Journal of Creativity in Mental Health

ISSN: 1540-1383 (Print) 1540-1391 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wcmh20

Human-animal Relational Theory: a Guide for

Animal-assisted Counseling

Cynthia K. Chandler

To cite this article: Cynthia K. Chandler (2018): Human-animal Relational Theory:

a Guide for Animal-assisted Counseling, Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, DOI:
10.1080/15401383.2018.1486258

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2018.1486258

Published online: 27 Jun 2018.

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JOURNAL OF CREATIVITY IN MENTAL HEALTH
https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2018.1486258

Human-animal Relational Theory: a Guide for Animal-assisted

Counseling
Cynthia K. Chandler
Department of Counseling & Higher Education, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Animal-assisted therapy in counseling (AAT-C) is growing in popular- Received 18 March 2017
Revised 30 November 2017
ity. However, there has been no theory to guide the practice and
Accepted 22 February 2018
supervision of this field. In response to this need, I developed human-
animal relational theory (HART). HART is a model that explains how KEYWORDS
AAT-C is effective and serves as a guide for practice and supervision. I Animal-assisted counseling;
describe HART constructs in a manner consistent with neurobiologi- animal-assisted therapy;
cal effects of human-animal interaction. HART provides guidance on counselor education;
how to identify and effectively process significant human-animal creativity in counseling
relational moments (SHARMS) in counseling for therapeutic impact.
I present real cases to exemplify implementation of HART.

Animal-assisted therapy in counseling (AAT-C) involves the integration of human-animal

interactions into counseling sessions (Chandler, 2017). Effective integration can significantly
increase the number and type of psychodynamics presented in a session, meaning human
conscious and unconscious motivational forces. Thoughts and feelings generated by these
psychodynamics can be processed by the counselor and client. This processing can, in turn,
positively affect therapeutic gains (Chandler, 2017). AAT-C is an advanced form of counseling
which requires in-depth knowledge and skill to practice effectively. Until now, there has been no
model to guide the practice and supervision of AAT-C. I developed human-animal relational
theory (HART) to address this need (Chandler, 2016, 2017). A primary strength of HART is its
consistency with current scientific understanding of the neurobiology of human-animal inter-
actions, specifically the psychosocial and psychophysiological impact. To lay a foundation for
understanding the constructs of HART, I first present a discussion of the neurobiology of
human-animal interaction, followed by a lengthy description of my constructs of HART.

Neurobiology of Human-animal Interaction

Current scientific understanding of social engagement mechanisms of mammals, humans
and non-human animals, provides support for how human-animal interactions can create
impactful experiences. There are two primary biological systems at work within species
and across species engagement among mammals: the social response system and the stress
response system (Daley Olmert, 2009; Odendaal, 2000; Odendaal & Meintjes, 2003;
Panksepp, 2005). These systems are separate but very interactive. Regarding the social

CONTACT Cynthia K. Chandler cynthia.chandler@unt.edu Department of Counseling & Higher Education,

University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle, #310829, Denton, TX, USA
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/wcmh.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
2 C. K. CHANDLER

response system, it is known that within a few minutes of the initiation of positive social
interaction with a therapy animal, human hormones associated with the experience of
well-being (e.g., dopamine, endorphins, and oxytocin) will rise (Odendaal, 2000; Odendaal
& Meintjes, 2003). This is a social response reward mechanism, meaning the social
interaction feels good or is rewarding. Dopamine stimulates the pleasure centers in the
brain, endorphins lift mood, and oxytocin stimulates social connection, enhances mood,
and suppresses the stress response system, thereby inducing a calming effect. Furthermore,
the effects of oxytocin are enhanced when positive touch occurs during social interaction
(e.g., petting an animal) which causes skin sensors to stimulate the release of large
amounts of oxytocin in the brain (Handlin et al., 2011; Uvnäs-Moberg, 2010; Uvnäs-
Moberg, Arn, & Magnusson, 2005). Animals, such as dogs and horses, can experience
interaction and contact with humans as nurturing in much the same way (Panksepp, 2004,
2005). The social response reward mechanism underlies an animal’s desire to seek and
provide engagement that can be very beneficial to a client. Via activation of the social
response system, an animal may serve in the role of “nurturer” for human participants
during human-animal interaction. Likewise, a human participant is provided an oppor-
tunity to serve as “nurturer” for the animal (Chandler, 2016, 2017).
The mammalian stress response system of humans and animals is also similar. When
humans and non-human animals perceive there is a reason to be distressed, then stress-
related hormones such as aldosterone, cortisol, and adrenaline are released into the body
that result in fight, flight, or freeze responses (Panksepp, 2004, 2005). These responses will
be maintained until the human or animal no longer perceives a reason to be distressed.
Thus, animals can experience distress from negative social interaction in much the same
way as humans. Moreover, when the animal’s behavior reflects this in response to a
person, the animal’s behavior serves as a mirror to an individual, such as reflecting a
client’s attitude and behavior. An animal may also reflect the attitude and behavior of a
counselor that is present. Many species of animals will demonstrate displacement signals,
alerting signals, or calming signals when the animal experiences stress or perceives distress
in another being (Chandler, 2017; Lipin, 2009; Rugaas, 2005). These are all natural animal
behaviors. A few examples of calming signals of dogs include, looking away, yawning,
rapid lip licking, rapid eye blinking, or a quick shake of the body (Lipin, 2009; Rugaas,
2005). Other species have calming signals similar to dogs, as well as some that are
different. Horses demonstrate many of the same signals as dogs and additionally may
engage in empty chewing or pawing the ground (Lipin, 2009). Displacement signals of
animals include moving away, moving toward, or some other major shift in body position
or posture (Chandler, 2017). Alerting signals of animals are behaviors or expressions,
either vocal or non-vocal, which may direct attention (Chandler, 2017). A few examples of
alerting signals are, a dog pacing back and forth between a counselor and a client, a quick
dog bark, a dog staring in one direction with ears up and forward, a horse whinny or
snort, and a horse repeatedly motioning its head in a certain direction. An animal may
serve in the role of “emotional-distress detector” for human participants during human-
animal interaction via behaviors initiated from activation of the stress response system
(Chandler, 2016, 2017). To effectively utilize human-animal interaction requires knowl-
edge of animal behavior and communication relative to the species and also the unique
personality of the animal involved.
 JOURNAL OF CREATIVITY IN MENTAL HEALTH 3

While many different species of domesticated mammals participate in AAT-C, the most
common therapy animals are dogs and horses. This is not only because of their keen
ability to be socialized and trained, but also because these two species have a biology that
enables and promotes engagement within a complex social system (e.g., horses as herd
animals and dogs as pack animals). Although horses view the world as prey animals, and
dogs view the world as predators, each species is very adept at perceiving and responding
to the state of another social being. Furthermore, from a long, shared history of socializa-
tion, horses and dogs have shown a willingness to accept humans as members of an
extended herd or pack family. In my work as a counselor performing AAT-C, I have
observed that properly socialized horses and dogs desire to interact with humans, to
engage in nurturance, and to show concern in the presence of emotional distress. Dogs
and horses may move toward persons in emotional distress to check on them and nurture
them, as long as the animal does not perceive a threat or an intolerable amount of stress,
in which case it may choose not to engage or even move away from a person. My focus on
the value of horses and dogs as participants in AAT-C is not meant to discourage the
incorporation of other species that can also be valuable in providing therapeutic human-
animal interactions. It is simply that horses and dogs may offer greater and richer types of
relational opportunities in counseling because equines and canines have well-developed
social engagement tendencies.
Another biologically-based benefit that makes animals such valuable participants in
counseling sessions is animals’ keen ability to detect and immediately respond to a
person’s emotional experience. Animals may detect emotions that a client’s controlled
presentation might mask because animals utilize multiple sensory pathways to assess their
surroundings and the beings they encounter within it, including sight (visual), sound
(auditory), touch or feel (kinesthetic), smell (olfactory), and taste (gustatory). Animals,
who have hundreds of millions of olfactory receptors (Correa, 2005), may be able to smell
the emotions of humans (Filiatre, Millot, & Eckerlin, 1991). However, while the ability of
animals to smell emotions has not been substantially established, the idea has support
from observation of service dogs’ detection of human seizures (Green, 2000). Also, a
clinical-controlled study observed canine ability to accurately smell cancer cells (Willis
et al., 2004). Furthermore, clinical controlled study of canine olfactory behavior with
humans led researchers to conclude that dogs sniff the breath and hands of humans in
order to detect emotional state (Filiatre et al., 1991). The olfactory acuity of animals is
presumed to detect the internal emotional experience of a client. The animals resulting
behavior from this detection provides additional information and intervention opportu-
nity to effect therapeutic gain. As a companion to smell, animals’ licking behavior (e.g.,
licking the air near a person or licking a person’s skin) may sometimes be an attempt to
gain additional information since taste enhances olfactory perception in many animals
(Correa, 2005). An additional advantage to working with animals in counseling is that
animals may sense positive or negative energy emanating from another being via the
kinesthetic pathway, as suggested by heart rate variability research between a human and
equines (HeartMath, 2006).
Scientific knowledge of humans’ and animals’ social and stress response systems, along
with animals’ highly developed perceptual abilities, provides support for the benefits of
incorporating human-animal interaction into counseling sessions. HART serves as a guide
for the facilitation of human-animal interactions and the processing of thoughts and
4 C. K. CHANDLER

feelings that arise from these interactions so as to create therapeutic gains. It provides a
framework for recognizing and valuing the contribution of a therapy animal to the social
dynamics of counseling and enhances potential therapeutic impact of human-animal
interactions.

Human-animal Relational Theory

I developed human-animal relational theory (HART) to guide practice and supervision of
AAT-C (see Table 1). Within the framework of HART, I conceptualize AAT-C as the
facilitation of human-animal interaction for the purpose of providing opportunity for
therapeutic relational moments to occur between therapy animals and counseling parti-
cipants, including client and counselor. From the moment a therapy animal is brought
into the proximity of a client and counselor, the animal is relating to them in some way.
Over the course of the therapy session, many opportunities for relational moments (RMs)
will occur including the following: (a) between client and therapy animal while the
counselor is observing; (b) between counselor and therapy animal while the client is

Table 1. Human-animal relational theory glossary of terms.

HART Human-animal relational theory. Provides a framework for recognizing and valuing the
contribution of a therapy animal to the social dynamics of counseling and enhancing potential
therapeutic impact of human-animal interactions.
RM Relational moment. Any moment when an animal is interacting with or having an effect on a
person in a session.
SHARM Significant human-animal relational moment. Any significant moment when an animal is
interacting with or having an effect on a person in a session. This moment stands out as
potentially having a significant impact on a person in a session.
HARP Human-animal relational processing. Internal and/or external processing of a SHARM by a
counselor and/or client. Processing involves consideration of the meaning of a significant
relational moment with an animal and how the moment may impact a person in a session.
I-HARP Internal human-animal relational processing. Internal processing of a SHARM (private dialogue)
by a counselor or client. It involves consideration of the meaning of a significant relational
moment with an animal in the session and how the moment may impact a person.
E-HARP External human-animal relational processing. External processing of a SHARM (interactive
dialogue) by a counselor and client. It involves consideration of the meaning of a significant
relational moment with an animal in the session and how the moment may impact a person.
May be initiated by a client or a counselor.
HARTI Human-animal relational therapeutic impact. Benefit gained from processing (HARP) a significant
moment involving an animal (SHARM) that occurred in a session.
Greeting SHARM A counselor facilitates a greeting between a client and a therapy animal each time the client
comes to a session where the animal is present.
Acknowledgement A counselor or client acknowledges the animal is communicating something about a person
SHARM present in a session or that the animal itself needs to be attended to.
Checking-in SHARM An animal performs a behavior of checking in (i.e. nuzzling, sniffing) in order to perceive and/or
attend to the state of a person in a session.
Comfort SHARM An animal engages in comforting physical behavior with a person in a session, such as, touching,
hugging, snuggling, laying in or next to the lap, or licking the face or hands.
Speculation SHARM A counselor may wonder aloud what the animal is thinking or feeling in an effort to make a point
that may provide insight or awareness to the client. Or, a counselor may ask the client to
speculate in order to provide a medium through which the client may project the client’s internal
experience. The speculation does not have to be accurate to be of value.
Interpretation A counselor offers an interpretation of the animal’s behavior or asks a client to interpret an
SHARM animal’s behavior in order to imply what the animal is experiencing or may be communicating.
With this SHARM, an accurate interpretation of what the animal is likely experiencing or
communicating is intended by the counselor or client.
Assurance SHARM A client experiences assurance or self-assurance because of how the animal behaves around the
client or from a client observing some behavior of the animal. This SHARM involves the primary
issues of a client: (a) self-worth; (b) self-efficacy; or (c) sense of safety.
 JOURNAL OF CREATIVITY IN MENTAL HEALTH 5

observing; (c) between client and counselor while the therapy animal is observing; and (d)
during simultaneous counselor-client-animal interaction. With multiple relational
dynamics present in a session, a counselor has many opportunities to recognize and
process the conscious and unconscious motivations of a client. There is much relational
activity occurring during an animal-assisted session. In the roles of nurturer and emo-
tional distress detector, an animal is an effective social stimulus. Even some of the simplest
RMs can have a big impact. For example, being greeted by a therapy dog might contribute
to a warmer therapeutic atmosphere. Petting a therapy dog might soothe clients’ anxiety,
allowing them to be more present, genuine, and less guarded in a session, thereby enabling
them to form a stronger therapeutic alliance with the counselor. Some human-animal
RMs may even facilitate recognition of client issues that a client or counselor may have
not previously realized. For instance, a therapy animal suddenly changing its position or
proximity to a client may signal the animal has perceived a shift in the internal experience
of a client. These internal experiences could be an increase in emotional distress or some
other type of emotional shift. The therapy animal may perceive these shifts through its
detection of visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, or gustatory cues—or perhaps via some
sensory pathway of which we are not currently aware. If a counselor values human-animal
RMs that occur during an AAT-C session and recognizes that these RMs may potentially
benefit the client, the counselor can explore with the client what these moments may
reveal. Due to the nurturing ability and the sensory perceptions of therapy animals,
significant gains can be made for clients who participate in AAT-C. Potentially, these
gains can be different and greater compared with counseling that does not involve a
therapy animal.
During AAT-C, human-animal interaction offers opportunities for multiple RMs to occur
between human and animal participants. A counselor must discern which RMs are most
significant, and should be focused on, and how in-depth to address them for the benefit of a
client. A significant human-animal relational moment is referred to as a SHARM. Once a
counselor and/or a client recognizes that a SHARM has occurred, it can be processed for
therapeutic impact. It is not just that the SHARM occurred that is important, but also the
effectiveness to which it is processed. Processing means addressing any thoughts and feelings that
the SHARM may have evoked. I refer to the processing of a SHARM as human-animal relational
processing (HARP). There are two types of HARP, internal and external. I refer to internal
processing of a SHARM as an I-HARP. I-HARP is a private dialogue involving introspection
about what the human-animal interaction that occurred may mean or reflect. This introspection
may occur within the client or within the counselor. For instance, a potential internal dialogue by
a client might be, “Wow, Jesse knows I am really afraid to share my thoughts. But, with her in my
lap I feel safer and encouraged to share, to take a risk with my counselor.” External processing of a
SHARM is referred to as an E-HARP. An E-HARP involves interactive dialogue between a
counselor and a client about what a human-animal interaction that occurred in session may
mean or reflect. This can be initiated by a counselor or a client. For instance, a potential external
dialogue may sound like the following. A counselor reflects to a client, “Jesse seems to want to be
physically close to you right now.” The client responds, “Yeah, she can tell I need some support.
She’s taking care of me.” The counselor replies, “Tell me more about that.” The client elaborates,
“I did something really stupid this weekend and am afraid my parents are going to find out.” And
the dialogue continues on in the session.
6 C. K. CHANDLER

SHARM + HARP = HARTI

Figure 1. HART implementation formula.

Processing of a SHARM may also include some combination of both I-HARP and
E-HARP. It is the combination of SHARM and HARP together that determines the
depth and type of therapeutic impact of a significant moment involving a therapy animal;
I refer to this as the human-animal relational therapeutic impact (HARTI). A formula
representing the qualitative values of HART is provided in Figure 1. Examples of two
types of SHARMs are provided in Figures 2 and 3.
Insight derived from internal and external processing of a SHARM affects the potential
therapeutic impact of human-animal interaction. Once a SHARM has been recognized,
the amount, type, and direction of the processing of a SHARM can be determined by a
counselor with a client. If the nature of a SHARM presents clear opportunity for enhanced
insight, awareness, or personal growth in an obvious area for a client, a counselor may
then gently steer the processing of the SHARM in a particular direction. However, it is
also highly valuable when processing a SHARM with a client to not direct the process but
rather explore a SHARM with a client in a fashion that allows further meaning to emerge
and be discovered by a counselor and client together.
SHARMs represent impactful events between a person and animal, an animal with
which that person feels a connection or desires to feel a connection. These feelings can
result in either nurturing or challenging moments of interaction. For example, an adoles-
cent who wants a dog to bring a ball back after the adolescent throws the ball may feel

Figure 2. This type of SHARM is referred to as a checking-in SHARM. The therapy dog is checking in on
the emotional state of the client by sniffing the client’s breath (n.b., this is a counselor-client role play
with authentic animal behavior).
 JOURNAL OF CREATIVITY IN MENTAL HEALTH 7

Figure 3. This type of SHARM is referred to as a comfort SHARM. A child client hugs a therapy dog for
comfort while she participates in play therapy (n.b., this is a counselor-client role play, with authentic
animal behavior).

rejected if the dog takes the ball to someone else. Or an adolescent grooming a horse may
feel frustrated by a horse’s lack of cooperation in refusing to lift its hoof for cleaning. In
contrast, someone who has a cat snuggling in their lap may feel comforted. Both nurturing
and challenging relational moments can provide an opportunity for counselor and client
to process the conscious and unconscious motivational forces of the client in a construc-
tive way. Whether or not the motivational force is originating from past or present, the
experience presented in session can be addressed in the here and now. Each of the
aforementioned examples reflect actual cases, and I will break down each one using the
HART terminology. In the first example, when the adolescent felt rejection because a dog
did not bring the ball back to him (a SHARM), this provided an opportunity: (a) to
process (discuss) his feelings in the moment with the counselor (the HARP); and (b) gain
insight on these same feelings that he recognized were present in his relationships with his
family members (the HARTI). In the second example, the adolescent: (a) felt frustrated by
the horse’s lack of cooperation and expressed the situation reminded her of the type of
frustrations she causes her mother (a SHARM); (b) when she processed this recognition
with the counselor (the HARP), it motivated the adolescent to change her behavior; and
(c) within one week, she and her mother both reported that the adolescent was signifi-
cantly more cooperative and pleasant (the HARTI). In the third example, the adolescent
who felt: (a) comforted by a cat in her lap (a SHARM); (b) processed with the counselor
how it was the most relaxed she had been in a long time (the HARP); and (c) elaborated
on her anxiety which provided an opportunity for her to gain important insights (the
HARTI). Human-animal interaction can be more impactful, and thus more therapeutic, if
a social connection, or even a desire for social connection, with the animal is present. This
8 C. K. CHANDLER

is why it is important that the therapeutic environment allows for social interactions to
occur between client and therapy animal. The animal should not be considered as a mere
object to be used in therapy as this viewpoint greatly devalues the animal, and conse-
quently limits the potential benefits that may be gained from having a therapy animal in
session. A counselor must appreciate the animal as a social being and social stimulus,
honoring the contributions the animal may make to the psychodynamics of counseling.
A counselor facilitates human-animal relational moments by bringing a therapy animal
into a session. When an animal is in a therapy space, its presence affects all people in the
therapy space both passively and actively. For example, even a dog sleeping quietly at a
client’s feet can be comforting for a client (i.e., passive presence). In an animal-assisted
counseling session, spontaneous RMs occur, as well as RMs that a counselor may direct.
Indeed, a counselor could guide or direct a client or therapy animal in interactions to
achieve certain goals, while at the same time keeping in mind the need to allow the client
and animal to interact naturally. While the counselor is the facilitator of AAT-C, the
modality works best if the counselor honors, values, and respects the natural state of the
animal and works within those parameters. However, it is important that a counselor sets
limits on animal and human behaviors in order to preserve the safety and welfare of the
animals and humans engaged in the therapy. The state, attitude, needs, desires, ability or
disability of humans and animals must be taken into consideration during AAT-C. In
many cases, it is not too unnatural or too inhibiting to ask a therapy dog to respond to
simple commands such as the following: sit, down, stay, come and walk politely on a leash.
In fact, there are a variety of activities that a therapy animal, such as a dog, can engage in
that are consistent with the natural ability of the animal. Thus, a variety of social activity is
available with which to work. Similar to other species of animals, many human-directed
activities are not too inconsistent with the animal’s innate makeup and therefore do not
interfere with the opportunity for an animal to interact naturally with a client. It is
important to remember that the fewer inhibitions placed on an animal’s natural social-
relational behavior during therapy, the freer animals and humans are to relate to one
another naturally. If executed within safe and comfortable limits for humans and animals,
fewer limitations could create greater relational opportunities for therapeutic gains. While
human-directed activities are effective in AAT-C, a counselor must be mindful of how
some directed activities could potentially facilitate or interfere with relational opportunity
between a client and a therapy animal. For example, a dog that strictly adheres to “sit” and
“stay” commands may not feel free to signal its perception of distress in a client by
walking over and licking the client’s hand. Just a therapy animal’s presence in a room can
result in spontaneous interactions initiated either by the animal or the client that can be
quite therapeutic.
Facilitating engagement between a therapy animal and a client can be accomplished
with or without utilizing additional objects such as treats, toys, or agility obstacles. These
objects can be used to gain the animal’s attention, direct the animal’s interaction, and are
useful when a counselor wishes to have the client engage in command-giving or play
behavior as part of the session. However, when these objects are brought into therapy,
they will direct the animal’s focus, attention, and behavior, and to some extent, pre-
determine the amount and type of the animal’s social engagement. What may be lost in
these directed activities, since the animal is otherwise occupied, is the degree to which the
animal may sense, reflect, or attend to the internal state of the client or the internal state of
 JOURNAL OF CREATIVITY IN MENTAL HEALTH 9

the counselor. It is likely that a therapy animal may discern more information about
personal dynamics of human participants when a counselor does less to direct the animal’s
attention or behavior. The more a counselor directs a client’s engagement with a therapy
animal, the fewer opportunities are available for client-initiated interactions that may
reflect a meaningful conscious or unconscious motivational force of the client.
A counselor should neither under- or over-utilize human-animal interaction. In over-
utilizing, the counselor runs the risk of over directing human-animal interaction in a
manner that does not allow for a significant relational dynamic to occur between the
therapy animal and the client. In under-utilizing, the counselor fails to recognize when a
significant relational dynamic is occurring or has occurred. Moreover, the counselor
would miss an opportunity to understand something meaningful about the client and
point out and process that relational moment with the client. Both over-utilization and
under-utilization are symptoms of a counselor under-valuing the potential contribution of
the therapy animal as a relational being capable of appreciably contributing to psychody-
namics of a session.
When a therapy animal is present in a session, it attends to the social dynamics of all
beings present, including other animals and any humans. During a therapy session, the
animal is not only discerning the client’s emotions and behaviors, but also those of the
counselor. If a counselor is frustrated with a client, the therapy animal may sense and
signal the counselor’s frustration in some manner. For example, the animal might attend
to the counselor in a nurturing way or try to break-up the tension by re-directing focus,
such as bringing a toy to the counselor. Thus, therapy animals can assist counselors with
their own emotional recognition during sessions with a client.

Significant Human-animal Relational Moments

In my work as a counselor and supervisor, I began to identify and classify SHARMs that
occurred in animal-assisted counseling sessions. My observations are presented here. This
is not an exhaustive list of possible SHARM categories, but these examples are meant to
provide better understanding of how to identify and process a SHARM and assess the
potential therapeutic impact of performing this exercise.
The SHARMs that tend to occur in animal-assisted counseling sessions are as follows:
(a) greeting; (b) acknowledgment; (c) checking-in; (d) comfort; (e) speculation; (f) inter-
pretation; and (g) assurance. I have also observed these SHARMS occurring in animal-
assisted supervision sessions, which involve a supervisor having a therapy animal present
to interact with supervisees (i.e., counselors in training). Animal-assisted supervision can
be performed regardless of whether supervisees practice animal-assisted counseling.
Indeed, the human-animal interaction can facilitate insights that contribute to the perso-
nal and professional growth of the supervisee. Opportunities for impact from SHARMs
may occur from the integration of human-animal interaction in counseling or supervision
of counseling. It is important to recognize and process these SHARMs to enhance their
therapeutic impact.
It is important to note that the behavior that signals a particular SHARM can vary from
animal to animal. Different animals have different personalities, behavioral tendencies.
Thus, it is important for counselors to be familiar with the personality and behavioral
tendencies of the therapy animal with which they work. In some instances, it is not always
10 C. K. CHANDLER

necessary to accurately comprehend what an animal may be communicating because

therapeutic benefit may still occur when clients project meaning onto the animal’s
behavior. It is also important to note that the amount of HARP that accompanies a
SHARM is not relevant to the type of SHARM, rather the amount of HARP is relevant to
the need presented by the client. Thus, HARP can be brief or can be more in-depth
depending upon the need of a client and resulting intended impact (HARTI).
Counselors who perform AAT-C do so in a variety of ways. Indeed, HART can be
utilized regardless of the type of therapeutic approach or the type of therapy animal
involved. For example, a counselor may take a non-directive approach and simply have an
animal present in a therapy space, inviting clients to engage with an animal if they are so
inclined. Also, a counselor may take a more directive approach and facilitate structured or
semi-structured activities that engage a client with an animal during session. Regardless of
therapeutic approach, significant moments can occur (SHARMS), as well as opportunities
for processing (HARP) and therapeutic impact (HARTI).
As with any type of counseling, client resistance or ruptures in the counselor-client
relationship may occur in AAT-C. However, from many years of practice, teaching,
supervision, and research of counseling, both with and without animals, I view AAT-C
as more effective at lowering client resistance and repairing ruptures (Chandler, 2017). In
fact, HART is helpful in identifying when resistance and ruptures occur. One way they can
be identified via HART is if a client repeatedly rejects a counselor’s indication that a
SHARM may have occurred between a client and a therapy animal. Another way is if a
client repeatedly sets aside a counselor’s description of a SHARM and replaces it with a
differing perception of that SHARM and its implications for the client.
An animal is typically not present when the counselor and client engage for the very
first time. First, a client is screened for appropriateness to interact with animals.
Contraindications may include severe allergies or a history of animal abuse. If a client is
deemed appropriate for human-animal interaction, then a counselor explains the oppor-
tunity for a client to work with an animal in therapy. The counselor should also include
information about the animal and the types of interactions that may occur with that
animal. Afterward, either that same session, or in a later session, the client and animal can
be introduced.

Greeting
For a greeting SHARM, a counselor facilitates a greeting between a client and a therapy
animal each time the client comes to a session where the animal is present. The counselor
comments on the animal’s and client’s body language in response to the greeting and the
possible meaning or value of this body language. This aids in conveying acceptance and
warmth to a client. Additionally, a client may think, “I’m likeable” because the animal,
who is authentic in its interactions, wants to engage with the client. The nurturing
presence that the animal introduces into the atmosphere may contribute to a sense of
calm, safety, and support for a client.
Consider the following example. Working as counselor, I facilitated a greeting between
a client and my dog, Jesse, a buff and white cocker spaniel. The greeting began in the
waiting area and continued on into the therapy session where the dog settled next to the
client on the couch at the start of the session. Valuable interactions were observed when
 JOURNAL OF CREATIVITY IN MENTAL HEALTH 11

the client smiled broadly while petting the dog, who was wagging her tail and smiling back
at the client (SHARM). I then described and inquired about what the interaction could
mean for the client (initiating HARP). The client revealed that the dog helped her feel
more comfortable and provided support in preparation for exploring difficult issues. The
processing was intended to enhance the therapeutic impact (HARTI) of the therapy
animal’s engagement with the client and to encourage her to share her presenting
concerns. In this case, the HARP was quite brief, yet the HARTI was still important
and maintained its importance throughout the remainder of the session.

Acknowledgment
With an acknowledgment SHARM, a counselor or client acknowledges the animal is commu-
nicating something of value that needs to be attended to about a person present in a session or
about the animal itself. For example, the therapy animal could demonstrate a calming signal,
displacement signal, or alerting signal (Chandler, 2017). This is one of the most valuable assets of
a therapy animal, its ability and desire to signal when it detects a client’s intense emotional
experience, whether that experience be outwardly apparent or not. It is most likely that the
animal can see, smell, taste, hear, and/or feel the client’s emotional experience (Chandler, 2017).
Counselor’s most often lack the ability to detect when clients mask their emotions, but with a
therapy animal’s assistance, issues can be identified and addressed that might not otherwise be
noticed. What a therapy animal communicates is highly valuable, and it may significantly benefit
the client when a counselor and client acknowledge and explore this communication. Also, an
animal’s contribution should be acknowledged by petting and thanking the animal, thereby
reinforcing its tendency to serve this positive role. An improperly trained counselor working
with a therapy animal might find the animal’s signaling behavior annoying or distracting and
might either ignore or correct the animal. This error not only devalues the animal’s contribution,
but also discourages the animal from providing these important signals in the future.
The following example of an acknowledgment SHARM occurred when a doctoral counselor-
in-training was working with her dog, Wally. Wally is a black schnauzer-poodle mix, or
“schnoodle.” Several minutes into a session, therapy dog Wally began pacing back and forth
between the client and counselor. Then, he sat down by the counselor, looked at the client and
barked once (SHARM). From experience the counselor knew this was how Wally signaled there
was unexpressed anxiety. The counselor thanked Wally for alerting the client and counselor as
she gently petted Wally’s head. Initiating HARP, the counselor explained the reason for Wally’s
behavior and asked the client what she thought, “Wally is letting us know that something needs
attending, meaning there is a thought or feeling in a person that may reflect discomfort, anxiety,
or something else. Do you know what that might be?” The client responded by describing
feelings she had been suppressing (HARTI). Wally relaxed on the floor and fell asleep while the
client expressed the previously unshared thoughts that she believed reflected what the animal
was sensing.

Checking-in
For the SHARM of checking-in, a counselor points out that the therapy animal is “checking-in”
to make sure the client or the counselor is okay (see Figure 2). The counselor or client can also
check-in with the animal to see if the animal is okay in order to model care and facilitate sharing.
12 C. K. CHANDLER

A dog might demonstrate checking-in by moving toward a client and nuzzling, sniffing, or
licking the client’s face or hand. Upon initiating a checking-in, an animal will sometimes seek a
response from the person, that is, the animal may persist in sniffing or licking until the person
provides a response such as a smile or petting the animal. The SHARM of checking-in is a
potent conveyor of empathy and powerful encourager for client expression.
This example occurred when a master’s-level counselor-in-training was working with
his dog, Bolt, a blonde Labrador-retriever mix. Bolt greeted the client in the beginning of
the session and eventually laid down on the floor and closed his eyes. Then, at one point
in the session, Bolt got up of his own initiative, walked over to the client, and nuzzled the
client’s hand with his nose (a SHARM). Bolt continued to nudge the client’s hand until the
client petted him. The counselor explained (initiating the HARP) that Bolt was exhibiting
an expression of concern saying, “Bolt is checking in with you to see what is going on with
you right now, to see if you are okay.” Then, the client expressed at a deeper level how he
was feeling at that moment, what he was thinking, and how he was managing his
emotional state (the resulting HARTI).

Comfort
For a comfort SHARM, a counselor reflects on the client and animal engaging in
comforting physical touch such as hugging, snuggling, laying in or next to the lap, or
licking the face or hands (see Figure 3). With this SHARM, a counselor can convey the
animal’s perception of a client’s need for comfort, or the client’s desire to comfort an
animal. Also, the animal’s desire to be comforted by a client can also be addressed.
This example occurred when I was working with my dog, Jesse. A client felt vulnerable
and hesitant to talk in session. Jesse spontaneously moved to the client and licked the air
inches from the client’s face. Jesse then curled her body around, leaned in, snuggled her
back against the client’s side, and glanced back toward the client while laying her head on
the client’s chest. This interaction was a SHARM. I then initiated HARP when I com-
mented, “Jesse is caring for you. She senses you need to be comforted right now.” The
client then expressed her feelings of discomfort, vulnerability, and emotional pain
(HARTI). With the client’s revelations, I was able to assist the client through empathy
and support. Due to the SHARM and the HARP, the client became engaged in meaningful
therapeutic discussion that resulted in HARTI.

Speculation
For a speculation SHARM, a counselor may wonder aloud what the animal is thinking or
feeling in an effort to make a point that may provide insight or awareness to the client. A
counselor may also ask the client to participate in the speculation thereby providing a
medium through which the client may project their internal experience. The speculation
does not have to be accurate to be of value.
An example of speculation occurred while working with my dog, Jesse. During a session,
Jesse was fast asleep on the floor between me and the client. The client and I noticed the dog
seemed to be dreaming. Jesse was making small running motions with her feet and vocalizing
muffled whimpers and barking softly while she slept (SHARM). I wondered aloud, “Jesse seems
to be dreaming. I wonder if she is running toward something or away from something. I wonder
 JOURNAL OF CREATIVITY IN MENTAL HEALTH 13

if she is happy or I wonder if she is scared.” The client then shared her thoughts, projecting her
desires or fears onto the dog’s behavior (HARP). The client and I continued to process exploring
how the experience of the dog might resemble the client’s own life experience (HARTI).

Interpretation
For an interpretation SHARM, a counselor offers an interpretation of the therapy animal’s
behavior to imply what the animal is experiencing or may be communicating. A counselor
may also ask a client to interpret the animal’s behavior. With this SHARM, an accurate
interpretation of what the animal is likely experiencing or communicating is intended.
The following is an example of interpretation that occurred while working with my
dog, Jesse. At the beginning of the session, Jesse jumped up next to the client who was
sitting on the couch and checked in with the client by moving her nose up near the client’s
face and sniffing her breath (a check in SHARM, which I chose not to process with the
client at the time). The client patted Jesse on the head, and Jesse laid down on the couch
next to the client (a comfort SHARM, which I also chose not to process with the client at
the time). The client was somewhat quiet and spoke only of superficial things. After a few
moments, Jesse jumped down off of the couch and walked a few steps across the room and
jumped into my lap. I stroked Jesse a few times and then Jesse jumped off my lap and went
back over to the couch and laid next to the client again who gently petted her. In a few
moments, Jesse jumped off of the couch and went back over to my lap. I perceived that
this back and forth interaction was an important SHARM to externally process with the
client. After observing the back and forth behavior of Jesse, I initiated the HARP and
conveyed my interpretation to the client: “Jesse is conflicted, she wants to be near you, but
at the same time she wants to be near me. This seems to be a dilemma for her. I wonder if
we can help her with a solution.” The client and I then explored how to satisfy Jesse’s
desire to be near both of us. Since the couch was big enough, we resolved that I would sit
on one end, the client would sit on the other end, and Jesse would be able to be in the
middle if she desired. I moved to the couch and Jesse spontaneously jumped between us,
laid down, and stretched her body out lengthwise so that she was making physical contact
with both of us at the same time, physically bridging the gap between counselor and client.
Seeing an opportunity I perceived as helpful for this particular client, I asked her to
explore what thoughts and feelings Jesse’s conflict and the resolution to the conflict
invoked in her. I also asked her if she could relate this situation to her own life. The
client then expressed concern regarding a dilemma she was experiencing but had been
hesitant to discuss. She now readily described her dilemma and explored her conflicted
feelings with me (the resulting HARTI).

Assurance
With the assurance SHARM, a client experiences assurance or self-assurance because of
how the animal behaves around the client or from a client observing some behavior of the
animal. This SHARM involves the primary issues: (a) self-worth; (b) self-efficacy; or (c)
sense of safety. For instance, a therapy animal who chooses to engage with a client
contributes to the client’s feelings of worth. For example, a horse that willingly follows a
person around with no rope attached to it assures a client that the client is worthy or has
14 C. K. CHANDLER

value to the horse. Simply put, the client feels “I am worthy, because the horse wants to
follow me.” Also, the horse’s following assures the client that the horse trusts and feels safe
with the client. Another example of assurance is a dog that complies with a client’s
commands to perform a trick. The animal’s obedience conveys that the animal is willing
to work with the client. Furthermore, success with the task boost a client’s confidence and
sense of self-efficacy, leaving a client feeling, “I am capable.” Additionally, a client who
feels vulnerable may avoid or resist participation in therapy, but then choose to participate
when in close contact with or accompanied by a therapy animal. The animal’s presence or
behavior increases a client’s feeling of “I am safe.”
The following example of assurance occurred when I was working with my dog, Jesse.
During the session, Jesse, who had been sleeping next to me on one end of a long,
L-shaped couch, spontaneously arose and walked to the other end of the couch where the
client was sitting. Jesse then jumped up on the back of the couch and laid down, nestling
her body against the back of the client’s neck and head (a SHARM). I reflected and
initiated the HARP, “Jesse feels very comfortable with you. She senses you are a safe
person who she can trust right now.” The client smiled, gently reached back to pet Jesse
and then shared with me how she felt about herself in regard to a certain situation where
she was unsafe with a person in her life (the resulting HARTI). While speaking, the client
occasionally reached back behind her head to stroke Jesse’s soft fur. As she continued to
reach back to touch Jesse, the client was providing and receiving assurance of safety, and I
presumed she was internally processing the support the therapy dog provided. This
interaction with the therapy animal seemed to encourage the client to explore a situation
where she felt vulnerable.
A counselor must not simply choose quantity over quality in the consideration of
SHARMs because without effective HARP the meaning and relevance of a SHARM may
be missed or quickly forgotten. The more effective HARP is regarding a SHARM, then the
more HARTI is gained for the session. The HART formula may be enacted multiple times
in a session, but it also can be effective when applied only once during a session. I
occasionally observed one SHARM to be so meaningful that the remainder of the session
was consumed by HARP, and the HARTI was substantial.

Conclusion
I developed HART after 15 years of AAT-C practice, teaching, supervision, and research. I
created HART because I perceived there was a need for a guiding theory that would explain and
facilitate the unique aspects AAT-C presents. HART is a means for assisting counselors to better
understand and utilize the contribution a therapy animal makes to the social-relational dynamics
of a counseling session. Well-socialized therapy animals will engage in nurturance with humans
as a natural manifestation of their social response system. They do so by seeking social engage-
ment, giving and receiving comfort, or initiating play in their interactions. Additionally, when an
animal detects, through one of its sensory pathways, a human client’s significant emotional
experience, then the animal immediately responds with a genuine reaction that is reflective of
what the animal is perceiving and conceptualizing. An animal’s social engagement is manifested
through three factors: (a) its innate social response system (e.g., moving toward comfort); (b) its
innate stress response system (e.g., signaling or moving away from discomfort); or (c) through an
interaction of the two innate systems (e.g., moving toward comfort in an attempt to alleviate
 JOURNAL OF CREATIVITY IN MENTAL HEALTH 15

discomfort in itself or another being). The immediacy of an animal’s authentic, uncensored

behavioral response to the emotional experiences of a client provides valuable information that
may reveal something therapeutically important to both counselor and client. The more adept a
counselor is at recognizing and attending to the social cues of a therapy animal, the greater
benefit can be had from incorporating a therapy animal into a counseling session.
No theory dedicated to the practice of AAT-C existed prior to my development of HART.
Therefore, HART is a vital contribution to the growth of AAT-C in that it provides a model for
recognizing and responding to therapeutic opportunities presented by human-animal interac-
tions. Another strength of HART is that the theory’s basic constructs are consistent with
scientific understanding of the nature of human-animal interaction. HART emphasizes the
importance of attending to social-relational dynamics of humans and animals as a medium for
helping clients grow and heal. The value of the HART approach to AAT-C is even more
pronounced when working with therapy animals that have interest in social engagement with
humans and vice versa. The more social engagement that occurs, the greater likelihood
SHARMS will be presented.
HART is a model for understanding and practicing AAT-C effectively. HART is not meant to
substitute for a counselor’s primary guiding theory, rather HART is intended to be used in
conjunction with it. I have practiced and supervised HART and seen it used effectively in
conjunction with differing primary counseling guiding theories. HART is a useful model for
better understanding, practicing, supervising, teaching, and researching AAT-C.

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