0.2
d = −1 d = −1
r = 0.2 r = 0.2
d = +1 d = +1
r = −1.4 d = −1 r = −1.4 d = −1
Figure 1.13: Viterbi MLSE
n(k)
s(k) h(l) + r(k)
Figure 1.14: Time-discrete system model.
where ri denotes the ith received sample, dî is the estimate of the noise-free ISI signal and σ 2
denotes the noise variance.
(a) What conditions are necessary to impose on the matrix Q in order for it to be possible to
rewrite the given expression for L as

1 1 ∗ −1
L= √ exp − (r − d̂) Q (r − d̂) ,
(2π)N/2 det Q 2
where r and d̂ are column vectors containing the elements ri and dî , respectively.
(b) What do these necessary conditions on Q imply for the noise ni ?
(c) If the noise is modeled by the AR process, as shown in the dashed top part of Figure 1.15,
how should the filter hn be chosen and how should dî be calculated? A detailed mathemat-
ical derivation is not necessary, but your answer must at least describe the principal steps
necessary.
White
Gaussian AR, [1 + αz −1 ]−1
Noise
noise n′i
ri = di + ni
Transm. Channel gn Filter hn Viterbi
Figure 1.15: A communication system subject to ISI.
1–21 Consider the real-valued discrete-time input signal to an equalizer
y(n) = 0.8x(n) + 0.6x(n − 1) + w(n)
where x(n) ∈ {−1, +1} are i.i.d., w(n)’s are i.i.d. Gaussian random variables with zero mean and
variance σ 2 = 0.1.
13
(a) Design a DFE with a two-tap feedforward filter and a one-tap feedback filter based on
the MMSE criterion, i.e., min E{|x(n) − u(n)|2 } where u(n) is the output of the equalizer
corresponding to input y(n + 1). Assume that the previously detected symbols are correct.
(b) Derive a difference equation for u(n) and compute the bit-error probability.
(c) In practice, however, the previously detected symbols are not always correct. Derive a
difference equation for u(n) without the assumption x̂(n − 1) = x(n − 1) where x̂(n − 1) is
the previously detected symbol, assuming that the DFE designed in part (a) is employed.
Compute the probability of error when x̂(n − 1) 6= x(n − 1).
(d) Compute the average error probability of the system.
14
Chapter 2
Digital Communications over Radio

Channels
Problems
2–1 Consider the use of a BPSK system over a fading channel with signal amplification α whose
density function is given in Figure 2.1. The receiver has perfect knowledge of the phase and the
average signal to noise ratio which is 2Eb /N0 .
(a) What is the average bit error probability?

(b) In order to improve the system’s performance, a simple repetition code is used where each
information bit is repeated twice with a large separation in time. What is the error prob-
ability for a receiver that uses a combination with equal weighting of both partial decision
variables if the transmitters output power and data rate is not changed?
Rb
The answer may contain expressions of the type a k1 xc Q(k2 x) dx, but then a, b, c, k1 and k2
should be explicitly stated.
fα (α)
1
2
0 2 α
Figure 2.1: Density function of the fading process.
2–2 Consider the use of BPSK for transmission of equally probable bits in a radio communication sys-
tem with Rayleigh fading and AWGN. The transmission rate on the channel is 2 · 104 bits/second.
Assume that the Doppler spectrum of the fading process can be described as
( −1/2
1 − (ψ/fd )2 , |ψ| < fd
S(ψ) =
0, |ψ| ≥ fd
where fd is the maximal Doppler spread. Assume that fd = 1 kHz, that the coherence bandwidth
of the channel is Bm = 7.0 MHz and that an average SNR of γ0 = 23.98 dB per transmitted bit
can be maintained in the transmission.
(a) Give the bit error probability for the following methods.
i. A straightforward transmission of the bits.
ii. Time diversity based on repetition of two bits and using an interval of 200 bits (i.e. 199
“other” bits are transmitted in between). Maximum ratio combining is employed.
iii. Space diversity using M = 3 antennas. Assume that the channels are independent, and
that maximum ratio combining is used.
15
iv. Error correction coding, using a codeword length of n = 63, a number of information
bits k = 51 and minimum distance d = 5. Block-interleaving with an interleaving depth
of 200 bits is employed.
Assume that coherent detection is used. You are allowed to make approximations, but you
have to motivate them carefully!
(b) How many bits is the average duration of an error burst on the described channel, with
respect to the threshold-SNR γx = γ0 /5 (i.e., the duration of the burst corresponds to
intervals with SNR lower than γx )?
2–3 Consider a system with antenna diversity of degree M = 2. The two received signals can be
modeled (using complex baseband notation) according to
(
r1 (t) = a1 (t)u(t) + n1 (t)
0≤t<T
r2 (t) = a2 (t)u(t) + n2 (t)
where a1 (t) and a2 (t) are correlated complex Gaussian processes with E[a1 (t)] = E[a2 (t)] = 0,
E(|a1 (t)|2 ) = E(|a2 (t)|2 ) = σ 2 and mutual correlation E[a1 (t)a∗2 (t)] = ρσ 2 (where a∗ denotes
complex conjugate) and where n1 (t) and n2 (t) are independent white Gaussian noise processes
with expected value zero and spectral density N0 . Furthermore, u(t) = b · z(t) is the transmitted
signal in 0 ≤ t < T , where b ∈ {±1} is the binary information (with equally probable +1 and
RT
−1), and where z(t) has energy E = 0 |z(t)|2 dt.
Now assume that the fading is slow, so that a1 (t) and a2 (t) can be considered as constants (not
time-dependent) a1 and a2 over 0 ≤ t < T . The receiver utilizes maximum ratio combining. That
is, the amplitudes a1 and a2 are (correctly) estimated and then the variables
( RT
r1 = a∗1 0 r(t)z ∗ (t)dt
R T
r2 = a∗2 0 r(t)z ∗ (t)dt
are formed. The decision is then based on the sign of the real part of r = r1 + r2 , (i.e., b̂ =
sign{Re(r)}).
(a) Give an expression for the bit error probability conditioned on a1 and a2 (i.e., for given a1
and a2 ).
(b) Give an expression for the bit error probability averaged over the fading. The result may
contain “unsolved” integrals, but should be simplified as far as possible.
(c) Derive an upper bound to the error probability, based on Q(x) ≤ 0.5 · exp(−x2 /2). Give
numerical results for σ 2 E/N0 = 15 dB, and ρ = 0.0, 0.5 and 0.9. Conclusions?
Hint (regarding complex stochastic processes). The fading al (t), l = 1, 2, can be expressed
al (t) = xl (t)+jyl (t) where xl (t) and yl (t) are independent real Gaussian processes with E[xl (t)] =
E[yl (t)] = 0 and E[x2l (t)] = E[yl2 (t)] = σ 2 /2. Moreover, x1 (t) and y2 (t), and y1 (t) and x2 (t) are
independent, while E[x1 (t)x2 (t)] = E[y1 (t)y2 (t)] = ρ · σ 2 /2. The noise nl (t) can be written
nl (t) = vl (t) + jwl (t) where vl (t) and wl (t) are independent white and Gaussian with power
spectral densities N0 /2.
2–4 Consider a communication link over a Rayleigh fading channel with average SNR γ0 = 20 dB
(per information bit ) using coherent BPSK as modulation format. Compare the following system
designs with respect to average bit error rate:
(a) Antenna diversity with M = 4 independent branches and optimum combining. No coding
is used.
(b) Block channel coding using a BCH code with the parameters n = 31, k = 16 and d = 7.
Assume perfect interleaving.
(c) The combination of the two previous methods.
It can be assumed that the fading is slow and frequency-flat.
16
2–5 Consider coherent BPSK signaling over a channel exhibiting frequency-flat slow fading according
to
r
2E
r(t) = A · b(n) cos(2πfc t) + w(t), (n − 1)T ≤ t < nT (fc >> 1/T )
T
where r(t) is the received signal, b(n) ∈ {±1} (equally probable) is the nth transmitted bit and
w(t) is AWGN with spectral density N0 /2. The fading amplitude A can be assumed to be constant
R nT p
over a bit interval. The receiver decides on b̂(n) based on the sign of (n−1)T r(t) 2/T cos(2πfc t)dt.
Assume that E[A2 ]E/N0 = 15 dB. Which bit error rate, Pr(b̂(n) 6= b(n)) (averaged over the fad-
ing) is obtained if the amplitude A is
(a) Rayleigh-distributed.
√
(b) uniformly distributed in the interval [0, 3].
√ √
(c) triangle-distributed in the interval [0, 2], i.e., if fA (a) = a, 0 ≤ a ≤ 2.
Which distributions lead to the best and the worst performance?

2–6 In a radio communication systems, BPSK is used with coherent detection. The data rate over the
channel is 9600 bits per second and the average SNR is 15 dB per information bit. The channel
can be modeled as a Rayleigh channel with coherence bandwidth Bm = 150 kHz and Doppler
spread Bd = 500 Hz. In order to mitigate the fading, block interleaver of depths 500 bits and a
block channel code with parameters (n, k, d) = (31, 21, 5) is used. Which word error probability
(i.e., error probability per block of n = 31 bits) is obtained with this system?
2–7 Consider a digital radio communication system operating over a Rayleigh fading channel with
AWGN and using BPSK as modulation format with coherent reception. The data bits are equally
probable and arrive at the transmitter with a fixed rate of 1000 bits per second. The channel has
coherence bandwidth Bm = 100 kHz and coherence time Td = 0.1 s. The radiated power at the
transmitter is 1.0 V2 , and on the average the transmitted energy per symbol is dampened with
a factor of 10 due to the fading of the channel. The additive Gaussian noise on the channel has
spectral density N0 /2, where N0 = 10−6 V2 /Hz.
(a) A BCH code with parameters (n, k, d) = (31, 16, 7) is used with perfect interleaving. What
(approximate) average bit error probability is obtained?
(b) Instead of coding, space diversity with M antennas at the receiver is used. The antennas are
sufficiently separated such that the channel fading on the different antennas can be assumed
to be independent. Maximum ratio combining is used. How many antennas M are required
(at least) such the bit error probability is below the one in (a)?
(c) How many seconds lasts a typical “fading dip” that results in a reduction of the transmitted
power with a factor larger than 100?
2–8 A bit stream of R = 1000 bits per second must be transmitted over a radio channel with band
width 10 kHz (in the passband). The channel can be characterized by Rayleigh fading with co-
herence bandwidth Bm = 50 kHz and coherence time Td = 5 s. The average SNR per information
bit is γ0 = 15 dB. A bit error probability below 5 · 10−4 is required.
Propose a combination of the methods below which lead to a solution that satisfies the requirement
on bit error rate (choose one method of each point below and combine).
• Modulation: BPSK or BFSK with coherent detection; DPSK or BFSK with noncoherent
detection.
• Coding: No coding; Hamming coding with (n, k, d) = (31, 26, 3); BCH coding with (n, k, d) =
(31, 16, 7), (the codes are decoded with a ML decoder based on hard decisions).
• Interleaving: No interleaving or perfect block interleaving.
• Diversity: No diversity; 2 receiver antennas with maximum ratio combining; frequency
diversity based on 3 different carrier frequencies with maximum ratio combining.
17
• Amplitude estimation (estimate the channel’s amplitude at the receiver): No amplitude
estimation or an amplitude estimation that can be assumed to be perfect
• Phase estimation (estimate the channel phase): No phase estimation or a phase estima-
tion that can be assumed to be perfect under the condition that the channel’s statistic is
stationary for at least 100 ms.
Motivate all choices and show that your method can be implemented under the given conditions!
2–9 A linear block code with generator matrix

1 0 1
G=
0 1 1
is used to transmit independent and equally likely information bits over a channel with Rayleigh
fading and AWGN. The fading is assumed to be slow (i.e., constant over ≫ 1 bit) and frequency-
flat. The modulation format is BPSK and the decision at the receiver is based on coherent soft
maximum-likelihood decoding.
Derive an upper bound (using the “union bound” technique) for the probability Pcw that a
decoded codeword is not the same as the transmitted codeword. Give a numerical answer in the
case that the average SNR on the channel is γ0 = 15 dB (per information bit).
2–10 Consider a radio communication system using M receiver antennas to exploit spatial diversity.
The channel can be characterized as Rayleigh fading with coherence bandwidth Bm = 100 kHz
and coherence time Td = 2 s. The antennas are spaced sufficiently far away from each other such
that independent fading between the antennas can be assumed. BPSK with a bit rate of 1000 bits
is used. Assume that the receiver has perfect phase information and that coherent detection with
maximum ratio combining can be used. In the current application of this radio communication
link, an average bit error probability of at most 10−5 is desired.
(a) Assume that diversity cannot be exploited (M = 1). What average SNR γ0 is required such
that the performance requirement is satisfied?
(b) Assume now that M = 3. How much can the transmitter power be reduced (at most) in
comparison to (a) and still satisfy the performance requirement?
(c) Assume that γ0 = 10 dB. How many antennas are required to satisfy the performance
requirement?
2–11 BPSK is used to transmit equally probable independent bits over a radio channel with frequency-
flat and slow fading. The transmitted BPSK-signal has energy E, and the channel fading influ-
ences the transmitted signal by a real multiplicative dampening factor α which can be modeled
as Gaussian with average α0 and variance σ 2 . Apart from fading, the signal is disturbed by
additive white Gaussian noise with power density N0 /2. The receiver can be assumed to have
perfect phase information and coherent demodulation can be applied.
(a) Derive an expression for the average bit error probability.
(b) In order to improve performance, antenna diversity at the receiver with M well-separated
antennas is used (implying independent fading among the antennas). Moreover, the bit
detection is based on equal weight combining of the signals of the different antennas. Derive
an exact expression for the resulting average bit error probability. How much transmission
power can be saved (compared to (a)) for a given error probability?
2–12 A system for digital radio communication utilizes M receive antennas in order to achieve spatial
diversity gain. It can be assumed that the antennas are separated enough to achieve independent
fading, and that the receiver has perfect phase knowledge so that coherent demodulation and
maximum ratio combining can be implemented. The channel can be characterized as Rayleigh
fading, with intensity profile and Doppler spectrum according to Figure 2.2.
Information bits arrive at the transmitter at a fixed rate of 5000 bits per second. The modulation
format is BPSK with energy Eb and symbol-time Tb . The channel adds AWGN with spectral
density N0 /2. The influence of the fading implies that the average SNR, γ0 , at the receiver is 10
times less than the SNR, Eb /N0 , in absence of fading.
18
φh (τ ) SH (ψ)
τ [µs] ψ [Hz]
1 2 3 4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Figure 2.2: Intensity profile and Doppler spectrum in problem 2–12
(a) Assume that a bit-error probability below 10−6 is required, and that Eb /N0 =23 dB. How
many antennas, M , are then needed?
(b) In order to save antennas, a BCH code with parameters (n, k, d) = (15, 7, 5) is used in
connection with perfect interleaving and M receive antennas. Maximum ratio combining
provides decisions on coded bits, and these are then fed to a decoder for the channel code.
How many antennas can be saved using this approach, if the requirement on the error
probability and the transmitted power are the same as in (a)?
2–13 Consider a transmission scheme for equally probable and independent bits, bn , that uses two
transmit antennas (and one receive antenna) to achieve a diversity gain over a fading channel.
The signaling is based on BPSK with energy E/2 per antenna. The fading can be modeled as
frequency flat and slow. The transmitted signals in antenna one and two are multiplied with
the fading variables a1 and a2 , respectively, where a1 and a2 are independent and Rayleigh
distributed, with equal variances 2σ 2 . The transmission is also subject to AWGN with spectral
density N0 /2.
The information bits bn ∈ {±1} are distributed over the two transmit antennas according to the
delay diversity principle, which means that at time instant n the bit bn is transmitted in antenna
one and bn−1 in antenna two.
In order to detect a bit bn , the receiver forms the variable
b̄n = g1 · rn+1 + g2 · rn ,
where rn is the received time-discrete signal at time instant n, and where g1 and g2 are given
constants. Then a decision is made based on the sign of b̄n .
(a) Derive a general expression for the average bit-error probability. Your answer may contain
unsolved integrals, but must (otherwise) be given in a form that is as simple as possible.
(b) Continue with your expression from (a), and solve unsolved integrals (if any), and provide a
final expression for the bit-error probability. Also give numerical values in the special cases
when g1 = 0, g2 = 1 (“conventional detector”) and g1 = g2 = 1 (”equal gain combining”),
given that 2σ 2 · E/N0 = 15 dB. Which of these two cases has the best performance?
2–14 Consider coherent BPSK signaling over a channel with slow and frequency-flat fading. The
receiver uses M antennas. The received signal in antenna m can be modeled as
r
2E
rm (t) = b · Am cos(2πfc t) + wm (t), 0 ≤ t < T (fc ≫ 1/T )
T
where b ∈ {±1} is the transmitted bit in the interval 0 ≤ t < T (transmitted bit are independent
and equally likely) and wm (t) is AWGN with spectral density N0 /2. The fading amplitude Am
can be assumed to be constant over a bit interval. The amplitudes Am and the noise signals
wm (t) are independent for different m.
The receiver decides b̂ based on the sign of
M
X Z T p
r̂ = rm , where rm = rm (t) 2/T cos(2πfc t)dt.
m=1 0
19
Assume that E/N0 = 7 dB. What bit error probability Pr(b̂ 6= b) (averaged over the fading) is
obtained for
(a) M = 1
(b) M = 2
(c) M = 15
assuming that Am is uniformly distributed over the interval [0, 1]?
2–15 Consider a digital radio communication system over a channel with slow and frequency-flat
Rayleigh fading using coherent BPSK to transmit independent and equally probable bit arriving
with a fixed data rate. The radiated energy per transmitted bit is E and since the channel is fad-
ing, the average received energy is E/10. Moreover, AWGN with spectral density N0 /2 is present.
Compare the following system design solutions with respect to average bit error probability.
(a) Antenna diversity with M = 3 independent branches and maximum ratio combining. No
coding is used and it holds that E/N0 = 25 dB.
(b) Block channel coding based on a BCH code with parameters n = 15, k = 7 and d = 5.
Assume perfect interleaving is used. Moreover, it is required that the transmitted energy is
reduced per bit compared to (a) such that the radiated power is kept constant.
(c) The combination of the two methods above.
2–16 A simple time-discrete model for transmission of equally probably and independent bits over a
radio channel with frequency-selective fading is
rn = a1 bn + a2 bn−1 + wn
where rn is a real-valued received signal at time instant n and bn ∈ {±1} is the transmitted bit
at time instant n. Furthermore a1 and a2 are real valued amplitudes and wn is a white Gaussian
noise sequence with average zero and variance N0 /2.
√
Assume now that a1 is constant and it holds that a1 = E where E is the transmitted energy
per bit. Moreover a2 is stochastic with known distribution. The assumptions model a situation
where the bits bn reach the receiver in a “line-of-sight” and the bit bn−1 reaches the receiver via
a reflection against a well-separated obstacle.
Assume that the receiver makes a decision b̂n ∈ {±1} about the bit bn based on the sign of rn .
Derive an expression for the bit error probability Pr(b̂n 6= bn ) averaged over fading and noise
assuming that
(a) a2 is Gaussian with average E[a2 ] = α · σ, where 0 ≤ α < 1 and variance σ 2 .
(b) a2 is Rayleigh distributed with E[a22 ] = σ 2 .
2–17 Error correction coding in connection with perfect interleaving is employed in a radio communica-
tion system to protect k-bit blocks of information bits. Since perfect phase estimation is difficult
in the considered application, the employed modulation format is non-coherent BFSK. The fading
can, however, be assumed to be frequency flat and slow. The average SNR per information bit
is γ0 = 30 dB. The system must be able guarantee that the average bit error probability for the
information bits stays below 10−7 .
Which one among the BCH-codes, with parameters according to Table 2.1, should be used to
satisfy the requirement on the bit error probability, taking into account that a code with as high
rate k/n as possible should be chosen (in order not to waste bandwidth)?
2–18 Consider a modulation format with 8 different signal alternatives, according to
p p
si (t) = sIi 2/T cos(2πfc t) − sQ
i 2/T sin(2πfc t), i = 1 . . . 8, 0 ≤ t ≤ T
where T is the symbol period, fc ≫ 1/T is the carrier frequency and where the different signal
coefficients sIi (“in-phase”) and sQ
i (“quadrature”) are shown in Figure 2.3.
20
n k d
31 26 3
31 21 5
31 16 7
31 11 11
31 6 15
Table 2.1: Parameters of some codes used in problem 2–17
d
d
d
d I
Figure 2.3: Signal points in problem 2–18
Assume that equally probable and independent information symbols are mapped onto the signal
set, and that the resulting signal is transmitted over a channel with frequency flat and slow
Rayleigh fading and AWGN. The received signal can then be written r(t) = a si (t) + w(t), where
a is a Rayleigh variable with E[a2 ] = 2σ 2 and w(t) is AWGN with spectral density N0 /2.
Consider now a coherent receiver that forms the variables
r Z T r Z T
2 2
r1 = r(t) cos(2πfc t)dt, r2 = − r(t) sin(2πfc t)dt,
T 0 T 0
and takes ML-decisions for the transmitted symbols. Assume also that the receiver can estimate
the amplitude a perfectly. ML-decisions are then taken according to the rule: chose the symbol
(sIi , sQ
i ) that minimizes
(r1 − a sIi )2 + (r2 − a sQ 2
i ) .
Derive an upper bound to the symbol error probability as a function of g0 , σ 2 d2 /N0 (averaged
over fading and noise). The bound should be as tight as possible (using the same kind of thinking
as in the union bound technique, while avoiding “too many” terms).
2–19 Each of the following five statements should be answered with “true” or “false.” In this problem
no detailed solutions are necessary.
(a) The Rayleigh fading model does not correspond well to reality in the scenario of a line-of-
sight transmission between transmitter and receiver.
(b) Assuming BPSK, perfect interleaving and error-control coding based on a BCH code with
parameters n = 7, k = 4 and d = 3 over a frequency-flat and slowly fading Rayleigh
channel with AWGN and average SNR γ0 = 15 dB per information bit (equally probably
and independent), a bit error probability for decoded information bits is below 0.005.
(c) Consider a frequency-flat and slowly fading Rayleigh channel with AWGN where antenna
diversity is exploited using M receiver antennas and coherent BPSK together with maximum
21
ratio combining is used to transmit independent equally probable bits. The signals received
at the different antennas experience independent fading. The average SNR is γ0 = 15 dB
for all antennas. M = 2 antennas are sufficient in order to obtain a bit error probability
below 10−5 .
(d) If the transmitted signal bandwidth is larger than the coherence bandwidth of the channel,
the fading is always fast and frequency-selective.
(e) Consider a system based on coherent BPSK where uncoded equal probable and independent
information bits are transmitted via one antenna with energy E per transmitted bit. If
the transmission is over a frequency-flat slowly Rayleigh fading channel with AWGN with
spectral density N0 /2, the bit error probability for the received bits can never be below
r !
2E
Q
N0
no matter how the receiver is implemented.
2–20 Consider a system with M = 2 receiver antennas for the transmission of independent and equally
probable information bit based on coherent BPSK over a channel with slow and frequency-flat
Rayleigh fading and AWGN. The antennas are spaced sufficiently far away from each other such
that the signals received via the different antennas experience independent fading. Moreover, the
noise is independent for the two received signals.
As is well known, maximum ratio combining leads to an optimal combination method with respect
to bit error probability. However, this method requires that the receiver estimated the fading
amplitude of the received signals. The alternative of combining the signals with equal weight
coefficient does not rely on an amplitude estimate. Therefore, it is interesting to obtain a theoretic
measure on how much performance is lost if the maximum ratio combining is replaced with equal
weight combining. In this problem, we study such a measure.
Let P1 (γo ) be the obtained bit error probability as a function of average SNR γ0 (same for both
antennas) if coherent maximum ratio combining is used, and let P2 (γ0 ) be the corresponding bit
error probability for coherent equal-weight combining (”coherent” = ”cophasing” is used.) In
order to compare P1 and P2 for high average SNR, we compute
P2 (γ0 )
g = lim ≥ 1,
γ0 →∞ P1 (γ0 )
i.e., P2 is g times larger than P1 asymptotically if γ0 → ∞. Derive a numerical value for g in the
studied case with M = 2.
Hint: The following integral can be used without further derivation:
Z ∞Z ∞ √ √ !
x − 1 x2 /σ2 y − 1 y2 /σ2 1 a 1 + a2 + b 1 + b 2
Q (αx + βy) 2 e 2 e 2 dxdy = 1− ,
0 0 σ σ2 2 1 + a2 + b 2
where a = α σ and b = βσ.
2–21 Consider coherent BPSK signaling over a channel with slow and frequency flat fading. The
receiver uses M = 3 antennas. The received signal on antenna m ∈ {1, 2, 3} can be modeled as
r
2E
rm (t) = b · am cos(2πfc t) + wm (t), 0 ≤ t ≤ T (fc ≫ 1/T )
T
where b ∈ {±1} is the transmitted bit in the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ T (transmitted bits are independent
and equally probable) and wm (t) is AWGN with spectral density N0 /2. The fading amplitude
am can be assumed to be constant over a bit interval. The amplitude am and the noise wm (t)
are independent from each other and also independent for different m.
The receiver makes the decision b̂ based on the sign of
M
X Z T p
r̂ = rm , dr rm = rm (t) 2/T cos(2πfc t)dt.
m=1 0
What error probability Pr(b̂ 6= b) (averaged over noise and fading) is obtained if
22
(a) am is Rayleigh distributed with E[a2m ] = 2σ 2 ?
(b) am is Gaussian with E[am ] = µ and Var[am ] = σ 2 ?
(c) am is uniformly distributed over the interval [0, σ]?
The answer in (c) can contain unsolved integrals of the type
Z β
(x − γ)n Q(δ x)dx
α
but in that case, the variables α, β, γ, n and δ must be specified.

2–22 A communication system employs a linear block code with codeword length 2K. √ The coded bits
are BPSK modulated, resulting in a sequence of symbols {si } where si ∈ {± Eb }.
T
Assume that the symbol vector s = s1 s2 · · · s2K corresponding to a codeword c is trans-
mitted. Herein [·]T denotes the vector transpose. Due to limited-length interleaving, the channel
gains remain the same within a block of two consecutive symbols, but change independently from
one block to another. This means that the channel gains corresponding to the transmission of s
T
are h = h1 h1 h2 h2 · · · hK hK where h1 , h2 , · · · , hK are i.i.d. Rayleigh distributed
with mean E[h2i ] = 2σ 2 .
T
The received signals are corrupted by additive noise w = w1 w2 · · · w2K where w1 , w2 , . . . , w2K
are i.i.d. real-valued Gaussian with zero mean and variance N0 /2. The receiver employs soft-
decision decoding. All codewords are equally likely.
(a) Derive the conditional pairwise error probability P2 (s → ŝ|h), i.e., the probability that the
receiver prefers ŝ corresponding to some codeword ĉ instead of s given a fixed h.
(b) Derive an upper bound on the average pairwise error probability P2 (s → ŝ). The bound
should be useful to determine the diversity order of the code.
(c) The code used has 2K = 6 and its codebook is given by

c0 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 c1 = 1 0 1 0 0 1

c2 = 0 1 1 0 1 0 c3 = 1 1 0 0 1 1

c4 = 1 1 0 1 0 0 c5 = 0 1 1 1 0 1

c6 = 1 0 1 1 1 0 c7 = 0 0 0 1 1 1
What is the rate of the code? What is the diversity order that the code can achieve over
the block fading channel considered?
2–23 Compute in closed-form the capacity of a real-valued i.i.d. fading channel if

(a) The channel power, γ = |h|2 , is uniformly distributed in [0, k1 ].
(b) The channel power is triangularly distributed, i.e. f (γ) = tγ, γ ∈ [0, k2 ].
2–24 Consider Alamouti space-time coding scheme with 2 transmit antennas and 1 receive antenna.
The channel gains are iid. Viewing linear processing at the receiver as part of a complex-valued
channel, find the ergodic capacity (i.e., in fast fading). Extend your result to the case of 2 transmit
antennas and 2 receive antennas (so-called MIMO 2 × 2).
Compute explicitly the capacity of the 2 × 1 channel (with Alamouti coding) if the channel power
(i.e., the squared channel gain) is uniformly distributed in [0, 1]. Compare with the single-antenna
(i.e., 1 × 1) case.
2–25 In modern communication systems, we are frequently encountered sets of parallel channels, for
instance in OFDM or in systems with feedback (i.e., CSIT). Since each (sub) channel in a set
of parallel channels experiences different channel gains and potentially different noise variances,
how to allocate resource optimally over these channels becomes a relevant question.
23
Consider such a set of K parallel real-valued scalar channels, where each channel is corrupted by
independent AWGN with zero mean and variance Ni , i = 1, . . . , K. It is well known that the
capacity of each channel is
1 Pi
Ci = log 1 +
2 Ni
where Pi is the power allocated to channel i.
The total transmit power is constrained so that
P1 + . . . + PK = P.
Using the Lagrangian multiplier method, find the optimal power allocation P1 , . . . , PK so as to
maximize the sum capacity
Csum = C1 + . . . + CK .
2–26 Consider a complex-valued iid fading channel with perfect CSIT, i.e., the transmitter knows the
channel perfectly. It is known that allocating power in a water-filling manner maximizes the
capacity of such a channel. A simpler approach is to invert the effect of the channel, i.e., to set
the transmit power to k/|h|2 where k is some constant.
Compute the optimal k as a function of the transmit power and the noise variance for fading
channels with multiple receive antennas where the channel coefficients hi ’s are iid Rayleigh with
E|hi |2 = 1.
Is it possible to apply channel inversion over a single-antenna channel with |h|2 uniformly dis-
tributed in [0, 1]? with h Rayleigh distributed?
2–27 For channels where channel inversion is not possible, another technique called truncated channel
inversion can be applied instead. The transmitter inverts the channel only if the channel power
is larger than a certain threshold, i.e., if the channel is “good enough.”
Find the optimal threshold (as a function of SNR) for truncated channel inversion when the
channel power is uniformly distributed in [0, 1].
2–28 Consider a complex-valued slow fading channel where the transmitter has a single antenna and
the receiver has M antennas. The channel coefficients are iid complex Gaussian (i.e., Rayleigh
fading) with zero mean and unit variance. The AWGN at the receive antennas are iid. The
receiver employs MRC.
The information rate is R nats/channel use. Let SNR = P/N0 where P is the transmit power
and N0 is the (complex) noise variance at each receive antennas.
Compute the outage probability of the system. Analyze the speed of decay of the outage proba-
bility at high SNR.
2–29 Sol. Given a channel model y = x+u where u ∼ N (0, σ 2 ). Prove that the probability distribution
p(x) that maximizes the mutual information subject to a variance constraint E[|x|2 ] = V is a
Gaussian distribution of mean zero and variance V .
2–30 Sol. Consider a channel fading statistics
aL−1
p(|h|2 = a) = exp(−a); x ≥ 0
Γ(L)
(a) Write explicitly the outage probability

Pout = P r log(1 + |h|2 SN R) < R
(b) Compute the zero-outage capacity (channel inversion).

2–31 Consider power spectral density of OFDM transmitted signal, show that power spectral density
converges to a rectangular pulse of duration 1/Ts when number of subcarrier N goes to infinity.
24
2–32 OFDM has non-constant envelope and has very large dynamic amplitude
max |x(t)|2
PAPR = ,0 ≤ t < T
E[|x(t)|2 ]
(a) Determine the maximum PAPR of an OFDM system with MPSK as a function of the number
of subcarriers N .
(b) Consider IDFT output samples of OFDM modulator
N −1
1 X in
xn = √ sn ej2π N , n = 0, 1, ..., N − 1
N i=0
sn are uncorrelated MPSK symbols. Show that xn and xk are uncorrelated for n 6= k.
Assume large number of subcarriers, derive the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of
PAPR of the system.
q
2–33 A binary coherent PSK signal si (t) = (1 − 2i) ETb , i = 0, 1, 0 < t < T . Assume the channel is
AWGN, with channel impulse response h(τ ) = 0.8δ(τ ) − 0.6δ(τ − 1.5T ).
(a) If the detector is an ordinary correlation receiver, optimized for the case without ISI. Deter-
mine the bit error probability and compare it with the case without ISI.
(b) To combat ISI, OFDM is used with coherent BPSK. Determine the minimum required guard
interval that allow ISI free system.
(c) With guard interval derived above, determine the average bit error probability for N = 32
and N = 64, compare it with ideal coherent BPSK.
2–34 Sol. For a time-variant mobile radio channel at a carrier frequency of fc = 2GHz, the channel
is assumed as wide-sense stationary uncorrelated scattering (WSSUS) channel and hence charac-
terized by the channel autocorrelation functions, φh (τ, ∆t), φH (∆f, ∆t), which we have defined
in the lecture before based on the channel impulse response h(τ, t), and φV (τ, fD ), φU (∆f, fD ),
which are defined as follows
φV (τ, fD ) = E[V ∗ (τ1 , fD )V (τ1 + τ, fD )]
φU (∆f, fD ) = Fτ {φV (τ, fD )} ,
where V (τ, fD ) is the delay-Doppler function and it is also a WSS process for any τ . Fτ (·) is the
Fourier transform with respect to τ .
Let us suppose that Doppler cross power spectral density is given by

fD
φU (∆f, fD ) = (1 + e−jA∆f ) · rect ,
2fm
with A = 10 · 10−6 , where fm is the maximum Doppler shift and rect(·) is a rectangle function
given by
1, − 12 ≤ x ≤ 21
rect(x) =
0 otherwise
We also assume the maximum velocity of the mobile terminals is 135 km/h.
For this channel, you are asked to design an OFDM system with a net data rate of R = 2 Mbit/s.
The subcarrier are QPSK modulated and a convolutional code with the rate RC = 1/2 is used.
(a) Find the probability density function of the path delay τ and the Doppler shift fD . (2
pts.) (Note: speed of light c ≈ 3 · 108 m/s; and joint probability density function p(τ, fD ) is
proportional to φV (τ, fD ))
(b) Determine the minimum length of the guard interval TG such that inter-symbol interference
could be completely avoided.
25
(c) If we assume the useful symbol duration Ts has a duration of 2% of the coherence time Tc of
the mobile channel given above, determine the required bandwidth B of the OFDM system.
2–35 Sol. In a cellular OFDM system, signals are transmitted at a carrier frequency of fc = 2 GHz
with bandwidth 25 MHz over a frequency-selective fading channel whose delay power spectral
density (PSD) is give by
1 − Tτ , 0 ≤ τ ≤ T
φh (τ ) =
0, otherwise,
where T = 16µs. The maximum velocity of mobile terminals is 135 km/h. (Note: light speed
≈ 3 · 108 m/s)
(a) Determine the maximum delay spread of the channel.

(b) Determine the upper and lower bounds on the number of sub-carriers such that the sub-
channel for each sub-carrier could be approximately regarded as constant flat fading over
each sub-channel symbol period, assuming the sub-channel symbol time equals the inverse
of the sub-channel bandwidth.
(c) Determine the lowest appropriate FFT size NFFT for the system where the sub-channel
for each sub-carrier could be approximately regarded as constant flat fading over each sub-
channel symbol period, and justify your answer.
2–36 Sol. Consider the MIMO transmission y = Hd + n. The linear MMSE estimates
dˆ = W · y = SN R · H H [I + SN R · HH H ]−1 · y
(a) Compute the MSE matrix, i.e.
K = E[(dˆ − d)(dˆ − d)H ]
(b) Compute the achievable transmit rate for MMSE receiver of stream k and show
X
Ck = log(1 + SN R · hH k [I + SN R · hl hH
l ]
−1
hk )
l6=k
(c) The MMSE receiver is information lossless. Assume SIC is applied, show that MMSE + SIC
achieves capacity.
2–37 Sol. Consider the MIMO system with y = Hx + n, Q = E[xxH ], and perfect CSI at transmitter
and receiver.
(a) Derive the optimal transmit strategy, that maximize the mutual information with tr(Q) ≤ 1.
(b) Show that single stream beamforming is optimal for small SNR.
(c) Show that equal power allocation is optimal for high SNR.
2–38 Sol. Consider the measure of correlation, defined as R1 is more correlated with R2 if
λ(R1 ) ≥ λ(R2 )
m
X m
X
i.e. λl (R1 ) ≥ λl (R2 ), m ∈ [1, n − 1] and tr(R1 ) = tr(R2 ).
l=1 l=1
(a) Sort the following correlation matrix according to their correlation with respect to the mea-
sure above:

1 0 1 1 1 0.5
R1 = , R2 = , R3 =
0 1 1 1 0.5 1
(b) Prove the following inequalities:
log det(I + R1 ) ≥ log det(I + R3 ) ≥ log det(I + R2 )
tr([I + R2 ]−1 ) ≥ tr([I + R3 ]−1 ) ≥ tr([I + R1 ]−1 )
26
(c) Compute the ergodic capacity for the nT = 2, nR = 1 case with:
C1 = E log(I + SN R · hH · R1 · h)
C2 = E log(1 + SN R · hH · R2 · h)
and show that C1 ≥ C2 , directly.
2–39 Sol. Consider a MIMO OFDM system with N carrier and nT xnR transmit/receive antennas:
yn = Hn · xn + nn ; 1 ≤ n ≤ N, nn ∼ CN (0, σn2 I)
1
Define ρ = σu2 . Sum power constraint is P .
(a) Derive the capacity expression by arguments and by using well-known facts and arrive at
N
X N
X
C = max log det(I + ρHk Qk HkH ), s.t. Q1 0, ..., Qn 0 and tr(Qk ) ≤ P.
k=1 k=1
(b) Show that

d
log det(Z + HQH H ) = H H [Z + HQH H ]−1 H
dQ
(c) Derive the optimality conditions for the convex programming problem in (a).
(d) Derive
N
dC X
= tr Hk Qk HkH [I + ρHk Qk HkH ]−1
dρ
k=1
2–40 Sol. Consider the MIMO channel y = Hx + n and study the mutual information
I = log det(1 + ρHQH H )
and the sum MSE

M = tr([I + ρHQH H ]−1 )
(a) Show that I is concave w.r.t Q and show that M is convex w.r.t. Q
(b) Rewrite I and show that I = tr log(I + ρHQH H ).
dM
(c) Show that dQ = −ρH H [I + ρHQH H ]−2 H
(d) Derive the optimal transmit strategy Q for a general concave function φ.
max trφ(HQH H )
Q0,tr(Q)≤P
27
28
Chapter 3
Spread Spectrum and CDMA
Problems
3–1 Spread spectrum with frequency hopping can be applied in a CDMA system. Your task is
to compare the number of simultaneous users in three different CDMA systems, DS (Direct
Sequence), SFH (Slow Frequency Hopping) with one hop per bit and FFH (Fast Frequency
Hopping) with 3 hops per bit. The Direct Sequence system uses coherent PSK, a processing gain
of 500 chip/bit and has perfect power control. The frequency hopping system is hopping between
500 different frequencies and uses non-coherent FSK with hard decision before combining. The
hopping sequences for different users are such that collisions can occur for the frequency hopping
system (i.e., the same frequency band is used by two users at the same time) and is synchronized
such that all users are hopping to a different frequency at the same time.
How many users K can
(a) DS
(b) SFH
(c) FFH
accommodate if the performance requirement is an error probability of Pe ≤ 10−2 in the absence
of noise. You are allowed to use approximations, but they must be well motivated.
Hint: For which combinations of errors in the partial decisions does an error in the FFH system
result?
3–2 One way of handling large differences in received power between different users in a DS-CDMA
system is to apply a decorrelating detector. However, the decorrelator has the undesired property
of causing a noise amplification, i.e., the signal to noise ratio for some users can be strongly
deteriorated. This can be avoided by using a partially decorrelating receiver that only suppresses
interference from a few users and, similar to the conventional detector, does not take interference
from the other weaker users into account.
In the receiver with partial decorrelation in Figure 3.1, the cross-correlation is ρ = 1/5 between
RT
all three users’ code sequences gu (t), u ∈ {1, 2, 3} and the auto-correlation is 0 gu (t)gu (t) dt = 1
where T is the symbol time (equal for all users). The power ratio is P2 /P1 = 20 dB, P3 /P1 = 0 dB
and the SNR is 2Eb,1 /N0 = 5 dB. The received signal in one signaling interval [0, T ] using the
data bits bk = ±1 can be written
3 p
X
r(t) = Eu gu (t)bu + n(t)
u=1
where Eu is the received energy and n(t) is white Gaussian noise with spectral density N0 /2. For
the partially decorrelating receiver according to Figure 3.1, determine
(a) the k that eliminates the interference that user 1 obtains from user 2
29
(b) the exact error probability for user 1 with the k above (use k = 0.5 if you could not solve
the problem above)
R
T b̂1
g1 (t) k
R
r(t) T b̂2
g2 (t)
R
T b̂3
g3 (t)
Figure 3.1: Decorrelating receiver for problem 3-2.
3–3 A single-user direct sequence spread spectrum system uses BPSK signalsPover an AWGN channel
∞
with SNR 2Eb /N0 = 12 dB. The applied spreading sequence is c(t) = −∞ cn p(t − nTc ) where
√ √
p(t) is a rectangular
√ pulse with hight 1/ Tc from 0 to Tc (chip time) and c0 = c1 = −1/ 3,
c2 = +1/ 3. Moreover, c(t) is cyclic with the time of the period T = 3Tc , i.e., c(t) = c(t + T ).
The receiver uses the same spreading sequence c(t). Without the receiver’s knowledge, the signal
is delayed by ∆Tc > 0, i.e., the receiver observes r(t − ∆Tc ) assuming it is r(t). How large can ∆
be such that the average bit error probability does not become larger than 10−2 ?
3–4 In a DS-CDMA system for the transmission of digitalized speech, it is rather easy to exploit the
fact that a speaker is silent during large periods of time. During these silent intervals, there
is no reason to transmit anything and the transmitter can simply shut down which reduces
the interference between the users. Assume that we have K users that have the same received
power and spreading factor 64 and that the bit error rate is 10−2 when all users are active and
transmit. Binary coherent PSK is used as modulation format and the AWGN channel has an
SNR of 2Eb /N0 = 10 dB. On average a user speaks only 40 % of the time and is silent during
the remaining 60 %. Assuming the same bit error probability in both cases, determine the factor
that describes the increase in system capacity, i.e., determine K40% active /K100% active , if the users
shut down their transmitters when the speaker is silent!
3–5 Consider the synchronous CDMA system with 3 users in Figure 3.3. BPSK modulation, an
AWGN channel and coding sequences according to Figure 3.2 are used. We want to detect user
1 who has an SNR of 2E1 /N0 = 5 dB. The received signal in the signaling interval [0, T ] can be
written
3 p
X
r(t) = Ek gk (t)bk + n(t)
k=1
where bk = ±1 are the data bits, Ek is the received bit energy, n(t) is white Gaussian noise with
spectral density N0 /2 and T is the time used for one bit.
(a) Determine k2 and k3 such that the bit error probability for user 1 is minimized in the two
cases E2 /E1 = E3 /E1 → ∞ and E2 /E1 = E3 /E1 → 0.
(b) What is the bit error probability in the two cases with k2 and k3 as mentioned above?
3–6 Consider a DS-CDMA system with K = 3 users. The signaling is binary with energy E per bit
(equal for all users), and is subject to AWGN with psd N0 /2. The bit-period is Tb , the chip-period
Tc and Tb = 8 · Tc . To describe the signature waveforms, so called Hadamard codes are employed.
These are defined such that the signature codes of the users (ck (1), . . . , ck (8)), k = 1, 2, 3, are
formed from the rows of the matrix
 
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
+1 −1 +1 −1 +1 −1 +1 −1
+1 +1 −1 −1 +1 +1 −1 −1
30
g1 (t)
1
√
2 T
T
t
1
− 2√ T
g2 (t)
1
√
2 T
T
t
1
− 2√ T
g3 (t)
1
√
2 T
T
t
1
− 2√ T
Figure 3.2: Code sequences in problem 3-5
R
T b̂1
g1 (t) k2
R
r(t) T b̂2
g2 (t) k3
R
T b̂3
g3 (t)
Figure 3.3: DMA receiver in problem 3-5.
The signature waveforms are then normalized to energy one. Assume that the SNR is E/N0 = 10
dB, and consider the following:
(a) What is the resulting bit-error probability if a conventional detector is used?
(b) Assume that one tries to improve the performance by using optimal (ML) multiuser detection
instead. What is the resulting bit-error probability? Conclusions?
(c) Assume that one wishes to lower the bandwidth, by increasing Tc to Tb /7. New codes are
formed by omitting the first column of the matrix. Which bit-error probabilities can now
be obtained through the use of:
i. Conventional detection.
ii. A decorrelating detector.
3–7 In a military communication system BPSK is employed in transmitting equally likely +1 and −1,
and DS spread spectrum is utilized to counteract active jamming. The employed bit-period is Tb
the chip-period is Tc = Tb /Lc (where Lc is an integer), and the bandwidth (equivalent baseband)
of the transmitted signal is W ≈ 1/Tc. The (real) received signal can be modeled as
r(t) = s(t) + i(t) + n(t), 0 ≤ t < Tb
where s(t) is the wanted signal, of power Ps = Eb /Tb , i(t) is a jamming signal of power Pi and
n(t) is AWGN with psd N0 /2. Assume Pi /Ps = 20 dB and Eb /N0 = 13 dB.
(a) Assume that conventional detection is employed and that i(t) can be modeled as wideband
Gaussian jamming of the same bandwidth as the transmitted signal. How large Lc must be
used if the bit-error probability must not exceed 10−4 ?
(b) Assume instead that it is known that i(t) is a DS-SS signal having the same Tb and Tc as
s(t) and that i(t) is synchronized in time with s(t). Assume, furthermore, that you get hold
of the code determining the spreading of i(t), and that it turns out that the signaling of i(t)
31
is based on equally probable “information bits” (in the same way as in determining s(t)).
Assume moreover that the normalized correlation between the code sequences of s(t) and
i(t) is ρ = 0.3. Describe how you would implement a method (not involving error control
coding) that, based on the additional information about the jamming, is able to achieve a
bit-error probability below 10−9 ! Describe the implementation of the method. What is the
bit error probability of the new method (more exactly)?
3–8 In an FH spread spectrum system, a combination of channel coding and fast frequency hopping
is used. The frequency is changed 3 times per bit, the modulation is BFSK (bit energy E) with
non-coherent demodulation and the detection of one bit is based on hard majority decision. The
signal transmission on the channel is impaired by AWGN with spectral density N0 /2 and the
SNR E/N0 per transmitted bit on the channel 13 dB. The channel code is a BCH code with
k = 21 information bits, codeword length n = 31 and minimum distance d = 5. Determine
the probability that an error pattern is detected which the code cannot correct in all cases (i.e.,
determine the probability that a block of length n contains more than t errors where t is the
number of bit errors that the code can always correct).
3–9 Consider a synchronous DS-CDMA system with K = 2 users. Both users apply coherent BPSK
with the same bit energy E at the receiver. The normalized correlation between the users’
signature waveforms is ρ = 0.3. Which bit error probability per user is obtained if the receiver
uses
(a) the decorrelating detector (based on the correct correlation matrix)?
(b) the decorrelating detector but based on an erroneous estimate of the inverse of the correlation
matrix. In more detail, assume that the matrix A = R−1 + B, where

0.1 0.03
B=
0.03 0.1
is used instead of the correct inverse R−1 of the correlation matrix.

The channel is an AWGN channel (N0 /2) and the SNR is E/N0 = 7 dB.
3–10 In a military application where an active jamming of the signal has to be suppressed, the usage
of direct sequence (DS) and frequency hopping (FH) spread spectrum is compared. In the DS
system, BPSK is used as modulation format and in the FH system slow hopping based of BFSK
is applied. The bit energy Eb is the same in both cases. Apart from active disturbance, the
signals experience white Gaussian noise with spectral density N0 /2. Compare both systems with
respect to bit error probability under the assumption that the processing gain is the same in both
systems for the following jamming signals:
(a) Broadband Gaussian disturbance.
(b) For the DS system: selective in time and active in a fraction α of the time; for the FH
system: selective in frequency and active in a fraction α of the total bandwidth. Assume in
both cases that α is chosen such that the error probability is maximized.
Numerical evaluation: Jamming power/signal power PJ /Pb = 30 dB, processing gain L = 2000,
Eb /N0 = 18 dB.
3–11 Consider a synchronous DS-CDMA system with K = 2 users. The two users apply coherent BPSK
and have the same bit energy E at the receiver. We assume E = 1.0 V 2 s for simplicity. The
normalized correlation between the users’ signature waveforms is ρ = 0.3. Signal transmission is
impaired by AWGN with spectral density N0 /2 and it holds that E/N0 = 1/N0 = 6.0 dB. Optimal
demodulation is used, i.e., the detection at the receiver is based on the samples r = (r1 , r2 )T from
filter matched to the waveforms of the two users, respectively.
We study now a transmitted sequence of length four bits per user where user one transmits bit
sequence (+1, +1, −1, −1) and user two the sequence (+1, −1, +1, −1). The received sequences
are
32

1.035 0.890 0.096 −0.761
r= , , , .
0.309 −0.594 0.312 −1.536
What sequence of decisions does a
(a) maximum likelihood (ML) detector

(b) decorrelating detector
produce? How many errors are made and where? Which method should be best (in theory)?
Does that correspond to the current sequence?
3–12 In a system for local radio connection of computers in an office area (also known as “wireless local
area network”, WLAN) fast frequency hopping is used in order to achieve frequency diversity.
The applied modulation format is BFSK with noncoherent demodulation and a frequency hop is
done N times per symbol (where N is odd). The decision in the receiver is based on majority
combining of hard decisions on chip level. The wave propagation in the current office space can be
modeled with very good accuracy as a channel with Rayleigh fading and AWGN. The data rate is
chosen such that the channel fading can be assumed to be frequency flat over the bandwidth that
is used per chip. However, the separation between possible carrier frequencies is so large that
signals transmitted at different carrier frequencies experience independent fading. The channel
can also be assumed to be slowly fading with respect to the chip rate.
How large do you have to chose N such that the bit error probability is (at least) reduced to
half the value obtained with a system using slow FH with N = 1 (over the same channel)? The
average SNR per symbol is γ0 =15 dB.
3–13 A DS-CDMA system based on binary antipodal signaling supports
√ K = 2 users. The two users’
signature waveforms are defined in Figure 3.4 (where A = 1/ Tb ).
g1 (t)
Tb
Tc
+A
−A
g2 (t)
+A
−A
Figure 3.4: Signature waveforms in problem 3–13
The transmitted baseband signals for the two users (k = 1, 2) are

X p
sk (t) = bk (n) Ek gk (t − nTb )
n
where bk (n) ∈ {±1} (equally likely and independent). The received signal can be modeled as
K
X
r(t) = sk (t − τk ) + n(t),
k=1
where n(t) is AWGN with spectral density N0 /2 (and where K = 2). The receiver has perfect
knowledge of the values of τ1 and τ2 . It holds that E1 = E2 = E and E/N0 = 7 dB.
33
(a) Consider the synchronous case τ1 = τ2 = 0 and determine the bit error probability for the
conventional detector and the decorrelating detector. Which of these two methods results
in best performance here?
(b) Assume instead that τ1 = 0 and that τ2 = α · Tc , where α = 0.10. Determine the bit error
probability for a conventional detector where the receiver makes a decision on the bit bk (m)
based on the variable
Z (m+1)Tb +τk
rk (m) = r(t) gk (t − mTb − τk )dt.
mTb +τk
Assume in both (a) and (b) that user one is the desired user!
3–14 In a DS-SS system, the spreading signals
L
X
c(t) = cn p t − (n − 1)Tc , 0 ≤ t < L · Tc
n=1
are used where p(t) is a rectangular pulse of length Tc and where L = 7. The code {cn } is given
as
(c1 , . . . , c7 ) = (−1, +1, +1, −1, −1, −1, +1).
The received DS-SS signal according to the information bits bm ∈ {±1}, m = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (equally
likely and independent) are
p
s(t) = bm · c(t − mTb ) · (2Eb /Tb ) cos(2πfc t), mTb ≤ t < (m + 1)Tb .
That is, the spreading code is repeated for every bit interval of length Tb . We assume that
Tb = Lp · Tc and that fc >> 1/Tb . The transmission is impaired by a sinus-shaped disturbance
i(t) = (2EJ /Tb ) cos(2πfc t + θJ ) and AWGN, n(t) with spectral density N0 /2. The received
signal is r(t) = s(t) + i(t) + n(t) and the receiver makes a decision b̂m for the bit bm based on the
sign of the variable r
Z (m+1)Tb
2
rm = r(t)c(t − mTb ) cos(2πfc t)dt.
mTb Tb
Determine the exact expression for the error probability Pb = Pr(b̂m 6= bm ) at the receiver (an
expression that cannot be based on the assumption that the contribution of the disturbance
to rm is Gaussian). Moreover, what is the numerical value for the largest and smallest value,
respectively, for Pb as a function θJ if Eb /N0 = 10 dB and EJ /Eb = 10 dB? How does the jammer
have to choose the phase θJ in order to maximize Pb ?
3–15 A DS-CDMA system based on binary antipodal signaling supports K = 2 users. The system
is synchronous and the correlation between the users’ signature waveforms is ρ = 0.4. The
transmission is impaired by AWGN with spectral density N0 /2. The energies of the users are the
same E1 = E2 and it holds that E/N0 = 9 dB. Determine the resulting bit error probability for
the different methods:
(a) Conventional detection.
(b) Multiuser detection with a decorrelating receiver.
(c) Multiuser detection with an MMSE detector.
3–16 A DS-CDMA system for mobile telephony over a radio channel supports K = 2 users. The applied
modulation format is BPSK, the carrier frequency is fc = 1 GHz and both users transmit 1000 bits
per second each. The channel can be characterized as Rayleigh fading with coherence bandwidth
Bm = 10 MHz and coherence time Td = 2 s. The transmission is perfectly synchronous, the
processing gain is L = 500 (equal for both users), and the correlation between the two users’
signature waveforms is 0 < ρ < 1. Assume that the two users are located at different distances
from the base station but the received average energy is the same (perfect power control). The
resulting average SNR (per user) is γ0 = 20 dB. The receiver is coherent (perfect phase information
34
with respect to the desired user can be assumed) and the decision is made based on conventional
detection.
How large ρ can be tolerated at most if a bit error probability below 0.01 must be guaranteed in
the uplink? ( “uplink” = transmission from mobile users to a fixed base station).
3–17 Consider a DS-SS system based on BPSK with energy Eb , carrier frequency fc , bit-time Tb , chip-
time Tc , and with L = Tb /Tc . The transmitted signal is subject to AWGN with spectral density
N0 /2 as well as an interfering signal i(t) of power PJ . What is the resulting bit-error probability
in the cases where i(t) is a
(a) a sinusoid at the carrier frequency fc .
(b) a sinusoid at the carrier frequency fc , that is active a fraction α = 0.1 of the time.
(c) a wideband Gaussian interference with bandwidth B ≈ 2/Tc (centered around the carrier
frequency fc ).
(d) a wideband Gaussian interference with bandwidth B ≈ 2/Tc (centered around the carrier
frequency fc ), that is active a fraction α∗ of the time, where α∗ is chosen to optimize the
influence of the interference.
(e) a number of N other users, all with the same Eb , Tb and L, in a DS-CDMA system.
Assume in all cases that Eb /N0 = 23 dB and that L = 1000. Assume in (a)–(d) that PJ /Pb =
30 dB (where Pb = Eb /Tb ), and in (e) that N = 200.
3–18 A synchronous DS-CDMA system based on binary signaling supports K = 2 users. The correla-
tion between the two normalized user signature waveforms is ρ. The transmission is subject to
AWGN with spectral density N0 /2. The two user energies are equal, E1 = E2 = E and it holds
that E/N0 = 7 dB and that ρ = 0.2.
(a) What bit-error probability is obtained with conventional detection?
(b) What bit-error probability is obtained with a decorrelating detector?
(c) Consider the use of a decorrelating detector in the case where the receiver uses an erroneous
estimate, say ρ′ (where 0 < ρ′ < 1), of the correct correlation ρ. Derive an expression for
the resulting bit-error probability. In which case is the error the largest: when ρ is under
estimated with 30% (i.e, ρ′ = 0.7ρ) or when over estimated with 30% (i.e, ρ′ = 1.3ρ)?
Conclusions?
Assume in all problems that user one is the wanted user.
3–19 Consider a DS spread spectrum system based on coherent BPSK with bit energy Eb at carrier
frequency fc . Equally likely and independent information bits are transmitted with bit rate 1/Tb
and the spreading sequence has chip rate L/Tb .
Apart from AWGN with spectral density N0 /2, the transmitted signal is impaired by an active
jammer
i(t) = x(t) cos(2πfc t + φ),
where x(t) is a Gaussian lowpass signal with average zero and spectral density
2aPx
Sx (f ) = ,
a2 + (2πf )2
where a ≪ fc , and φ are uniformly distributed over [0, 2π).
Derive an expression for the resulting bit error probability after coherent demodulation and
despreading.
3–20 In a DS-CDMA system with two users, binary antipodal signaling is used as modulation format.
Both users have energies Ei , i = 1, 2, where we assume that it is known that E1 ≤ E2 . Moreover,
the normalized signature waveforms gi (t), i = 1, 2 with correlation ρ between g1 (t) and g2 (t) are
known. The system is synchronous and the received signal r(t) can be written as
p p
r(t) = b1 E1 g1 (t) + b2 E2 g2 (t) + n(t), 0 ≤ t < T
35
r(t) R r2 b̂2
sgn(·)
√
g2 (t) − E2
R r1 b̂1
sgn(·)
g1 (t)
Figure 3.5: Receiver in Problem 3–20
where n(t) is AWGN (N0 /2), T is the length of the bit interval and bi ∈ {±1}, i = 1, 2, are both
users’ (independent and equally likely) information bits. The signal r(t) is fed into a receiver
according to Figure 3.5.
R
In Figure 3.5, the symbol “ ” is used to identify integration over a bit interval (we can without
loss of generality consider the interval 0 ≤ t < T ), and sgn(x) = +1 id x > 0 and −1 if x ≤ 0.
(For simplicity, some obvious and necessary delays have not been shown in the figure).
Describe briefly how the receiver works (with reference to the figure) and derive an expression
(1) (2)
for the two bit error probabilities Pe = Pr(b̂1 6= b1 ) and Pe = Pr(b̂2 6= b2 ). Determine the
numerical value under the assumption that
E1 /N0 = 10 dB, ρ = 0.3 and E2 = 2 · E1 .
3–21 In a military application, a desired signal must be protected against intentional jamming. The
data bits arrive with a fixed rate of 1000 bits per second, and these bits have to be transmitted
based on coherent BPSK at a carrier frequency fc = 1.0 GHz. The jamming signal can be modeled
as broadband Gaussian signal with bandwidth B = 1.0 MHz and with spectrum centered around
the desired signals carrier frequency fc . The accessible hardware implies that the radiated power
at the transmitter is 19 dB lower than the jamming power. Apart from the intentional jamming,
thermal noise (AWGN) is present but its impact can be neglected with respect to the active
jamming. Since the transmitted signal power must be limited, the following two methods are
considered to mitigate the impact of the jamming signal:
(a) The data bits are coded with a BCH code with parameters n = 1023, k = 36, t = 223
(where n is the codeword length, k the number of information bits per codeword and t is
the number of bit errors the code can always correct).
(b) The information bits are transmitted based on direct-sequence spread spectrum signaling.
Compare the two systems with respect to bit error probability for the received information bits
and determine which system should be chosen. The comparison between the two methods has to
be “fair” (by allowing both systems the same transmission power and using the same bandwidth
of the channel).
3–22 In a DS-CDMA system with K = 3 users, binary antipodal signaling over a channel with AWGN
of spectral density N0 /2 is applied. The system is synchronous and it can be assumed that all
users have the same energy E and that E/N0 = 7 dB. The users i, i = 1, 2, 3 have normalized
signature waveforms gi (t) with correlation ρi,j between gi (t) and gj (t) where it holds that
ρ1,2 = ρ2,1 = 0.4, ρ1,3 = ρ3,1 = 0, ρ2,3 = ρ3,2 = 0.85
Assuming the values of ρi,j above, which method (the conventional receiver or the decorrelating
receiver) results in the best performance for the desired user
(a) assuming that user one is the desired user?
36
(b) assuming that user two is the desired user?
3–23 A slowly fading channel with frequency selective fading has the impulse response
h(τ ; t) = h(τ ) = a1 δ(τ ) + a2 δ(τ − τ0 )
where a1 and a2 are independent and Gaussian with means E[a1 ] = E[a2 ] = α σ, where α > 0,
and variances Var[a1 ] = Var[a2 ] = σ 2 . Besides fading the channel introduces AWGN of spectral
density N0 /2. In order to utilize the potential diversity gain offered by the frequency selective
fading, DS-SS with a RAKE receiver is implemented. An equivalent lowpass model for the
transmitted signal is then given by
r
Eb X
s(t) = bn g(t − nTb )c(t − nTb )
Tb n
where bn ∈ {±1} are independent and equally probable information bits, Eb is the transmitted
energy per bit, Tb is the bit-interval, g(t) is a rectangular pulse of duration Tb and with amplitude
one, and c(t) is one period of the code sequence according to
LX
c −1
c(t) = cm p(t − mTc ), 0 ≤ t < Tb

m=0
where p(t) is a rectangular pulse of duration Tc = Tb /Lc (and amplitude one), and where the
cm ∈ {±1} are given by the spreading code. The signal s(t) is transmitted over the channel and
the received signal is denoted r(t). A coherent RAKE receiver with equal gain combining forms
r Z (n+1)Tb r Z (n+1)Tb +τ0
1 1
rn(1) = r(t)c(t − nTb )dt, rn(2) = r(t)c(t − nTb − τ0 )dt
Tb nTb Tb nTb +τ0
(1) (2)
and then decides on the bit bn based on the sign of the sum rn = rn + rn .
Which is the resulting bit error probability, given that: α = 2, σ 2 Eb /N0 = 15 dB, τ0 = Tc , and
given the spreading code (c0 , . . . , c4 ) = (−1, +1, +1, −1, −1) of length Lc = 5.
3–24 A synchronous DS-CDMA system based on binary antipodal signaling of independent and equally
probable bits supports K = 2 users.
The signature waveforms of the users are normalized and the correlation between them is ρ. The
two users have equal energies, E1 = E2 = E, and are subject to AWGN with spectral density
N0 /2.
Optimal demodulation is based on correlating the received waveform with the signature waveforms
of the users, resulting in the discrete variables r1 and r2 . With r = [r1 , r2 ]T we have the familiar
model r = REb + n, where
√
1 ρ E √0
R= , E= ,
ρ 1 0 E
and where b contains the user bits and n the additive noise.
Optimal ML-decisions for the bits are given as

b̂ML = arg min (r − REb)T R−1 (r − REb) .
b
In the general case, this detector is hard to implement. Consider therefore an approximation that
is somewhat simpler to implement and that is based on the assumption R−1 ≈ I where I is a
unity matrix. The approximation is

b̂ML ≈ arg min (r − REb)T (r − REb) .
b
Rank the three different techniques: (a) conventional receiver, (b) decorrelating receiver, and (c)
the approximation to the optimal ML-detector described above, with respect to bit error rate
performance and given that E/N0 = 10 dB and ρ = 0.5.
37
likely bits supports K = 2 users. The two users’ signature waveforms gk (t), k = 1, 2, are
normalized and correlation between them is ρ = 0.3. The transmitted energy per user and bit is
E (the same for both users).
The data bits are transmitted over a radio channel with frequency flat and slow Rayleigh fading
and AWGN. It can be assumed that the users’ signals experience independent fading. The received
signal can then be modelled as
√ √
r(t) = a1 b1 Eg1 (t) + a2 b2 Eg2 (t) + w(t), 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb ,
where bk ∈ {±1}, k = 1, 2, are the users’ bits in the interval [0, Tb ], a1 and a2 are independent
and Rayleigh distributed with E[a21 ] = E[a22 ] = 2σ 2 and w(t) is AWGN with spectral density
N0 /2. A coherent receiver forms the variables
Z Tb Z Tb
r1 = r(t)g1 (t)dt, r2 = r(t)g2 (t)dt.
0 0
Assume that user one is the desired user and that 2σ 2 E/N0 = 15 dB. Derive the average bit
error probability for a
(a) conventional detector that takes decisions based on the sign of r1 ,
(b) decorrelerating detector that forms
−1
y1 1 ρ r1
=
y2 ρ 1 r2
and then takes a decision for user one based on the sign of the variable y1 .
Hint : The following integral can be used without further explanation.
Z ∞ Z ∞
√ √ !
x 1 2 2 y 1 2 2 1 a 1 + a2 + b 1 + b 2
Q (αx + βy) 2 e− 2 x /σ 2 e− 2 y /σ dxdy = 1− ,
0 0 σ σ 2 1 + a2 + b 2
where a = α σ and b = βσ.

likely bits supports K = 2 users. The two users’ signature waveforms are normalized and the
correlation between them is ρ, where 0 < ρ < 1. The users’ energies are the same E1 = E2 = E
and the signal transmission is impaired by AWGN with spectral density N0 /2.
Optimal demodulation is based on a correlation of the received time-continuous signal with the
two users’ signature waveforms which results in the time-discrete decision variables r1 and r2 .
With r = [r1 , r2 ]T we obtain the known model
r = REb + n,
where √
1 ρ E √0 ,
R= , E=
ρ 1 0 E
and where b = [b1 , b2 ]T contains the two users’ bits and n = [n1 , n2 ]T the contribution of the
additive noise.
The optimal ML-decision on the users’ bits results from

b̂ML = arg min (r − REb)T R−1 (r − REb) .
b
That is, for known R and E and a measured value of r: ”choose the vector b with components
±1 that minimizes the number (r − REb)T R−1 (r − REb)”. In this problem, we study the
ML-detector in more detail.
38
(a) Consider all possible values of the variable r1 and r2 in the (r1 , r2 )-plane. Draw the four
possible “signal points” that are obtained in the absence of noise for the four different values
of b together with the decision boundaries between them according to the ML-detection
rule.
(b) Derive a “reasonable” (i.e., tight) upper bound for the error probability Pr(b̂ML 6= b) as a
function of ρ and E/N0 .
3–27 Consider a broadband system for wireless communication between two users. The channel is
modeled as Rayleigh fading with coherence bandwidth Bm = 20 kHz and Doppler spread Bd = 1
Hz. The average SNR is γ0 = 15 dB. Assume that coherent BPSK is used for the communication
between the two users. In order to obtain broadband transmission, direct-sequence spreading is
used with bit rate 1/Tb = 500 bps and with chip rate 1/Tc = Lc /Tb where Lc is a positive integer
(processing gain).
In the transmission, an average bit error probability below 10−9 is required and channel coding
cannot be used. In order to mitigate the fading, the high bandwidth of the transmitted signal is
exploited. Describe how you can achieve the desired bit error rate using a method described in
the course and by choosing an appropriate value for Lc . Choose Lc as small as possible in order
not to waste bandwidth. Describe the method in detail and check that all assumptions which are
necessary for its application are satisfied.
39

Collection of Problems: EQ2410 Advanced Digital Communications

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EQ2410 Advanced Digital Communications

Sha Yao, Ragnar Thobaben, and Mikael Skoglund, January 2009

Bandlimited Channels and ISI

Figure 1.1: A PAM communication system.

Figure 1.2: Signal waveforms.

Figure 1.3: Receiver.

m(t) is matched to g1 (t), and is for simplicity modeled as non-causal,

Figure 1.4: Binary PAM system.

m(t) p1 (t) q p2 (t) q

Figure 1.5: The pulseforms in Problem 1–5.

Figure 1.6: The signal constellation considered in Problem 1–6.

Figure 1.7: Model of a digital communication system

1–8 Sol. Consider the following three signal waveforms

Figure 1.8: Discrete model of a PAM communication system.

in terms of the parameters N0 , ε (in (b)) and

(a) Show that it is possible to remove ISI completely using equalization.

Determine the filter coefficients in order to obtain

zm = xm + ε xm−3 + noise term

is used, and determine the filter coefficients in order to obtain

zm = ε xm + xm−3 + noise term

Determine also the value of the constant ε (|ε| < 1).

Figure 1.9: Binary PAM system.

The channel, H(z), introduces intersymbol interference (ISI), and is modeled as

To improve performance a linear equalizer is employed. Its transfer function is given as

an Upre (z) C(z) UZF (z) Decision ân

Figure 1.10: Binary PAM system.

(a) Compute the zero-forcing equalizer UZF (z).

b̂1 = sign (y1 ), b̂2 = sign (y2 )

b̂1 = sign (r1 ), b̂2 = sign (r2 )

1–16 Consider the real-valued discrete-time input signal to an equalizer

y(n) = 0.7x(n) + 0.2x(n − 1) + w(n)

Figure 1.11: BPSK Transmitter and Channel

Figure 1.12: Feedback Equalizer

Figure 1.13: Viterbi MLSE

s(k) h(l) + r(k)

Figure 1.14: Time-discrete system model.

Figure 1.15: A communication system subject to ISI.

1–21 Consider the real-valued discrete-time input signal to an equalizer

y(n) = 0.8x(n) + 0.6x(n − 1) + w(n)

Digital Communications over Radio

(a) What is the average bit error probability?

Figure 2.1: Density function of the fading process.

Which distributions lead to the best and the worst performance?

Figure 2.2: Intensity profile and Doppler spectrum in problem 2–12

Table 2.1: Parameters of some codes used in problem 2–17

Figure 2.3: Signal points in problem 2–18

but in that case, the variables α, β, γ, n and δ must be specified.

2–23 Compute in closed-form the capacity of a real-valued i.i.d. fading channel if

(a) Write explicitly the outage probability

(b) Compute the zero-outage capacity (channel inversion).

(a) Determine the maximum delay spread of the channel.

K = E[(dˆ − d)(dˆ − d)H ]

(b) Show that

I = log det(1 + ρHQH H )

and the sum MSE

Spread Spectrum and CDMA

Figure 3.2: Code sequences in problem 3-5

r(t) = s(t) + i(t) + n(t), 0 ≤ t < Tb

is used instead of the correct inverse R−1 of the correlation matrix.

What sequence of decisions does a

(a) maximum likelihood (ML) detector

Figure 3.4: Signature waveforms in problem 3–13

The transmitted baseband signals for the two users (k = 1, 2) are