POWER AMPLIFIER

Most electronic devices use at least one amplifier. Power amplifier is the last stage of multi
stage amplifiers which delivers sufficient amount of power to the load. A transistor amplifier is
a current-control device. The current in the base of the transistor (which is dependent on the
emitter-base bias) controls the current in the collector to amplify voltage or power output.

CLASSIFICATION OF POWER AMPLIFIERS:

For an amplifier, the quiescent operating point (Q point) is fixed by selecting proper dc biasing
to the transistor used. So the position of quiescent operating point on the load line decides the class
of operation of the power amplifiers. The various class of power amplifiers are:
 Class A:
The bias current is greater than the magnitude of signal current.(the Q-Point is at
the centre of load line as we have seen low frequency amplifiers in lab ii )
Large power dissipated at quiescent point.
Conduction angle is 360 dgree
 Class B:
Biased at zero dc current(Q-Point is biased at cutoff region of the load line)
Conduction angle is 180 degree
To reproduce full wave form we use another transistor conducts during the alternate
half-cycle.
No power dissipation at quiescent point.
 Class AB
An intermediate class between A and B(Q-Point is biased below the center(active)
and above cutoff region of the load line)
Biased at a nonzero dc current much smaller than the peak current of the signal
Conduction angle is greater than but much smaller than 360 dgree
Two transistors are used and currents are combined at the load
Class AB amplifiers are preferred for audio power amplifier
Power dissption is less than power dissipated by class A.
 Class C

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 Biased at zero dc current(below cut off region of the load line)
Conduction angle is smaller than 180 dgree
No power dissipation
Class C amplifiers are usually used at higher frequencies
NB: No one class of amplifier is better than another!
Class B Amplifier:

Class-B operation:-
Common-collector class-B amplifier:-

Fig 4.

Class-B amplifier provides an output signal varying over one-half the input signal cycle + zero
phase shift.
Where is the Q-point on the load line? ANS:
The dc bias point for class-B amplifier is therefore at 0 volt.
I.e. biased at cutoff:-
ICQ = 0 and
CCEQ = VCE (off)
The advantage of a class-B amplifier is that the collector current is zero when the input signal to
the amplifier is zero.
Therefore the transistor dissipate no power in the quiescent condition,

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I.e. more efficient!!
→ class-B amplifier was developed to improve on the low efficiency rating of the class-A
amplifier.
Obviously, the output is not a faithful reproduction of the input if only one half-cycle is present.
Therefore, a two-transistor configuration is necessary to get a sufficiently good reproduction of
the input waveform.
This amplifier configuration is known as push-pull emitter follower (push-pull amplifier) or
complementary-symmetry amplifier.

Push-Pull Operation:-

Class-B push-pull amplifier circuit:-

Fig 5.
The circuit configuration feature is the use of complementary transistors,
→ I.e. one of the transistors is a npn and the other is a pnp.
The term push-pull comes from the fact that two transistors in a class-B amplifier conduct on
alternating half-cycles of the input. The combined half-cycles then provide an output for a full
3600 of operation.
Note: - Need dual-polarity power supplies.
No Input:-
When the transistor is in its quiescent state (no input), both transistors are biased at cut-off.
Positive Input:-
During the positive half-cycle of the input signal, Q1 is biased above cut-off, and conduction

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results through the transistor RL.
During this time, Q2 is still biased at cut-off.
→ provide output on the positive-output half-cycle.
Negative Input:-
During the negative half-cycle of the input signal, Q1 is returned to the cut-off state, and Q2 is
biased above cut-off.
As a result, conduction of Q2 start to build while Q1 remains off.
→ provide output on the negative-output half-cycle.
The combined half-cycles then provide an output for a full 3600 of operation.
It is important that the two transistors in a push-pull configuration be carefully matched.
?? WHY?? ANS:

Crossover Distortion:-

Among the disadvantages of a class-B amplifier is that the nonlinear cut-off region is included in
the operation range.

Fig 6.

Because of the biasing arrangement, class-B amplifiers are subject to a type of distortion. When
VB = 0, the input signal voltage must exceed VBE before a transistor conduct. Therefore, there is a
time interval between the positive and negative alternations when neither transistor is conduction.

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The resulting distortion in the output waveform is quite common and is called crossover
distortion. To prevent crossover distortion, both transistors will normally be biased at a level that
is slightly above cut-off. Biasing both transistors slightly above cut-off will allow the amplifier to
provide a linear output that contains no distortion. This class B amplifier is called

→ Class-AB Amplifier

Class-AB Amplifier :

To eliminate crossover distortion, both transistors in the push-pull arrangement must be biased
slightly above cut off (VBE=0.7V for SI or 0.2V for GE) when there is no signal. This can be done
with, forexample, a voltage divider arrangement.
This variation of the classB push pull amplifieris designated as class-AB
(1) Voltage-Divider Bias :-

Note RL is capacitive coupled (dual-polarity power supplies → single-polarity power supply).

However, difficult to maintain a stable bias point with this circuit due to changes in VBE over
temperature changes. (I.e. ΔTemp → ΔQ-point).
A more stable arrangement → Diode Biasing Circuit

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(2) Diode Biasing Circuit: - This biasing arrangement provides thermal stabilization of the
quiescent current.

When the diode characteristics of D1 and D2 are closely matched to the Trans conductance
characteristics of the transistors, a stable bias can be maintained over temperature. This can be also
be accomplished by using the base-emitter junction of two additional transistors instead of D1 and
D2. Ac operation (fig 8). Vin = +ve. When input Vin is positive and Q1 is conducting, current is
drawn from the power supply and flows through Q1 to the load. Vin = -ve.
When Q1 is cut-off by a negative input, no current can flow from the supply. At those times, Q2
is conducting and capacitor CC discharges through that transistor. Thus, current flows from the
load, through CC, and through Q2 to ground whenever the input is negative. Although technically
incorrect, class-AB amplifiers are often referred to as class-B in common practice.
Note: the above both voltage divider and diode biasing circuits are the modified circuits of
class B power amplifier to reduce crossover distortion.

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Therefore, in our lab we will perform by using voltage divider circuit arrangement given below.

From the given laboratory circuit the first stage (T1) is used to provide sufficient gain and
amplitude of a signal to the complementary push-pull power amplifier. This complementary push-
pull amplifier based on the dc biasing by varying RCD it will be class B or class AB. So you will
refer in detail class B and class AB.
NB. Everything what you would have seen in your lab session are explained theoretically
here!!!

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EXPERIMENT 2
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER
A feedback is a process in which a fraction of the output energy (voltage or current) of a system is
fed back to its input. A very often used means in electronic systems is feedback.
Basically feedback amplifier is divided into two:
 Positive feedback: -it can be used for generating an oscillation.
 Negative feedback:-it is used to improve features of an amplifier.
Some of the most important features of a feedback are
Vout
The gain of the amplifier A=
Vin

Vf
The gain of the feedback-network β=
Vout

Vout
The gain of the feedback-amplifier ASP=
Vs

A
The sacrifice factor S=
AAp

N.B. In this laboratory experiment we only focus on negative feedback so we will see in detail
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK:-
The input signal and part of output signal, which is feedback to the input, are out of phase.
ADVANTAGES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
The gain of a circuit is made less sensitive to the values of individual components.
Nonlinear distortion can be reduced
The effects of noise can be reduced
The input and output impedances of the amplifier can be modified.
The bandwidth of an amplifier can be extended.
DISADVANTAGES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
The only disadvantage of negative feedback is that it reduces the gain of an amplifier.
 BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CIRCUIT

Fig6 basic negative feedback circuit

From the given basic negative feedback circuit, there is an input “comparator” or a “mixer” and
an output “sampler” that provide us a copy of an output signal for use as a feedback signal.
The mixer and sampler network is divided into two independently.
TYPES OF MIXER NETWORK
 TYPES OF SAMPLER NETWORK

Types of negative feedback amplifiers

 In terms of the “SAMPLING-MIXING” network ,where mixing and sampling are either
shut or series, the negative feedback amplifier divide into four types:-
 Shunt-Series:-voltage- sampling, series(voltage) mixing
 Series-Shunt:-current- sampling, shunt(current) mixing
 Series-Series:-current- sampling, series(voltage) mixing
 Shunt-shunt:-voltage- sampling ,shunt(current) mixing
 Therefore, to identify type of negative feedback you use the following general steps
Step1. Identify the type of sampling network
1. By shorting the output i.e. VO =0, if the feedback signal becomes zero
then we can say that it is “voltage sampling”.
2. By opening the output loop i.e. Io=0, if the feedback signal becomes zero
then we can say that it is “current sampling”.
Step2. Identify the type of mixing network
1. If the feedback signal is subtracted from externally applied signal as a
voltage in the input loop, it is “series mixing”.
2. If the feedback signal is subtracted from externally applied signal as a
current in the input loop, it is “shunt mixing”
  For example the circuits given in your laboratory work fig9 and fig10.
For fig 9
Note:-The circuit with a capacitor C4, there is no any type negative feedback
 So if the capacitor C4 is removed, there is negative feedback through R6 and R7so in order
to identify the type you use the above steps
1. By setting VO=0, the collector current does not become zero therefore the
feedback does not become zero so this is not voltage sampling. On the other
hand, by setting IO=0(that mean collector current become zero) the feedback
signal becomes zero. Hence this is current sampling.
2. The feedback signal (voltage) is mixed in series with input source.
Therefore, the type of negative feedback is series-series (current series)

R1 RC1 C2
VOUT
C1

VCC
VIN R2 R6

R7 C4

Fig9
For fig 10
Note:-unlike fig 9 capacitor C4 doesn’t affect but RD affect the type of negative feedback. (Type of
negative feedback without RD is the same)
 So with RD, there is negative feedback so in order to identify the type you use the above
steps
1. By setting IO=0(that mean collector current become zero) the collector to
emitter voltage doesn’t become zero therefore the feedback signal doesn’t
becomes zero. So this isn’t current sampling. On the other hand, by setting
VO=0, the feedback signal become zero hence this is voltage sampling.
2. The feedback signal (current) is mixed in shunt with input source.
 Therefore, the type of negative feedback is shunt-shunt.

RC
RD
C1
C2 VCC=12V
VIN C1
=
R6 C4

R7

Fig10
Input and Output Resistance with a Negative Feedback
The input and output resistance of above fig9without a capacitor C4and fig10 with RD
 For fig9(without C4)
Type:-Series-series
Input resistance:-Increase
Output resistance:-Increase
 For fig 10(with RD)
Type:- shut-shut
Input resistance:-Decrease
Output resistance:-Decrease
You will refer by yourself in detail
Type Input Resistance Output Resistance
SS-Feedback increase increase
SP- Feedback decrease increase
PS- Feedback increase decrease
PP- Feedback decrease decrease

Frequency Response and Bandwidth with a Negative Feedback

The effects of negative feedback on lower cut off and upper cut off frequency and bandwidth of
an amplifier.
For example fig 9 and fig 10given above
 Lower cut off frequency with feedback is less than low cut off frequency
without feedback. Therefore, by introducing a negative feedback improves
lower cut off frequency response of an amplifier.
  Upper cut off frequency with feedback is greater than upper cut off frequency
without feedback. Therefore, negative feedback improves upper cut off
frequency response of an amplifier.
 Gain with a feedback is less than the gain without feedback.
 Bandwidth of the an amplifier is given as
BW=upper cut off frequency (FH) – lower cut off frequency (FL)
Bandwidth of an amplifier with feedback is given as
BWF=FHF-FLF
Therefore, (FHF-FLF) > (FH-FL) So bandwidth of an amplifier with negative feedback is greater than
a bandwidth without a feedback. Therefore, negative feedback improves bandwidth of an amplifier.

Frequency response without negative feedback

(For fig9 with C4 and fig10 without RD)

Fig11.the effects of negative feedback on gain & bandwidth

Frequency response with a negative feedback (for fig9without C4 and fig 10 with RD)
N.B. To measure input and output resistance of any given circuit practically you must refer
previous lab ii
EXPERMENT 3
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
Differential amplifiers are used in instrumentation and industrial applications to amplify the
differences of two input signals and reject the average or common mode values of the two inputs.
DIFFERENTIAL GAIN (AD)
VO = AD (VS1 - VS2), AD constant proportionality
The AD is the gain with which differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two input
signals.
COMMON MODE GAIN (AC)
If we apply two input voltages which are equal in all the respects to the differential amplifier
i.e VS1 = VS2 then ideally the output voltage VO = (VS1 – VS2) AD, must be zero.
But the output voltage of the practical differential amplifier not only depends on the difference
voltage but also depends on the average common level of the two inputs.
VC = VS1+VS2
2
Therefore, AC is the gain with which it amplifies the common mode signal to produce the
output voltage. VO = AC VC
Thus there exists some finite output for VS1=VS2, due to such common mode gain, in case of
practical differential amplifiers.
So the total output of any differential amplifier is
VO = AD VD + AC VC
COMMON MODE REJECTION RATIO (CMRR)
The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common mode signal.
It is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain AD to common mode voltage gain AC
CMRR = AD
AC
NB. Ideally the common mode voltage gain is zero, hence the ideal value of CMRR is infinite.
For practical the differential gain AD is large and AC is small hence the value of CMRR is also
large.
FEATURES OF DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
The various features of a differential amplifiers are:

High differential voltage gain

Low common mode gain

High CMRR

Two input terminals.

High input impedance

Large bandwidth

Low output impedance

TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

There are four types of differential amplifier and they are:

Dual input, balanced output differential amp

Dual input, unbalanced output differential amp

Single input, balanced output differential amp

Single input, unbalanced output differential amp

Differential amplifier uses two transistors in common emitter configuration.

If output is taken between the two collectors, it is called balanced output double ended output.
While if the output is taken between one of the collector with respect to ground.

If the signal is given in both input terminals, it is called dual input. While if the signal is given to
only one input terminal and the other is grounded. Then it is called single input.

Out of these four configurations, the dual input and balanced output is the most useful
configuration.

Differential amplifiers are manufactured by using different electronic devices so in this laboratory
experiment we only focus on emitter coupled transistorized differential amplifier
 EMITTER COUPLED TRANSISTORIZED DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Differential amplifier is basic building block of bipolar analog integrated circuit.

It is the input stage of virtually every op amp, basis of high speed digital logic circuit
family, called emitter coupled logic.
It amplifies the difference between two input voltage signals.

Most op-amps use a differential pair as the input stage

Two inputs
– Can be modeled as a differential voltage and a common-mode voltage
– Both transistors must be identical

One of the advantage of emitter coupled transistorized differential amplifier is:

 It enables us to bias the amplifier and to couple amplifier stages together without
the need of by pass and coupling capacitors.

VID= VS1-VS2 (Differential mode input)

v IC 1(vS1  vS2 ) (Common mode input)

2

Fig 1. Basic dual input balanced output differential amplifier

Differential circuit operation
Based on the given input signal the operation of differential amplifier divided
into two modes
Input: Pure Common Mode Signal

VS1 = VS2
– VID = 0 = Vs1- Vs2, VIC = VS1 or VS2
– S i n g l e input source
Common and differential mode of the Vo1 and Vo2
– v OC 1(vO1  vO2 ) ---------------(1)
2
– VID= VO1-VO2 --------------------- (2)
By solving above two equations
VO1 = VOC + VOD/2 = ACVIC, VO2 = VOC - VOD/2 =AC VIC
Both outputs have the same amplitude and they are in
phase
VOD = VO1 – VO2 =0, VOC = ACVIC, VOD = AD VID
Differential output voltage will be zero.
Because of the symmetry circuit, IEE splits equally between Q1 and Q2
Output voltage is not affected by a signal that is the same on both inputs.

Fig2. Common mode operation (VS1=VS2)

Input: Pure Differential Signal
VS1 = – VS2

– VID = VS1 or VS2, VIC = 0

Positive voltage applied to the base of Q1 turns it on more than Q2
– For a large enough signal, Q2 is off
– IE1 = IEE and IE2 = 0
Common and differential mode of the Vo1 and Vo2
– v OC 1(vO1  vO2 ) ---------------(1)
2
– VID= VO1-VO2 --------------------- (2)
By solving above two equations (1) and (2) you will get
VO1 = VOC + VOD/2 = ADV ID/2,
VO2 = VOC - VOD/2 = -AD VID/2
Both outputs have the same amplitude and they are out
phase
VOD = VO1 – VO2 =2VO1, VOC = ACVIC, VOD = AD VID
Output voltage (VOD) is d o u b l e d
– V O D = –RcIEE, IE1 + IE 2 = I EE

VS1 VS2

Fig3. Differential mode operation (VS1= -VS2)

EFFECTS OF EMMITER RESISTOR (RE)
To improve the CMRR, the common mode gain AC must be reduced.
-AC ≈ 0, RE ≈ ∞
This is because RE introduces a negative feedback in the common mode operation
which reduces the common mode gain AC. Thus higher the value of RE, lesser the
value of AC and higher the value of CMRR.
By increasing value of RE we can reduce distortion i.e we can expand linear
region from transfer characteristics of differential amplifier.
The differential gain AD is not dependent on RE
Practically RE cannot be selected very high due to certain limitations.
1. Large RE needs higher biasing voltage to set the operating Q point of the
transistors
2. It increases the overall chip area
Hence practically instead of increasing RE various other methods are used which provide
effect of increased RE without any limitations.
For example constant current source bias method.
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER WITH CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE
Without physically increasing the value of RE, the RE is replaced by a transistor operated at
constant current. Such a constant current source circuit gives the effect of a very high resistance
without affecting the Q point values of the differential amplifier.
The transistor used is Q3 and the values of R3, R4 and R5 are selected so as to give the same
operating point values of the two transistors Q1 and Q2.
In practice VBE is not constant, changes with respect to temperature. So thermal compensation is
achieved by connecting two diodes in series from the terminal of base of Q3 to ground.
As the temperature increases, the transistor current i.e collector current IC3 increase.
Therefore, the main reason of using a diode D1 in your laboratory circuit is for the thermal
compensation when VBE change with respect to temperature.
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
When Vi1>0, Vi2<0, thus IB1 increases and IB2 decreases, IC=βIB
Thus IC1 increases IC2 decreases
–VO1=VCC-IC1RC, VO2=VCC-IC2RC, IC1=IE1,IC2=IE2
Thus VO1 decreases VO2 increases
Output clips when input voltage becomes above 2VT

Fig5. Transfer characteristics of differential amplifier

 NB. By increasing the value of RE we can increase the linear region from
transfer characteristics of differential amplifier.
EXPERIMENT 4
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Operational amplifiers, or op amps for short, were first introduced in the 1940s. They were
made using bulky vacuum tubes and consumed large amounts of power. When transistors were
created, the size and power consumption of op amps was drastically reduced, making them
cheaper and more efficient. Op-amps were first used to perform mathematical operations such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, integration, and differentiation. Because of
their low cost, small size, versatility,flexibility and dependability, today, operational amplifiers are used
in:
- signal filters,
- Communications,
- Audio mixing,
- Control systems,
- Remote controlled devices,
- Impedance buffering
- Active controllers
- Analog-digital interfacing and many other areas of electrical engineering.
A very often used component in electrical systems is the operational amplifier. On the
contrary to normal used amplifiers, where the characteristics depend on the internal electrical
structure, the characteristics of the operational amplifier are fixed by the externally connected
electrical components only.
The characteristics of the op-amps without these external components are:
- Very high open loop gain
- Differential input.
- High input resistance
- Low output resistance
- High stability (small drift)
- Low noise.
- Single ended output.

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Haymanot A. 100% attendance is mandatory
 -Linear behavior (within the range of -Vcc < Vout < +Vcc)
N.B. The operational amplifiers is basically high gain direct coupled amplifier. Because of
the direct coupling the op-amp can amplify even d.c voltages.

OP-AMP SYMBOL AND TERMINALS

The symbol for an op-amp along with its various terminals, is shown in fig fig1.

Fig1.
The op-amp is indicated basically by a triangle which points in the direction of the signal flow.
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS OF OP-AMPS
The transfer characteristic of the operational amplifier (fig.2) shows that the input and output
voltages can swing both into the positive and negative with respect to ground. Within the driving
range of the amplifier the output voltage is proportional to the input voltage. In the higher range
the amplifier will be overdriven and goes into saturation. Because of the very high open loop
gain, even a very low input voltage results in maximum output. In this case the amplifier
functions as a switch. Only by connecting the feedback components the operational amplifier
operates as an amplifier.
Vout Vout
+Vsat +Vsat

Vi Vi

-Vsat -Vsat

a) Inverting op-amp b) non-inverting op-amp

Fig.2 Transfer characteristics of an operational amplifier
Where Vsat=Vcc of the power supply

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Haymanot A. 100% attendance is mandatory
BASIC CONFIGURATION
1. Inverting op-amp Rf

R1 I both are not connected

- 7 +Vcc
LM741
A + 4
Vi -Vcc Vout

Fig.3 Inverting operational amplifier

Using KVL:
Because Uba is virtual ground voltage, which is approximately equal to zero.
Vi
Vi –IR1=0  I= (Uab ~ 0.) 1)
R1
0 - Vout = IRf  Vout = - IRf. 2)
Substituting 1 into 2
Vi
Vout = Rf 3)
R1
The gain of the inverting op-amp with feedback is:
V Rf
A = out = - 4)
Vin R1
Where A= Gain of the amplifier with feedback
Equation (4) shows now that the amplification A depends only on the relations of the
Feedback and coupling input resistance. The minus sign in that equation means that there is
phase reversal of 180 o. Remember that this kind of system is a negative feedback and its
type is parallel-parallel . If the output signal would be fed back in phase with the input signal,
the system would be unstable which in general leads to oscillations.
Note. Very important example it is what you will in your laboratory session practically!

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 1. Plot the transfer characteristic VO = f (V1) in the range of -12V  V1  12V. In the
following cases:
a) R1 = 50 k  Rf = 100k 
b) R1 = 50k  Rf = 50k 
c) R1 = 100k  Rf = 50 k 
Solution: for inverting op-amp amplifier
Vo R f  100
a. Gain = = = =-2
V1 R1 50

V1 -12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -2 0 2 5 6 7 10 12

Vo 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 10 4 0 4 10 12 12 12 12

Vo R f  50
b. Gain = = = =-1
V1 R1 50

V1 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 -1 0 1 3 2 4 6 8 10 12
Vo 12 10 8 6 4 2 1 0 1 3 2 4 6 8 10 12

Vo R f  50
c. Gain = = = = - 0.5
V1 R1 100

V1 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 12
Vo 6 5 4 3 2 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6

An Op-amp output saturates at ± 12V i.e at supply voltages used. So portion above
+12V and -12V will be clipped off from the output. So more than ± 12V output voltage
is not practically possible.in the case a the output voltage becomes constant (clipped)
when input voltage is ± 6V and above
Draw the transfer characteristics for case a, b and c, (VO=f (V1)) i.e VO VS V1, in
all cases by yourself
N.B. In case of non-inverting op-amp everything is the same except phase shift so
you must refer by yourself!

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Haymanot A. 100% attendance is mandatory
 2. A sine wave of 0.5V peak voltage is applied to an inverting amplifier using R1=10kΩ and
Rf =50kΩ. It uses supply voltages of ±12V. Determine the output and sketch the
waveform.
If now the amplitude of input sine wave is increased to 5V, what will be the output? Is it
practically possible? Sketch the waveform.

Solution: for inverting op-amp amplifier

Vout R f  50
Gain = = = =-5
Vin R1 10

Now Vm = 0.5Vfor the input hence

VOm = Vm x Gain = 0.5 x 5= 2.5V peak
The input and output waveforms are inverted with respect to each other and are shown in
fig 4a.
Now Vm = 5V for the input hence
VOm= Vm x Gain= 5 x 5 = 25V peak
But op-amp output saturates at ± 12V i.e at supply voltages used. So portion above +12V
and -12V will be clipped off from the output. So 25V peak output voltage is not
practically possible.
The input and output waveforms are shown in the fig 4b.
N.B in both cases, there exists a phase shift of 1800 between input and output

a. Vm=0.5V b. V m= 5V
Fig 4.
Note: Incase of non-inverting op-amp everything is the same except input and output signal
are in phase so you must refer by yourself!

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Haymanot A. 100% attendance is mandatory
 2. Integrator
In an integrator circuit, the output voltage is the integration of the input voltage. An op-amp
integrator simulates mathematical integration which is basically a summing process that
determines the total area under the curve of a function i.e., the integrator does integration of the
Input voltage waveform.
N.B. the resistance Rf in your laboratory circuit is used to reduce the low frequency gain of
the op-amp.
At f=0 i.e d.c condition
ǁ A ǁ = Rf / R1 ,
Thus an infinite d.c gain of op-amp in case of an ideal integrator, gets limted to Rf / R1 in practical
integrator.
Rf
C

R1 +Vcc
_

+
V1 ~ –Vcc VO

Fig 5.Practical integrator op-amp

N.B. When you increase frequency of an input voltage signal, the output voltage should
decrease.
INPUT AND OUTPUT WAVEFORMS OF AN INTEGRATOR OP-AMP
You should see output waveforms, for the following two input signals.
1. Square wave input signal
It can be observed that the square wave is made up of steps i.e a step of A between time
period of 0 to T/2 while a step of –A units between a time period of T/2 to T and so on.
So the output can be expressed mathematically for one period as,
VO(t) = -At , 0< t< T/2
= +At, T/2< t< T
Therefore, the input and output waveforms are shown in fig 6.

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Haymanot A. 100% attendance is mandatory
 a. Square wave input signal b. output waveform for square wave input
Fig 6.
2. Sine wave input signal
Vin(t) = Vm sin ɷt , where Vm is the amplitude of the sine wave
T be the period of the waveform.
To find output waveform, we use general integrator equations.

Assume VO(0) = 0 and time constant R1Cf = 1,

The above general equation becomes
VO(t) = -ʃ Vin dt
1
= -ʃ Vm sin ɷt dt = -Vm [ɷ (- cos ɷt)]

 VO(t) = -Vm(-cos ɷt)/ɷ

Thus it can be seen that the output of an integrator is a cosine waveform for an input. Due to
inverting integrator output is out phase with an input signal.
Therefore, the input and output waveform of an inverting integrator is shown in fig 7.

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 Fig 7. Sine wave input and cosine output of an integrator op-amp
Note: other types of operational amplifiers you refer by yourself this note for this
experiment 4 is not enough!!!

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EXPERIMENT 5
RC OSSILLATORS
An oscillator is a circuit which basically act as a generator, generating the output signal
which oscillates with a constant amplitude and desired frequency. It doesn’t require any input
signal. An electrical device, alternator generates a sinusoidal voltage at a desired frequency of
50Hz in our nation but electronic oscillator can generate a voltage of any desired waveform at
any frequency.an oscillator can generate the output waveform of high frequency up to gigahertz.
In short, an oscillator is an amplifier, which uses a positive feedback and without any
external input signal, generates an output waveform at a desired frequency.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
In the process of feedback, a part of output is sampled and feedback to the input of an
amplifier. Therefore, at input we have two signals: input signal and part of the output signal
which is fed back to the input. Both these signals may be in phase or out of phase so when both
of these signals are in phase, feedback is positive feedback. On the other hand, they are out of
phase, the feedback is negative feedback

Fig1. Basic circuit of positive feedback

The amplifier gain is A i.e it amplifies its input Vi, A times to produce output VO.
Vo
A= (open loop gain of an amplifier)
Vi
Vo
Af = (closed loop gain)
Vs

Vi = Vs + Vf --------------------------------------- (1)

Vf = βVo -------------------------- (2)

Substituting equation (2) in equation (1),
Vi = Vs + βVo
Vo = Vi – βVo -------------------------- (3)

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Substituting in expression for Af
Vo
Af = Vi−βVo

Dividing both numerator and denominator by Vi, you will get

A Vo
Af = 1−βA ……as A= Vi

Now consider the various values of β and corresponding values of Af for constant amplifier gain
of A = 20.

A β Af
20 0.005 22.22
20 0.04 100
20 0.045 200
20 0.05 ∞
The above result shows that the gain with feedback increases as the amount of positive
feedback increases. In the limiting case, the gain becomes infinite. This indicates that circuit
can produce output without external input (Vs = 0), just by feeding the part of the output as its
own input. Similarly, output cannot be infinite but gets driven into the oscillations.in other word,
the circuit stops amplifying and starts oscillating.
The feedback network gain is always a fraction and hence β < 1. So the feedback network is
an attenuation network. To start the oscillation Aβ ≥ 1 but the circuit adjusts itself to get Aβ =
1, when it produce a sustained sinusoidal oscillations while working as an oscillator.
Barkhausen Criterion
The feedback must be positive i.e the voltage derived from output using feedback network
must be in phase with Vi. Thus the feedback network must introduce a phase shift of 180̊ while
feeding back the voltage from output to input.

Fig 2. Basic block diagram of oscillator circuit

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 Consider a fictitious voltage Vi applied at the input of the amplifier. Hence we get,
Vo = AVi -------------------------- (1)
The feedback factor β decides the feedback to be given to input,
Vf = βVo ------------------------ (2)
Substituting (1) into (2) we get,
Vf = AβVi ------------------------(3)
For the oscillator we want that feedback should drive the amplifier and hence Vf must act as Vi.
from equation (3) we can write that, Vf is sufficient to act as Vi when,
Aβ = 1 ----------------------------(4)
The phase of Vf is the same as Vi i.e feedback network should introduce 180 phase shift in
addition to 180 phase shift introduced by inverting amplifier. So the total phase shift around a
loop is 360.
The barkhausen criterion states that:
1. The total phase shift around a loop, as the signal proceeds from input through amplifier,
feedback network back to input again, completing a loop, is precisely 0 or 360
2. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier (A) and the
magnitude of the feedback factor β is unity i.e Aβ = 1.
For an oscillator if no input is required, how oscillator starts? And where does the
starting voltage come from?
ANS:
Every resistance has some free electrons.under the influence of normal room
temprerature, these free electrons move randomly in various directions. Such a movement
of free electrons generate a voltage called noise vlotage, across the resistance. Such a noise
voltage present across the resistances are amplified. Hence to amplify such small noise
voltages and to start the oscillations, Aβ is kept greater than or equal to unity at start.
Such amplified voltage appears at the output terminals. The part of this output is sufficient
to drive the input of an amplifier circuit. Then circuit adjusts itself to get magnitude of Aβ
= 1 and with phase shift of 0 or 360 we get sustained oscillation.

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 Classification of Oscillators
The oscillators are classified based on the nature of the output waveform, the parameters
used, the range of frequency etc.
Based on the output waveform the oscillators are classified as sinusoidal and non
sinusoidal oscillators.the sinusodial oscillators generate pure sinusoidal waveform at the
output while nonsinusoidal oscillators generate an output waveform as triangular, square,
sawtooth etc.
Based on the positive feedback network circuit componets, the oscillators using the
componets resistance R and capacitor C are called RC oscilators. While the oscilators
using the components inductance L and capacitor C are called LC oscillator. In some
oscillators crystal is used , which are called crystal oscillators.
Based on the range of operating frequency, the oscillators, are used to generate the
oscillation at audio frequency range (20Hz to 100-200kHz),are classified as low frequency
or audio frequency oscillators. While the oscillators used at the frequency range more
than 200- 300kHz upto gigahertz (GHz) are classified as high frequency or radio
frequency oscillators.
Note: the RC oscillators are used at low frequency range while the LC oscillators are
used at high frequency range.
Why the RC -oscillator is preferred in low frequency range (audio frequency
range)?
ANS: When you use LC oscillator for lower frequencies, high inductances with high
costs would be required
There are two types of RC oscillators:
RC Phase shift oscillators basically consists of an amplifier and a positive feedback network
consisting of resistors and capacitors, in which the output of an amplifier must be 180o out of
phase with input so a positive feedback network (usually a resistor-capacitor network) is used to
produce an additional phase shift of 180 at one particular frequency to develop the required
positive feedback or to obtain a total phase shift a loop around a loop as 360 or 0.
In RC phase shift oscillator, positive feedback network consists three RC networks must be
cascade so as to produce each RC network a phase shift of 60.

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 Fig 2. Positive feedback network for phase shift oscillator
Phase Shift Oscillator by using Op-amp:- The op-amp is used in inverting mode to provide
180 phase shift. The output of op-amp is fed to three section RC network which provides the
needed 180 phase shift. The gain of an op-amp is adjusted by the help of Rf and Ri. The gain is so
adjusted that the product of a gain of op-amp (A) and the feedback network gain (β) is slightly
greater than or equal to one, to get the required oscillations.

Fig3. Basic phase shift oscillator by using op-amp

To find the positive feedback gain (β) and frequency of a phase shift oscillator use the following
circuit fig 4

Vi is output voltage of op-amp

Fig 4. Feedback network

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Note: for the oscillation to occur, the gain of the op-amp must be equal to or greater than
29, which can be adjusted using the resistance Rf and Ri.
Advantages of RC phase shift oscillator are:-
the circuit is simple to design
can produce output over audio frequency range
produces sinusoidal output waveform
it is used in fixed frequency oscillator application

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Disadvantages of RC phase shift oscillator are:-
By changing the values of R and C of all three sections , the frequency of the oscillator can
be changed .but this is practically impossible.
So the frequency stability is poor due to the changes in the values of various components,
due to effect of temprature, aging etc.
NB:-At least one common emmiter transistor stages are required to built up RC a phase
shift oscillator instead of op-amp. Why?
Wein Bridge Oscillator
Wein bridge oscillator uses a non inverting amplifier and hence does not provide any
phase shift during amplifier stage.as total phase shift required is 0 or 2nπ radians, in wein bridge
type no phase shift is necessary throgh feedback.
The wein bridge is a lead - lag network because the phase angle leads for some frequencies and
lags for other frequencies.

R1

R2 – V0
+ C
Z1
R

Z2
R C

Fig 5a Wien Bridge Oscillator

R C
Vi R C Vf = Vo

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 Fig 5b. Wien Bridge Positive Feedback Network
From the above fig5b you can find positive feedback network gain (β) and frequency of the
oscillator like a phase shift oscillator.

By using this equation at the last you will get β = 1/3 and
frequency of oscillator f = 1/2πRC
NB:- positive feedback network of wein brige oscillator, at very low frequencies it acts like
lead and at very high frequencies it acts like lag network.
Advantages of RC wein bridge oscillator
By varying the two capacitprs (C) or resistors(R) values simultaneously different
frequency ranges can be obtained.
can produce output over audio frequency range
produces sinusoidal output waveform
it is used for variable frequency applications
Disadvantages of RC wein bridge oscillator:-
instead of op-amp, transistorised amplifier is to be used then more stages are required to
obtain 0 phase shift between input and output. This increases the number of components
and cost. So the frequency stability is poor.
. NB:- At least two common emmiter transistor stages are required to built up RC a Wien
bridge oscillator instead of op-amp. To obtain 0 or 360 degree phase shift between input
and output. Don’t forget the input of any RC oscillator is a positive feedback network

THANK YOU!!!
END
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