Chapter 5: Language

I. Language is a system of symbols that makes communication possible.

II. Language characteristics - words only have meaning insofar as we give it to them.
Language has four attributes.
A. Arbitrary: symbols themselves, having no direct connection with the thing they
represent.
i. Semiotics: the study of the social production of meaning from sign
systems such as language.
ii. Signifier: the physical thing we perceive in the world.
iii. Signified: the meaning associated with the sign; that comes from an idea
or mental construct of the thing.
iv. Sign: an arbitrary symbol that can be interpreted as having meaning
B. Ambiguous: words do not have absolute meanings and can be used in a variety
of contexts and for different purposes (Example: “wicked” can mean the name of
a musical, evil, or that something was cool).
i. Denotative meaning: dictionary or literal definition.
ii. Connotative meaning: comes from a set of associations the word brings
up in our mind.
a. Can be based on experiences and emotions of the person who is
assigning meaning to or interpreting the word.
iii. Since words have two different types of meanings, there can be much
ambiguity among an audience.
C. Abstract: not tangible or concrete; the more specific a speaker can be, the less
abstract the language will be, thus making it easier for the speaker and audience
to share the same (and intended) meaning.
D. Negative: by labeling what something is, we are also labeling what it is not.
III. Terms and structures of language
A. Metaphoric language can be used to help get the meaning across and can help
make a message more memorable to an audience.
i. Simile: language device that compares two things using “like” or “as”.
ii. Synecdoche: metaphor that uses one part of something to refer to the
whole thing (Example: ABC’s).
iii. Metonym: metaphor identified by its use of tangible objects to refer to
intangible things (“heart” refers to “passion”).
iv. Archetypal: use common human experiences to help describe another
object.
v. Mixed metaphors: make use of two different metaphors that do not
logically fit.
vi. Dead metaphors: commonplace phrases that have lost their creative
element.
B. Language structures can be used to organize our messages to be more appealing
to our audience.
 i. Repetition: repeating words or phrases either immediately after the
phrase or in the same location throughout the whole message (MLK’s I
have a dream speech).
ii. Alliteration: using the same vowel or consonant sound at the beginning
of consecutive words.
iii. Parallelism: placing related words or phrases in a pattern to make clear
what they have in common.
iv. Antithesis: placing two contrasting ideas side by side in a phrase
v. Narrative: using stories (narrative paradigm).
a. Narrative coherence: content of story hangs together and makes
sense. (Are the characters acting in a consistent way? Does the
order of the events make sense?).
b. Narrative fidelity: how well the story reflects the beliefs and
values of the audience or rings true to them.
IV. Guidelines for dialogic language: linguistic choices we make often make the
difference between establishing an atmosphere conducive to dialogue or creating a
more combative environment.
A. Use inclusive language: avoid setting yourself apart by using “I” and “me,” and
instead use “we”; use gender neutral language.
B. Avoid profanity
C. Avoid hate speech
D. Use culturally appropriate metaphors: not every metaphor will work on all
audiences.
i. Idioms: metaphoric meanings that are derived from cultural markers
E. Use familiar language
F. Be specific and concrete: incorporate vivid examples and details.
G. Use descriptive, not evaluative language: laying out facts without judgement.