Peruvian Stylistic Influences in Ecuador

Author(s): Donald Collier

Source: Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology, No. 4, A Reappraisal of
Peruvian Archaeology (1948), pp. 80-86
Published by: Cambridge University Press
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/25130232
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 PERUVIAN STYLISTIC INFLUENCES IN ECUADOR
Donald Collier

analyzed to show whether its local manifesta

SEVERAL attempts
past to recognize have been
in prehistoric made
Ecuador the in the tions have more in common than three-color
influence of various Peruvian horizon styles.1 negative painting, and until its spacial and
These Peruvian influences, if real, are of con temporal distributions are better known. These
siderable chronological and historical impor qualifications apply with even greater force to
tance. It is my purpose to examine and assess Jijon y Caamaiio's conviction that Proto
them by considering three groups of Ecuador Panzaleo I and II constitute a horizon style or
ean materials, namely, ceramics, gold, and two related horizon styles.4
gilded copper from Azuay, and carved stone The following three regional sequences are
from Manabi. pertinent to the discussion in this paper. On the
basis of extensive excavation but little strati
ECUADOREAN CHRONOLOGY
graphic evidence, Jijon y Caamano has
In order to interpret fully the meaning ofpostulated seven cultural periods for the
Tungurahua-Chimborazo region as follows:
Peruvian resemblances in Ecuador, it is neces
Proto-Panzaleo I, Proto-Panzaleo II, Tunca
sary to know the relative chronological position
of the Ecuadorean materials showing these huan, Guano, Elen Pata, Havalac, and Inca.5
resemblances. Unfortunately, despite the Thead last three pre-Inca periods are considered
vantage of a widely distributed Inca horizonphases of Puruha culture. Two-color negative
painting occurs in Proto-Panzaleo II, Tunca
style in Ecuador, which serves to identify the
terminal phases of regional archaeologicalhuan, Guano, and Elen Pata, whereas three
color negative appears only in Tuncahuan.
sequences, there is no satisfactory chronological
system for the country as a whole, nor for anyA comparison of excavated materials from
one of its regions. This lack has probably Manta
re with materials in the Chimborazo se
quence led Jijon y Caamano to postulate the
sulted in part from the intense regionalism of
Ecuadorean cultures, a condition which makesfollowing sequence for Manabi: Proto-Panzaleo
the establishment of regional cross-ties difficult,I, Proto-Panzaleo II, Tuncahuan, Estilo de
but it is specifically due to paucity of stratilos Sellos, Mantefio, and Inca.6 According to his
analysis, two-color negative painting occurs
graphic excavation and to the failure to identify
additional Ecuadorean horizon styles that here only in Proto-Panzaleo II and Tuncahuan,
would serve as time markers. Bennett2 has sugand three-color negative only in Tuncahuan.
Jijon y Caamano does not express an opinion as
gested that the Tuncahuan style, characterized
by three-color negative painting, may con to where in his sequence the Manabi style of
stitute a horizon style. Jijon y Caamafio3 hasstone carving falls. It should be noted that
long considered Tuncahuan to be the equivaneither for Manabi nor Chimborazo is there
lent of a horizon style and has used it as stratigraphic
a proof for the middle chronological
chronological marker. However, Tuncahuan position of Tuncahuan, but it seems to fit best
there.
cannot be accepted as a true horizon style until
its component styles and sub-styles have been In Canar, Murra and I established a three
period stratigraphic sequence, as follows: Early
Cerro
xFor example, Uhle (1920, p. 52, note; 19226, p. 112; Narrio, Late Cerro Narrio, and Inca.7
There was no stylistic and apparently no
1931, p. 39), Jij6n y Caamano (1927, pp. 51ff., 134; 1930,
pp. 129,166), and Means (1931, pp. 162-7) have postulated
strong Tiahuanaco influence or a Tiahuanaco horizon in4 Jij6n y Caamaiio, 1927, 1930 (cf. pp. 141-2 for state
Ecuador. Tello (1943, pp. 154, 158) has identified the ment on distribution).
Chavm style in certain ceramics of southern Ecuador. For 5 Jijon y Caamano, 1927. Summarized by Collier, 1946,
the most recent discussion of Peruvian horizon styles see pp. 771-7; and Bennett, 19466, pp. 76-7.
Willey, 1945. 6 Jij6n y Caamano, 1930, pp. 132-40. Summarized in
2 Bennett, 19466, p. 78. Collier, 1946, pp. 780-1. The full supporting evidence for
3 Jijon y Caamano, 1927, 1930 (cf. p. 142 for statement this sequence has never been published.
on Ecuadorean distribution of Tuncahuan). 7 Collier and Murra, 1943.
80

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collier] A REAPPRAISAL OF PERUVIAN ARCHAEOLOGY 81

temporal break between Early and Late Cerro found in Caiiar. These appear to fall in the Late
Narrio. The thickness of the deposit at Cerro Cerro Narrio period,11 and seem to have been
Narrio and the amount of cultural change trade pieces. There is no evidence of Chimu
which took place there led us to guess that the influence on the local ceramics.
beginning of Early Cerro Narrio was not earlier Uhle believed there was strong Tiahuanaco
than 1000 a.d. Two-color negative painting influence in southern Ecuador, and specifically
appeared to a limited extent on Early Cerro at Cerro Narrio;12 and was so convinced of its
Narrio pottery and not at all in the Late period. pervasiveness in Ecuador that he postulated a
In the second half of Late Cerro Narrio there pre-Tiahuanaco chronological position for the
appeared trade sherds of Tuncahuan and cultures of Carchi because they lacked traces
Puruha (Guano and Elen Pata) style, as well of Tiahuanaco influence. Jijon y Caamano is
as Puruha influences on local ceramic forms. equally convinced of the reality of this influence
The evidence was convincing that the Tunca Specifically, he sees strong Tiahuanaco influence
huan and Puruha contacts were contemporane in Guano and Elen Pata ceramics.121 am unable
ous. This situation raises the following two to see a relationship between any known
questions, neither of which can be answered at Ecuadorean pottery, including that of Guano
present: (1) is the middle position for Tunca and Elen Pata, and Classic Tiahuanaco or any
huan too early, and/or (2) does Tuncahuan form of Coast Tiahuanaco. This conclusion
contain several styles or sub-styles which were applies to vessel forms and to design techniques
not contemporaneous? and motifs.
The Cafiar chronology has been extended McCown has suggested that there is a signifi
southward into Azuay by Bennett, who isolated cant similarity between the polished red ware
the Huancarcuchu and Monjashuaico sub of Middle Huamachuco and the polished red
styles of ceramics, both of which are closely ware (Caiiar Polished) from Early Cerro
related to Early Cerro Narrio.8 He has sug Narrio.13 The two complexes also share red-on
gested convincingly that Monjashuaico is buff pottery. McCown has seen Early Cerro
slightly earlier than Early Cerro Narrio and Narrio sherds; I have not seen any Middle
that Huancarcuchu falls toward the end of Huamachuco pottery. If this connection is
Early Cerro Narrio. Judging from Bennett's real, it confirms the Middle Period position
material, the collections in Cuenca, and the (in terms of Peruvian chronology) of Early
ceramics from Azuay illustrated by Verneau Cerro Narrio.
and Rivet,9 Late period pottery in Azuay was The problem of relating the Tuncahuan
stylistically divergent from that of Late Cerro ceramic style and Ecuadorean negative paint
Narrio in Cafiar. Two-color negative painting ing in general to specific Peruvian styles is very
occurs in Monjashuaico and Huancarcuchu, difficult because the pertinent chronological
and possibly in the Late period in Azuay. relationships within Ecuador are so obscure,
because of the small amount of Ecuadorean
CERAMICS material available for comparison, and because
the Tuncahuan style needs to be analyzed and
Considering Peruvian influences and con
broken into its component parts. There is
nections in reverse chronological order, Inca
doubt as to the contemporaneity of the sub
influence is clearest and most widespread in
styles included in Tuncahuan, and regional
Ecuador. Inca-style ceramics are most common
variations are great. For example, the Tunca
in southern Ecuador, but have been found also
huan styles of Carchi and Chimborazo share
in the Puruha area, Pichincha, Manabi, and on
three-color negative painting, but vessel forms
La Plata Island. Inca influence on local ceramics
and specific designs are different. As in Peru,
has been noted in Cafiar, Chimborazo, and pos
two-color negative painting has a wider dis
sibly in Imbabura.10
tribution and probably a longer time span in
Several vessels of Chimu type have been
Ecuador than three-color negative. The latter
occurs only in Tuncahuan, whereas the former
8 Bennett, 1946b.
is found in Proto-Panzaleo II (Chimborazo and
9 Verneau and Rivet, 1912-22, Vol. 2.
Manabi),
10 For references on the Inca horizon in southern Ecuador Tuncahuan, Puruha (Guano and
see Collier and Murra, 1943, pp. 26, 67, 77-8; see also11 Collier and Murra, 1943, p. 66.
Jijon y Caamano, 1927, 1930; Verneau and Rivet, 1912-22; 12 See Note 1 for the pertinent references.
Dorsey, 1901. 13 McCown, 1945, p. 342, Note 74.

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 82 SOCIETY FOR AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY [memoirs, 4

Elen Pata), Early Cerro Narrio, Huancarcuchu, styles before it will be possible to determine
and Monjashuaico. (1) the chronological connections involved, (2)
Jijon y Caamano has pointed out similarities the direction of spread of the negative painting
between Tuncahuan and Recuay,14 and there technique, and (3) the extent to which simi
are Tuncahuan resemblances to Pachacamac larities are due to actual stylistic influences
Negative also.15 The strongest suggestion of rather than to the spread of the negative paint
kinship between the Tuncahuan and Recuay ing technique itself.
styles arises from their exclusive sharing of The finding in the province of Guayas of a
three-color negative painting and their use of pottery dipper in pure Recuay style21 certainly
design panels filled in with negative geometric suggests Ecuadorean trade contacts with Peru
figures or dots. But vessel forms in the two in Recuay times. Unfortunately, this specimen
styles are different, and such typical Recuay is without archaeological context. The same
elements as figure modeling, the feline figure difficulty applies to a black figure jar with spout
with head appendage, and the square scroll and flat bridge from near Guayaquil,22 in form
and step (fret step) design are absent in suggestive of the "Peruvian" style of Quim
Tuncahuan.16 Furthermore, the possibility baya,23 a red figure jar with spout and flat
should not be overlooked that some of the gen bridge from Manabi,24 and a red jar with double
eral similarities between the two styles may spout and bridge from Manabi.25 Double spout
have resulted from limiting factors inherent in jars with bridge have also been found at La
the negative painting technique.17 Tolita in Esmeraldas.26 These occurrences,
In contrast to Jijon y Caamano's suggestion although suggesting Peruvian influence, cannot
of Tiahuanaco influence in the Guano two be related to any specific Peruvian style.
color negative style,18 Kroeber sees Recuay The mold-made pottery figurines of Es
similarities here.19 The Guano material for meraldas27 suggest a further connection with
comparison consists of three very similar ves Peru.28 Although mold-made vessels are as old
sels. The designs consist of panels containing as Cupisnique in Peru, figurine molds appar
double (reverse S) scrolls, bordered above and ently were not used until the Mochica period.
below by rows of similar double scrolls. An oc It may be significant that the figurine mold, the
casional panel contains a simple feline figure double spout and bridge jar, and three-color
with re-curved tail. This double scroll is not negative painting, all traits suggesting Peruvian
typical of Recuay, and the Guano step design connections, are found together at La Tolita.
differs from the Recuay step design. The feline Assuming that these three traits are the result of
figure is more suggestive of the figures on the Peruvian influences and that these influences
Callejon de Huaylas and Aija stone lintels, reached Ecuador at about the same time, the
which may affiliate with Recuay or with the time period involved is narrowed to Late
later Tiahuanaco-influenced period,20 than of Mochica-early Middle period times. However,
the feline figures on Recuay ceramics. if it is assumed that three-color negative is
These conclusions do not shake my conviction earlier in Ecuador than the figurine mold and the
that there is some sort of relationship between double spout, then the latter traits could have
the negative painting traditions of Ecuador and been introduced also at any time in the Middle
Peru in general, and between the three-color or Late periods, since three-color negative
negative of the two areas in particular. But it lasted well into the Late period at Cerro Narrio
is clear that we need much additional strictly and may well have done so on the Ecuadorean
archaeological data from Ecuador and a more coast. The problem is insoluble at present, but
searching analysis of Ecuadorean negative would be elucidated by a stratigraphic excava
tion at La Tolita.
14 Jijon y Caamano, 1927, Vol. 2, pp. 36-7; 1930, p. 171. Finally, we come to the question of Chavin
15 Collier, 1946, p. 783, Note 9; Collier and Murra, 1943,
Pis. 38-9; Strong and Corbett, 1943, Fig. 18 and PL 6. 21 Saville, 1907-10, Vol. 2, pp. 238-9, PL CXIV.
16 Seler, 1893, Pis. 42-7; Schmidt, 1929, pp. 231-42; 22 Saville, 1907-10, Vol. 2, p. 238, PL CXIV.
Bennett, 1944a, Fig. 32. 23 Bennett, 19Ub, Fig. 13.
17 Willey, 1945, p. 55. 24 Saville, 1907-10, Vol. 2, p. 223, PL C.
18Jij6n y Caamano, 1927, Vol. 1, pp. 51ff., 134, PI. 25 Saville, 1907-10, Vol. 2, p. 224, PL CI.
XL VII. 26 Ferdon, 1945, p. 243.
19 Kroeber, 1944, p. 108, Note 1. 27 Ibid.
20 Bennett, 1944a, p. 105. 2* Willey, 19476.

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collier] A REAPPRAISAL OF PERUVIAN ARCHAEOLOGY 83

influence in Ecuadorean pottery. A black stir Huancarcuchu) periods, which he called Tia
rup-spout vessel of Coast Chavin type has beenhuanaco and Tacalzhapa.36 This is consistent
found in Azuay, but its exact provenience withis the situation at Cerro Narrio, where gold
and gilded copper ornaments, stylistically re
unknown and it is unique.29 Tello has identified
the Chavin style in pottery from Manta, lated to those from Azuay, seem to have been
Alausi, Cerro Narrio, and Azuay.30 He is not confined largely to the Late period.37
specific, but apparently he is referring in the I list below the principal forms and traits
case of Manta to a vessel with incised design found in Azuay metal ornaments that have
illustrated by Uhle,31 which is in Jijon yparallels in Peru. The comparison is based on
Caamario's Estilo de los Sellos; and in the case
the materials illustrated by Verneau and Rivet
of Alausi and Cerro Narrio to the incised types
and Saville.38 1 have not attempted an exhaus
(Red Engraved, Black Engraved, Glossytive search of Peruvian materials; the items
Red Engraved) found at Alausi and which were referred to may be found in the illustrationsiof
intrusive in the early part of Late Cerro NarBaessler, Lehmann and Doering, Schmidt,
rio.32 I cannot see the Chavin resemblance andin Keleman.39
either of these styles. The Azuay material,331. Flat, crescent-shaped nose or ear ornaments, often
consisting of incised designs on red-on-buff,with open-work decoration: coastal Peru, Early to Late
polished red, and polished black wares, is part
Periods; also Colombia.
of Uhle's Mayoid horizon. Most of the examples 2. Plaques, collars, and crowns with danglers (usually
illustrated by Uhle are duplicated in Bennett's
discs): coastal Peru, Early to Late periods.
collection from Huancarcuchu and/or Mon 3. Metal plumes on crowns: coastal Peru, especially
north coast, Early to Late periods.
jashuaico,34 and do not look to me particularly
4. Tweezers: coastal Peru, Early/,:to?-Late pefiods; also
Chavinoid. A few pieces of the polished blackColombia. ^^,
ware have incised curvilinear designs not du
5. Globular beads soldered on circumference of plates
plicated in Bennett's collection, and are faintly
and ornaments: Mochica; common device, on Chimu ear
suggestive of Chavin.35 Whether these are plugs and crowns.
earlier than the Monjashuaico substyle is im6. Small animals and birds mounted on the heads of
possible to say. Altogether, the evidence for
long, straight pins: coastal Peru, particularly characteristic
Chavin influence is very slight, and Ecuador
of the Late period; also Colombia.
lacks any indubitably early pottery that is7. Double spiral constructed of thick wire: coastal Peru
stylistically comparable to Chavin. Middle and Late periods; also Quimbaya in Colombia.

AZUAY GOLD AND GILDED COPPER These traits seem to have a general distribu
tion on the coast of Peru from north to south as
Of the large quantity of gold and gilded cop
far as lea and occur in the Early to Late
per ornaments taken from tombs in the vicinity
periods, although some probably did not ap
of Azogues, Chordeleg, and Sigsig during the
pear until the Middle period. To what extent
past century, only a small part has been pre
they occur in the Peruvian Sierra is difficult to
served in private and museum collections.
say because so little highland material is avail
Almost nothing is known of the association of
able. It is notable that few, if any, of these
this material with ceramic styles and other
traits are characteristic of the Chavin period.
cultural features, and its chronological position
Finally, there are the four famous embossed
is therefore uncertain. Uhle, who visited most
of the tomb sites and conversed with the lead gold plaques from Azuay.40 The two with
tusked, feline (?) faces certainly have a Peru
ing huaqueros, was convinced that most of the
vian cast but do not belong to any specific
ornaments were from his post-Mayoid (post
Peruvian style.' I do not see their close re
29 Collier and Murra, 1943, p. 28, PI. 10. Rafael Larco
Hoyle has expressed the opinion in conversation that it is 36 Uhle, 19226, p. 112.
not specifically Cupisnique in style. 37 Uhle, 19226, p. 113; Collier and Murra, 1943, pp. 81-2.
30 Tello, 1943, pp. 158-9. 38Verneau and Rivet, 1912-22, Vol. 2, Pis. 22-5;
31 Uhle, 1931, PI. 7. Saville, 1924.
32 Uhle, 1931, pp. 31-2, Pis. 1, 3-5; Collier and Murra, 39 Baessler, 1902-03, Vol. 1, Pis. 26-7, 145, 150, 157,
1943, pp. 23-5, 58-62, $4, Pis. 5-7, 31-4. 163; Lehman and Doering, 1924, Figs. 2, 12, Pis. 103-8;
33 Uhle, 1922a, Pis. 18-24. Schmidt, 1929, pp. 368-408; Keleman, 1943, Pis. 195-208.
34 Bennett, 19466, Figs. 7, 9, 11, 13. 40 Saville, 1924, PL 5 (also illustrated by Verneau and
35 Uhle, 1922a Pis. 24, 25; Bennett, 19466, p. 57. Rivet, 1912-22, Vol. 2, Pis. 23-4).

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 84 SOCIETY FOR AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY [memoirs, 4

semblance to the Echenique plaque, suggested highland stone sculpture. One feline head,46
by Saville and Means.41 The other two plaques which may have been tenoned, is square in sec
are divided into quadrants, and in each quad tion, has the eyes and nose carved on the top,
rant is an embossed cat figure. The figures on and square teeth and overlapping canines on
one plaque are quite similar to the feline figures the front. It is strikingly like a tenoned cat
on stone lintels from the Callejon de Huaylas head of stone from Aija.47 A stone puma-urn
and Aija, whereas those on the other plaque from Manabi48 is also suggestive of highland
have a Chimu look about them. Peruvian stone carving.
It is significant to note that the three em There are two heads49 (anthropomorphized
bossed gold plaques (breast ornaments) from feline?), one on a stone seat and one unattached,
La Tolita42 have Colombian and Panamanean that are carved in the round but have features
stylistic connections. The metal ornaments delineated by means of deep, rounded incising.
from Esmeraldas,43 although sharing certain They are suggestive of but not specifically like
traits with Azuay gold, affiliate with Colombia the tenoned heads at Chavin de Huantar.50
rather than with Azuay and Peru. The free-standing figures carved in the round
In sum, it may be said that Azuay metal are of two types. The stone columns only
work has a significant number of specific traits slightly modified to depict the figure are like
which connect it with Peru, but not with any the statues of the north Peruvian highland in
specific region or period. In general, the con general feeling but not in specific elements.
nections are post-Chavin in time. Azuay shares The infrequent more completely and carefully
with Esmeraldas the same traits shared with modeled figures do not look Peruvian.
Colombia. Azuay metallurgy seems to stand in One class of stone slab has a human figure
an intermediate position between Peru on the carved in relief bordered by a band of geometric,
one hand and Esmeraldas and Colombia on the textile-like designs, incised or in relief. Neither
other. the figures nor the border designs are partic
MANABI STONE CARVING ularly Peruvian in character. Another class of
slab has carved in relief a four-legged animal
The stone carving of Manabi falls into three with curious, antenna-like head appendages.
main types: U-shaped seats supported by These suggest vaguely the zoomorphic carvings
crouching human or animal figures, carved on slabs from the Titicaca Basin, but there is
stone slabs, and free-standing human figures. If
no specific resemblance.
we follow Jijon y Caamafio's chronology, this There is an unmistakable relationship be
material must be pre-Panzaleo or post tween the stone carving of Manabi and that of
Tuncahuan in time, since stone carving does
not seem to be characteristic of either of these Peru, especially of the generalized north Peru
vian highland. However, as in the case of Azuay
styles. However, the evidence for chronological gold work, Manabi sculpture cannot be related
placing of the Manabi materials is too inade to a specific Peruvian style. There is also a non
quate for this conclusion to be more than a specific resemblance to San Agustin sculpture.
guess. Thus Manabi lies in the same intermediate
The bench supported by a human or animal
position between Peru and Colombia with re
figure occurs in Peru (mostly in wood), but is spect to stone carving that Azuay does with
not common. One is at once drawn to Central
respect to metallurgy.61
America in seeking parallels to the stone seats
of Manabi. CONCLUSION
There are two examples from Manabi of It is clear that Inca was the only Peruvian
kero-shaped stone vessels supported by crouch horizon style that spread intact into Ecuador.
ing cats.44 A similar form in wood comes from Although additional archaeological data will in
Chimbote in Peru.45
The cat figures, free standing and on the stone 46 Saville, 1907-10, Vol. 2, PI. XLVI.
47 Bennett, 1944a, PL 8.
seats, are generally suggestive of north Peruvian
? Saville, 1907-10, Vol. 2, PL XCIX.
41 Saville, 1924, p. 14; Means, 1931, p. 167. ? Saville, 1907-10, Vol. 1, PL XVII; Vol. 2, PL XLVI.
42 Keleman, 1943, Pis. 210-12. 50 Bennett, 1944a, PL 8.
43 Bergs^e, 1937, 1938. 51 Bennett (19466, p. 78) has already suggested that
44 Saville, 1907-10, Vol. 2, PL XLVII. Manabi sculpture may furnish a link between highland
45 Baessler, 1902-03, PI. 159; Schmidt, 1929, p. 419. Colombia and highland Peru.

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collier] A REAPPRAISAL OF PERUVIAN ARCHAEOLOGY 85

crease our understanding of the known Peru absence of strong Peruvian influence via the
vian influences in Ecuador and perhaps reveal coast is related to the great distances separating
others, I do not believe that this conclusion will the river valleys on the far north coast of Peru,
be modified. The recognizable Peruvian in a condition that made communication with
Ecuador difficult. From the Rio Lambayeque,
fluences, few of which are clear-cut or easily tied
down, seem to be generalized in character and which seems to be about the northern limit of
are difficult to trace to a specific Peruvian the Peruvian intensive culture area, it is 150
region, style, or period. In general, they date kilometers airline across the Sechura Desert to
from post-Chavin times. Several influences the Rio Piura. From the Rio la Chira to the Rio
seem traceable to the Callejon de Huaylas Tumbes is another 150 kilometers across the
Huamachuco region during the Early-Middle arid Pampa de Parifias. These distances are con
period time range. No doubt this connection siderably greater and more difficult to traverse
will be strengthened when more is known of the than between any other Peruvian coastal rivers
Sierra from Huamachuco to the Ecuadorean except the stretch between the Rio de Lomas
border. Other influences point to coastal Peru and the Rio de Ocoria on the south coast. This
but less specifically to region and period, al situation may have inhibited the northward
though again they appear to be post-Chavin. spread of Peruvian horizon styles. The highland
The temporal relations involved will be clearer route to Ecuador was evidently an easier path
when a reliable Ecuadorean chronology has of diffusion; it was the route followed by the
been achieved. This chronology will have to be Incas.
worked out without much help from Peruvian A different set of factors has to do with the
cross-ties, and the chronology will be essential nature of the cultural and social forces that
to the understanding of the Peruvian influences brought about the spread of Peruvian horizon
rather than the reverse. styles, and with the nature of Ecuadorean cul
Of the three classes of Ecuadorean material I ture patterns. Peruvian styles seem to have
have considered, ceramics seem to be least in been spread as the result either of the diffusion
fluenced by Peruvian styles. With the exception of religious concepts and/or of political expan
of negative painting, the Peruvian resemblances sion. At present the former process is too little
in Azuay gold and Manabi sculpture are much understood within Peru to discern what factors
clearer and more specific than in pottery. in Ecuador hindered the acceptance of Peruvian
Why was Peruvian influence in Ecuador so religious ideas. With regard to the latter proc
slight? A partial explanation may lie in the geo ess, the political expansions of the Middle and
graphical and ecological barriers between the Late periods affected far northern Peru very
two countries. The south highland of Ecuador little and did not penetrate at all into Ecuador.
and the north highland of Peru are separated by Only the Inca expansion was of a nature and
a low saddle stretching roughly 300 kilometers force sufficient to reach across northern Peru
between Loja in southern Ecuador and Chota in and on into Ecuador.
central Cajamarca. This region has an altitude It is significant that the strongest Peruvian
of 1000-3000 meters, with a number of deep similarities in Ecuador are found in metallurgy,
valleys, such as the Catamayo, Chinchipe, stone carving, and the negative painting tra
Huancabamba, and Chamaya, ranging from dition, because this is also the case in Colombia.
500 to 750 meters. Cutting across this area Apparently these similarities in Ecuador,
south southeastward from Machala on the ex whatever the direction of spread of the various
treme south coast of Ecuador to Jaen in north influences involved, resulted from pan-Andean
eastern Cajamarca is a line that marks the diffusion rather than from diffusion confined to
southern and western limit of the zone of more the Peru-Ecuadorean area.
than 40 inches annual rainfall. All, or nearly all, Ecuadorean culture as a whole stands apart
of the territory occupied by typically Peruvian from and in sharp contrast to the Peruvian co
cultures had a rainfall of less than 40 inches. tradition.52 Not only are Ecuadorean art styles
This region of relatively low altitude and high different and less elaborated but also many Pe
precipitation may have constituted an effective ruvian culture patterns are absent or poorly
barrier to Peruvian cultural penetration, and I developed. Ecuador has little stone carving
venture to predict that few strong Peruvian in (except in Manabi), a weak development of
fluences will be found north and east of this line.
The situation along the coast is different. The 62 Bennett, this volume, pp. 2-6.

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 86 SOCIETY FOR AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY [memoirs, 4

architecture and little use of stone in buildings, pan-Andean patterns rather than specifically
only slight development of terracing and irriga Peruvian patterns. In terms of the absence of
tions systems, and little use of the llama. Lack various cultural and social elaborations found
ing are highly concentrated populations, large in Peru and in terms of general stylistic simi
ceremonial centers (except possibly on the larities, Ecuador falls with Colombia in a North
coast), cities, and wide political integration. Andean unit. Whether this unit can be defined
The culture patterns that Ecuador shares with as a co-tradition remains to be seen, but it
Peru, such as the basic agricultural complex, surely will be a much looser unit than the Pe
the agrarian village system, the development of ruvian co-tradition.
chieftaincy and some class stratification, and Chicago Natural History Museum
the basic handicrafts, including metallurgy, are Chicago, Illinois

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