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Warring States Period

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by Mark Cartwright
Send to Google Classroom:
published on 12 July 2017
The Warring States period (481/403
BCE - 221 BCE) describes the three
centuries when various rival Chinese
states battled viciously for territorial
advantage and dominance. Ultimately
the Qin state was victorious and
established the first unified Chinese
state. Besides incessant warfare, and
probably because of it, the period saw
significant developments in society,
commerce, agriculture, philosophy,
and the arts, setting the foundations for the subsequent flourishing of Imperial
China.

Time Frame
The time frame of the Warring States period (Zhanguo) is not agreed upon by all
historians, with some preferring 481 BCE as the starting point when the Lu
chronicles end and others plumbing for 403 BCE when the three states of Han,
Timeline
Wei, and Zhao were officially recognised by the Zhou court. Still others chose dates
within that period, the most popular being that of the ancient Chinese historian
Sima Qian: 475 BCE. The end date is usually defined as the establishment of the
Qin Empire: 221 BCE. The period is covered by two ancient Chinese chronicles of
uncertain date and unknown authors: Discourses of the States and The Intrigues of
the Warring States.

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Timeline
VISUAL TIMELINE

Background 771 BCE - 256 BCE

In the 5th century BCE the Eastern Zhou (Chou) Dynasty (771-256 BCE) was Eastern Zhou Dynasty in China.

crumbling. No longer dominant in military terms, the Zhou were forced to rely on
armies of other allied states, who on occasion took the opportunity to forward their c. 481 BCE - 221 BCE
own territorial claims. For this reason, the Zhou king was compelled to sometimes Warring States Period in China.

make the military leader of another state the military leader of the Zhou alliance.
These commanders were given the honorary title of ba or Hegemon, although they 470 BCE - 391 BCE
and the leaders of other states in the alliance had to swear loyalty to the Zhou Life of the Chinese pacifist
philosopher Mo Ti, founder of
feudal system.
Mohism.

By the early 4th century BCE

nearly 100 small states had been 440 BCE - 360 BCE
consolidated by conquest into Life of Chinese Hedonist
Philosopher Yang Zhu.
seven major states: the Chu,
SEVEN MAJOR STATES
Han, Qi, Qin, Wei, Yan, and
VIED FOR CONTROL 372 BCE - 289 BCE
Zhao. Sandwiched between
OF CHINA: THE CHU, Life of the Confucian philosopher
these were several smaller states
HAN, QI, QIN, WEI, YAN, Mencius (Mang-Tze).
but the big seven had by now
& ZHAO.
become so large and
364 BCE
consolidated that it became
Duke Xin, ruler of Qin, is awarded
difficult for one to absorb another. Further encouraging this segregation of territory the title of Hegemon by the Zhou
was the trend of building long defensive walls along frontiers, some of which were state.
several hundred kilometres long. Made of stone and earth, long sections still
survive today including the Qi wall at Mulinngguan in Shandong province which is 4 343 BCE
metres high and 10 metres across in places. Xiao, ruler of Qin, is awarded the
title of Hegemon by the Zhou state.

328 BCE - 308 BCE

Rise of the Chinese state of Qin.

326 BCE
Huiwen, ruler of Qin, is awarded
royal status by the Zhou state.

c. 280 BCE - c. 233 BCE

Life of Han Feizi who developed
Legalism in China.

278 BCE
Warring States Helmet
The Qin state captures Ying, the
by Gary Lee Todd (CC BY-SA)
capital of the Chu state.
In each state, the ruler declared himself king and independent of the Zhou empire.
Each now looked to expand their territory at their neighbour’s expense, often 262 BCE - 260 BCE
attacking rivals over succession disputes caused by the common policy of The Battle of Changping, one of the
intermarriage between different royal families. Eventually, this rivalry led to ever- most important battles in the
Warring States Period in China
shifting alliances and the incessant conflicts that gave the period its name. Between
between Zhao and Qin.
535 and 286 BCE there were 358 wars between states. Huge armies were led by
commanders who abandoned the chivalrous etiquette of warfare in previous times
259 BCE - 210 BCE
(if, indeed, there had ever been such a thing) and ruthlessly campaigned to destroy
Life of Ying Zheng of Qin, Shi
the enemy - both soldiers and non-combatants. The prize for the victor would be Huangdi, First Emperor of China.
control of a unified China.

256 BCE
ADVERTISEMENT REMOVE ADS The army of the state of Qin
captures the city of Chengzhou and
the last Zhou ruler, King Nan, is
killed. End of the Zhou Dynasty.

256 BCE
A New Type of Warfare The Qin absorbs the remains of the
Cavalry of mounted archers on sturdy Mongolian steeds, large infantry armies Zhou state.

based on universal conscription, and the diffusion of new iron weapons such as
swords and crossbows (which led to new armour), made warfare during the Warring c. 246 BCE - c. 247 BCE
States Period much more deadly than in previous eras. The slower and more Prince Ying Zheng becomes King of
Qin, age 12 or 13.
organised battles of yesteryear where chariots were used in large numbers and
infantry were deployed in a more predictable manner now gave way to a much
more dynamic battlefield. Warfare also became more sophisticated with more subtle
230 BCE
The Qin state defeats the Han state
and disciplined troop deployments, subterfuge and espionage playing their part in
during the Warring States Period.
victories.

Chivalry may or may not have gone out of the window but one thing that did 228 BCE
certainly change was the scale of battles with armies frequently fielding over The Qin state defeats the Zhao
state during the Warring States
200,000 infantry compared to the more usual 10,000 in earlier times. The Qin, Qi,
Period.
and Chu states each possessed a total infantry force of close to one million men
and a cavalry force of 10,000. Battles were no longer over and done with after a
225 BCE
couple of days either but dragged on for months or even years with casualties in
The Qin state defeats the Wei state
the tens of thousands. The armies of a particular state had to fight on multiple during the Warring States Period.
fronts, and the objective was now not only to gain new territory but to systematically
destroy the military capacity of the enemy. The huge numbers involved meant that 223 BCE
soldiers were relatively untrained and warfare became less a matter of fighting skill The Qin state absorbs the Chu
state during the Warring States
and more about having such a numerical supremacy that a commander could
Period.
overwhelm his opponent in the field.

221 BCE
The Qin state defeats the Yan and
Qi states during the Warring States
Period.

221 BCE - 210 BCE

First emperor of a united China, Shi
Huangti, rules.

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Warring States Period Swords
by Gary lee Todd (CC BY-SA)

Such continuous warfare must have had a heavy toll on the ordinary populace.
Apart from invasion and its consequent destruction of property and crops, males
were expected to fight for the state. One of the last great battles of the period at
Changping involved the Qin conscripting every male over 15 years of age, but this
seems to have been unusual. Still, with so many wars it would have been difficult
for a farmer to have avoided military service. There were rewards for soldiers who
fought well, notably in the Qin state where a whole system of ranks and rewards
was introduced with 20 different levels open to everyone. For example, cutting off a
single enemy head entitled the soldier to move up the ranking ladder and acquire
around 5 acres of land.

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Success in war became the sole goal of the state and everyone in it, as the
historian L. Feng here summarises:

During the Warring States period, warfare was the most Newsletter Powered by Mailchimp
important aspect of social life, the principle of the state, and the
compass that directed government policies. It is no exaggeration Our latest articles delivered to your
that by the late Warring States period (3rd century BCE), war inbox, once a week:
had escalated to the level that the entire state was organised for
the very purpose of war, and this was true for all states (197).
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Another development in general warfare was the expectation on the commanders.

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No longer enough to claim a right of command through birth, they now had to
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demonstrate the military skills which were expounded by the plethora of treatises
Teacher
which arrived on the subject such as Sun Tzu’s Art of War. Strategy was important
Student
on the battlefield but it became essential in siege warfare when the enemy chose to
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try and resist attack from within their well-fortified cities or when they protected their
borders with watchtowers connected by defensive walls. SUBSCRIBE

The Rise of Qin

Rather ironically given future events, the Qin was one one of the few states which
remained loyal to the Zhou. For example, the Qin ruler, Duke Xin, was rewarded for
Partner Promotion
protecting Zhou interests with the title of Hegemon in 364 BCE. His successor Xiao,
was given the same honour in 343 BCE. Xiao is known for taking on the services of
the gifted advisor Shang Yang, poached from the Wei state, who then reorganised
the Qin state and made it even more powerful. Populations were better censored
and regions divided into more easily administered provinces and counties so that
the collection of taxes (in the form of both goods and labour) was made more
efficient. Such was the strength of the Qin now that the Zhou king awarded a royal
status and insignia to the ruler Huiwen in 326 BCE.

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Chariot, Terracotta Army

by Dennis Jarvis (CC BY-SA)

The Qin state had the advantages of a protective mountain range on its eastern
border and was one of the peripheral states so that it had more freedom to expand
into territory not held by a rival Chinese state. Now that they had both a strong and
organised government based on the principles of Legalism, with its emphasis on
laws and procedures (expounded by the ministers Lu Buwei and his protege Li Si),
an expanded bureaucracy with local officials and magistrates to help run the
provinces, and the economic wherewithal to field large, well-equipped armies, the
Qin could begin to plan a more ambitious campaign of major conquest.

The victory over the Shu state in

316 BCE allowed the Qin to Our Videos
absorb their fertile agricultural
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lands further enriching the state.
A GREAT QIN VICTORY
In 278 BCE Ying, the capital of
WAS WON AGAINST
the Chu state, fell under Qin
THE ZHAO IN 260 BCE
control. A great victory was won
AFTER A THREE-YEAR
against the Zhao in 260 BCE
BATTLE STRETCHED
after a three-year battle stretched
ACROSS A 160 KM
across a 160 km (100 miles)
FRONT.
front. When the Zhou king died
and no successor was appointed
in 256 CE, Qin took over the remains of that state too. The Qin seemed
unstoppable. With final and decisive victories over Han in 230 BCE, Zhao in 228
BCE, Wei in 225 BCE, the capitulation of Chu in 223 BCE - one of the Qin’s
strongest rivals -, and the defeat of Yan and Qi in 221 BCE, the Qin state was able
to at last form a unified empire across most of China. The Qin king, Zheng,
awarded himself the title of Shi Huangdi or 'First Emperor'.

Cultural Developments
The period may have been dominated by wars but there were some cultural side
effects to all this military activity. The technological necessity to produce weaponry
as good as or better than one’s opponents led to better tools and craft skills,
especially metalworking and the use of iron. Artists, in turn, were able to produce
more skilled artworks, notably mastering such difficult and time-consuming
materials as jade and lacquer. Large armies need large supplies, and these were
met by improved efficiency in agriculture. Better tools made from iron, the use of
more land by draining marshes, and better irrigation via ditches and canals all
helped to increase productivity.

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Knife Money from Ancient China

by Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (CC BY-NC-SA)

Cities grew in size as populations sought the greater safety of their defensive walls
and towers. Multi-storey city gates were erected to impress visitors with the wealth
and might of the city. The rulers’ palaces became more extravagant, marketplaces
expanded, areas dedicated to specific industries where such goods as pottery and
weapons could be mass-produced sprang up, and town planning developed with
blocks set out in a regular grid pattern and roads crisscrossing the city.

As alliances were formed and new areas conquered, so too, trade developed and
with it a rich middle class of merchants and state administrators. Society moved
away (at least a little) from the strict class system where one’s position was defined
by that of one’s parents. The lower aristocratic class (shi) began to usurp the power
of the old landed nobility. By necessity, money was introduced in the form of bronze
coins with a distinctive central hole or in the form of tools, and so became known as
'knife-money' and 'spade money'. There was now the possibility to acquire wealth
and status for those with the necessary talent and opportunity.

There were developments, too, in thought. The bitter and bloody wars caused
intellectuals to reassess their views on the world and the role of religion and God in
humanity’s affairs. Writers and poets attempted to justify, explain, and even parody
the events of the period and their often dreadful effects on the ordinary populace.
Another name for the Warring States Period is the Hundred Schools (Bai jia), which
refers to the proliferation of thought and the development of ideas such as Legalism,
Confucianism, Daoism, Naturalism, and Mohism. There were no actual formal
schools at the time but rather a wide spectrum of individual thinkers who included
Mencius (Pacifist and Confucianist philosopher), Sun Tzu (military strategist), Mo
Ti (aka Mozi, military engineer and philosopher), Hui Shi (Logician) and Gongsun
Longzi (Logician). The Warring States Period, in many ways, then, set the
foundations for the flourishing of culture which would occur in Imperial China when
the country would establish itself as one of the world’s great and most influential
states.

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RELATED CONTENT BOOKS CITE THIS WORK LICENSE

Editorial Review This article has been reviewed for accuracy, reliability and
adherence to academic standards prior to publication.

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Bibliography
Dawson, R. The Chinese Experience. Phoenix Press - Orion, 2017.
Di Cosmo, N. Military Culture in Imperial China. Harvard University Press, 2011.
Dillon, M. China. Routledge, 1998.
Ebrey, P.B. Pre-Modern East Asia. Wadsworth Publishing, 2013.
Feng, L. Early China. Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Lewis, M.E. The Early Chinese Empires. Belknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard
University Press, 2010.
Peers, C.J. Ancient Chinese Armies 1500-200 BC. Osprey Publishing, 1990.
Peers, C.J. Soldiers of the Dragon–AD 1840. Osprey Publishing, 2006.
Sawyer, R.D. Ancient Chinese Warfare. Basic Books, 2011.
Shelach-Lavi, G. The Archaeology of Early China. Cambridge University Press, 2015.

Translations
We want people all over the world to learn about history. Help us and translate this
definition into another language!

About the Author

 Mark Cartwright
Mark is a history writer based in Italy. His special interests
include pottery, architecture, world mythology and discovering
the ideas that all civilizations share in common. He holds an MA
in Political Philosophy and is the Publishing Director at AHE.

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Cite This Work

APA Style

Cartwright, M. (2017, July 12). Warring States Period. Ancient History

Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/Warring_States_Period/

Chicago Style

Cartwright, Mark. "Warring States Period." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last

modified July 12, 2017. https://www.ancient.eu/Warring_States_Period/.

MLA Style

Cartwright, Mark. "Warring States Period." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient

History Encyclopedia, 12 Jul 2017. Web. 11 May 2020.

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