THE USE OF EMBODIED ENERGY AND CARBON AS INDICATORS OF

THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

STRUCTURES IN IRELAND

M. McCAFFREY, J. GOGGINS & G. BAYLOR

Dept. of Civil Engineering, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

Abstract
This paper uses embodied energy (EE) and embodied carbon (EC) as indicators of the
environmental impact of reinforced concrete (RC). Accuracy and completeness of
EE/EC analysis is dependent on the method used. This paper demonstrates that by
understanding how energy is consumed in the production of each constituent part and
in the manufacture of RC, designers can significantly reduce the overall EE and EC of
structures. Both EE and EC of products can vary from country to country. Therefore,
to accurately calculate these for RC structures, data specific to the country where they
are being constructed must be used. This paper presents the assessment of EE and EC
in typical RC structures in Ireland. A case study is presented where it is shown that by
replacing ordinary portland cement (OPC) with ground granulated blastfurnace slag
(GGBS), savings are achievable in the construction of a multi-megawatt wind turbine
in Ireland.

Keywords: (concrete, embodied carbon / energy, life cycle analysis, sustainability)

1 Introduction
The use of natural energy resources has become intrinsic to human behaviour. Today
the built environment is responsible for more than 40% of European energy
consumption (European-Commission 2002). In recent years there has been a change in
public perception as the implications of irresponsible energy usage and resulting
climate change have become more evident. However, perceptions and awareness
alone are not sufficient factors to convince businesses and industry, who are the main
contributors, that a move towards more sustainable use of our resources is required.
“Energy” and “Carbon” are two key words which are often used, sometimes
interchangeably, in reference to the consumption of available resources. These words
are closely linked as the use of energy will have a certain amount of carbon associated
with it and is dependent, for example, on whether the source of energy is renewable or
not. Studies carried out to date have measured either energy or carbon or both energy
and carbon (Bullard et al 1978, Crawford 2008, Hammond & Jones 2008, Acquaye &
Duffy 2009, Goggins et al 2010). It is important that both are taken into account.
In the aftermath of the Kyoto protocol (UNFCCC 1998) the ‘Carbon Market’ has
incentivised industries to become more sustainable and change their outlook.
Currently little attention is being paid to reducing embodied energy (EE) and
embodied carbon (EC). These refer to the energy and carbon required for raw material
extraction, transport, manufacture, assembly, installation, disassembly, deconstruction
and/or decomposition for any product or system. If a drive towards true sustainable
use of our resources is to be achieved it is critical that both EE and EC are addressed
(Acquaye & Duffy 2009; Goggins et al. 2010).
EE and EC analysis enables informed decision making in relation to the processing
methods used and the products purchased in the manufacture and supply of any
product or system. This paper outlines how both the EE and EC of reinforced concrete
(RC) structures in Ireland can be significantly reduced at potentially little or no extra
cost.

M. McCaffrey, J. Goggins & G. Baylor -1-

2 Embodied Energy & Embodied Carbon in Reinforced Concrete

2.1 Introduction
In the evaluation of the EE and EC there are a number of formally recognised
methodologies which exist. These are process analysis, input-output (I-O) analysis and
hybrid analysis, which is a combination of both (Bullard et al. 1978; Treloar 1997;
Hammond & Jones 2008; Acquaye & Duffy 2009; Goggins et al. 2010). Indirect
energy is used to create the inputs of goods and services to the main process, whereas
direct energy is the energy used for the main process. The accuracy and extent of an
EE/EC analysis is dependent on which of the three main methods is chosen.
Process analysis is a step by step analysis of the inputs to a product. It can, however,
suffer from inaccuracy due to truncation and incomplete data. A boundary must be
established at some point in order to complete a process inventory analysis.
I-O analysis uses economic I-O tables, which are unique to each economy, to track
energy flows through an economy. The Irish I-O tables (CSO 2009a) are separated
into 53 sectors. From these the energy sectors are abstracted and disaggregated to
calculate energy intensities of manufacturing or service sectors and the products
therein. The advantage of using an I-O methodology is that the boundary for the
analysis is defined by the economy and, therefore, the completeness of the analysis is
improved as the indirect energy inputs are also included (Crawford 2008).
Hybrid analysis takes advantage of both methods and may be primarily process
based or I-O based. The energy intensity of typical products from a sector can be
accounted for by I-O analysis and incorporated into a process analysis if more detailed
data is available for the inventory, and vice versa. This is dependent on the product
being assessed.
Three common life cycle (LC) phases include: cradle to gate, cradle to site and
cradle to grave (Hammond & Jones 2008). Cradle to gate accounts for all the EE/EC
of a product until it leaves the factory gate. Cradle to site includes the additional
EE/EC of getting the product to site. This was chosen as the LC phase for this study.
Concrete is the most utilised substance in the world by volume after water. In order
to study the EE and EC in reinforced concrete it is necessary to have a comprehensive
knowledge of the processes involved in its manufacture and the production of its
component materials. RC is divided into its constituent parts of water, binders,
aggregate, admixtures and reinforcement. The path of contributing direct EE and EC
in concrete is illustrated in Goggins et al. (2010). In the current paper, a process-based
hybrid method, based on Irish data, is used to calculate the EE and EC in reinforced
concrete structures and the materials used in its construction.

2.2 Water
Combining water with cement forms a binder by the process of hydration (Neville
1995). Generally, water in concrete consists of that added to the mix and that which is
carried by the aggregates. Often water is recycled many times in these processes by
regular pumping and filtering. As a result, water has a relatively low impact on the
CO2 emissions of concrete.
The I-O total energy intensity of water in Ireland is given in Table 1, and calculated
using the ‘water collection, purification and distribution’ economic sector in the 2005
National I-O tables (CSO 2009a) and price indices (CSO 2009b). The primary energy
factors (PEF) and the disaggregation constants are evaluated using central statistics
office (CSO) data (CSO 2010), along with commission for energy regulation (CER)

2 M. McCaffrey, J. Goggins & G. Baylor

disclosure of fuel mix figures (CER 2007) and sustainable energy authority of Ireland
(SEAI) energy balance statistics (SEAI 2009). An assumed cost of water of 0.16 €/m3,
in 2005 is applied to find the total energy intensity (TEIn) of water in Ireland to be
2.02MJ/m3, which was evaluated from
E
TEI n   T RC  C d  Te  PEF  € BP (1)
e 1
where TRC is the total requirement coefficients (€/€), Cd is the disaggregation constant
(dimensionless), E is the total number of energy supply sectors, e in the I-O table, Te
is the average energy tariff (GJ/€), PEF is the Primary Energy Factor, which is a ratio
of the primary energy embodied in a fuel to the delivered energy (dimensionless), and
€BP is the basic price of water (€/m3).
For supplied and treated water in Ireland and assuming average energy mix
emissions, Ireland’s carbon emissions of 0.36kgCO2/m3 for water could be higher than
the UK. In the UK, Defra (2009) estimate emissions from full life-cycle of 1m3 of
supplied and treated water as 0.28kg carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e). CO2e is
calculated using the global warming potential (GWP) of the green house gases
focused on by the Kyoto protocol (UNFCCC 1998), namely, carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons
(PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
Work is ongoing by the authors to obtain more accurate EE and EC values for water.
GHG emissions need to be converted to carbon dioxide equivalent CO2e and the
assumed price for water also needs to be investigated further. However, in this
application water is found to have a negligible effect on the EE and EC of reinforced
concrete (Section 3).

Table 1 – I-O Calculation of the total energy intensity of water

Primary Average Total
Disaggregation
energy energy requiremet
Energy supply sector constant,
factor, tariff, coefficient,
Cd
PEF Te(GJ/€) TRC (€/€)
Peat 1.05 0.1124 0.341 0.002
Crude Oil 1.00 0.5055 0.136 0.002
Coal 1.00 0.3681 0.015 0.002
Petroleum 1.00 0.1507 0.494 0.008
Natural Gas 1.05 0.227 0.428 0.095
Electricity (non renewable) 1.13 0.0337 0.483 0.095
Renewable Energy 1.00 0.0686 0.089 0.095
Total energy intensity, TEI (MJ/€) 0.0129
Price €/m3 (2005) 0.16
Total energy intensity, TEI (MJ/m3) 2.02
Table derived from: SEAI (2009), Goggins et al.(2010), CSO(2009;2010), CER(2007).

2.3 Binders
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the most common binder used in concrete and can
contribute up to 65% of the EE in concrete (Section 3). The energy consumed in the
cement manufacturing process varies depending on process used (Taylor 1997), but is
largely due to the high temperatures required to form clinker. According to Van
Puyvelde (2009) the cement industry represents 7% of total global anthropogenic CO2
emissions. However, with new technologies the cement industry is reducing its CO2
emissions. For example, the Australian cement sector reduced its reportable CO2
emission per tonne of cement produced by 20% between 1990 and 2007 (CIF 2007).

M. McCaffrey, J. Goggins & G. Baylor -3-

Any further cuts are limited to the extent of which cement extenders can be used to
produce a material with adequate stress and strength properties (Van Puyvelde 2009).
Van Puyvelde (2009) believes that further reductions beyond that will require either a
move away from a calcination process (i.e. not using a carbonate as a raw material) or
to adopt the use of carbon capture and storage (CCS) for the cement industry.
Using data from CSO (2010) with energy conversion and carbon emission factors
(Howley et al. 2008; Defra 2009), and energy prices from SEAI (2005), the direct EE
and EC to produce a kg of cement are calculated as 4.03MJ and 0.91kgCO2,
respectively. The chemical reaction is accounted for in the EC, as according to
Hendriks et al. (1998) it is said to account for 0.5kgCO2/kg of cement produced.
Using the hybrid I-O methodology, the total EE of cement produced in Ireland for
2005 is calculated as 4.52MJ/kg, which is larger than the direct EE as it includes
indirect EE. In Ireland, 637g of CO2 was produced for every kWh of electricity
produced in the year 2005 (Howley et al. 2008). If this is used to convert the indirect
EE to EC then the total EC of cement produced in Ireland in 2005 is found to be
0.99kgCO2/kg. The results compare to values of 4.6MJ/kg and 0.83kgCO2/kg in the
UK (Hammond & Jones 2008), and also EC values of 0.73kgCO2/kg and
0.99kgCO2/kg in Japan and the U.S, respectively (Mahasenan et al. 2005).
The breakdown of contributing direct energy sources in relation to EE and EC are
given in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively. The chemical reaction is the most
significant contributor to the direct EC at 55%. A move away from carbonates in the
production process is a proposed means of reducing this emission (Van Puyvelde
2009). The direct EE and EC from electricity, for the year 2005, are 10% and 8%
respectively. Coal and petroleum coke account for 50% and 38% respectively of the
EE, and contribute 18% each to its associated EC total. Therefore, curtailing the use of
petroleum coke and coal should significantly reduce emissions, which can be achieved
by using fuels with lower associated emissions.

Figure 1 – Breakdown of cement Figure 2 - Breakdown of cement

manufacture direct EE (MJ/kg) manufacture direct EC (kgCO2/kg)

While the cement manufacturing process is being re-assessed other solutions to

reducing the emissions associated with its use in concrete are being explored. For
example, many waste or by-product materials can be used as binders (Goggins &
Gavigan 2010) with ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) being one of the
most common. Blastfurnace slag is a by-product of the steel industry. Granulated
blastfurnace slag (GBS) is obtained by rapidly cooling the slag with water, which is an
additional process required to produce GBS for convenient use as a binder material.
Therefore, in this study the additional energy required in this granulation process is
included in the EE and EC of GBS. It is assumed that water and electrical power

4 M. McCaffrey, J. Goggins & G. Baylor

consumption in this process is 1m3/t slag and 8kWh/t slag, respectively (Muñiz 2007).
GBS is imported to Ireland from mainland Europe and is grinded in Dublin to give
GGBS. The total EE and EC of GGBS from processing and transport to Ireland is
0.715MJ/kg and 0.029kgCO2/kg, respectively.
Up to 85% of OPC can be replaced with GGBS. Replacement levels vary, but are
typically of the order of 40 - 50%. As shown in the case study (Section 3), the use of
GGBS reduces the overall EE and EC of concrete. Furthermore, other studies have
shown that greenhouse gas emissions are reduced by 40% using a replacement of 50%
of cement with GGBS (Higgins 2007). Concrete mixes containing GGBS yield a high
ultimate strength and produce a lower heat of hydration (Neville 1995). This makes it
ideal for thick sections, such as large foundation pours, where the temperature
gradient resulting from the heat of hydration from OPC induces excessive thermal
stresses. These thermal stresses may cause micro-cracking, which exposes the
concrete to external attack. However, a disadvantage is that the rate of early strength
development can be reduced. This may be of concern to contractors when constructing
concrete frames, which may delay the time required for curing before striking of
formwork can take place.

2.4 Aggregate
Aggregate constitutes up to approximately 80% of a unit of concrete. Quarries process
stone by different methods, for example, by drilling boreholes and inserting gelignite
which is detonated, dislodging large volumes of rock. A typical aggregate in Ireland is
limestone. For the aggregate EE calculations the process based hybrid method is used
by including process data compiled by Kennedy (2006). The EE of Irish aggregate is
found to be 0.096MJ/kg. For this study, the EC of aggregates is taken as
0.005kgCO2/kg (Hammond & Jones 2008).
In recent years, aggregates from construction, demolition and excavation waste have
been recycled and used as partial replacements for natural aggregates in concrete
(Savage 2001; Kwong 2006). There are two methods for including recycled material
in an EE analysis; the recycled content method and the substitution method. The
recycled content approach takes into account any recycled materials in a product. The
substitution method credits the product with whatever the likely percentage of it to be
recycled is. An extreme case of this could see the EE of a concrete structure being
drastically reduced as it may be recycled as aggregate at the end of its life. Hammond
& Jones (2008) believe that the recycled content approach better serves to accomplish
the motivations behind energy analysis and, where possible, these values are used.

2.5 Admixtures
Admixtures are chemicals that are added to concrete to give it certain characteristics,
which are not obtainable with a regular concrete mix. Admixtures are added in very
small amounts during mixing. Because of the nature of their production, it is difficult
to quantify energy involved in production of admixtures. As they account for such a
small part of a unit of concrete it is assumed that their contribution is negligible.

M. McCaffrey, J. Goggins & G. Baylor -5-

2.6 Manufacturing process of concrete
The process based hybrid method is utilised to calculate the EE of concrete with the
EE of each of the constituent materials (i.e. indirect inputs) which are then added to
the direct energy required during the production of the concrete.
The I-O direct energy intensity for concrete manufacture in Ireland is calculated
using the ‘non-metallic minerals’ sector in the I-O tables and wholesale price indices,
similar to the process described in Section 2.2 except in this case for the direct energy
intensity (DEIn). Pricing information obtained from suppliers and Spon (2008) are
applied, finding the DEIn for concrete in Ireland to be 0.271MJ/kg, evaluated from
E
DEI n   D RC  C d  Te  PEF  € BP (2)
e 1
where DRC is the direct requirement coefficients (€/€) and Cd, E, e, Te, PEF and €BP
are as defined in Equation 1.
The total embodied energy, EEt, of concrete is obtained by combining the results
from process and I-O based analyses (in other words, a process based hybrid):
EEt   QM  W  EI M   DEI n (3)
where QM (kg) is the quantity of the material (e.g. cement, aggregate, water), W is the
wastage multiplier of the material, EIM is the energy intensity of the material and DEIn
is the direct energy intensity of the I-O sector containing concrete from Equation 2.
Wastage factors W for concrete and reinforcement are 4.86% and 5.0%,
respectively (Tam et al. 2007). Using Equation 3 and mix proportions, by mass, of
12%, 82% and 6% of cement, aggregate (and sand) and water, respectively, the EE of
30MPa concrete is 0.922MJ/kg. Using a similar calculation process to EE, EC is
calculated for this mix design as 0.166kgCO2/kg. However, these figures do not
include transport, reinforcement, pouring of concrete or dismantling at end of
structure’s life. This is recognised as the cradle to gate figure (Hammond & Jones
2008).

2.7 Concrete & reinforcement transport

A concrete ready mix truck generally carries 6m3 of concrete with a kerb weight of
21515kg (Iveco 2009). Kennedy (2006) calculates energy usage by various vehicles
on different road types. The energy required to transport concrete is 11.04MJ/km for
the outbound journey and 8.42 MJ/km for the return. The majority of concrete
batching sites in Ireland have an on-site quarry due to the expense of aggregate
transport and the calculations are completed using this assumption.
The total time between the beginning of the mixing of concrete and the final pouring
of concrete should not exceed 90 minutes. Accounting for outgoing journey time,
pouring time, and return time the maximum distance that concrete may be transported
in a 6m3 capacity truck is 53km giving the EE at 0.072MJ/kg, which represents less
than 6% of the EE value for concrete. Transport may significantly increase the EE of
concrete if partial loads are required. Using Defra (2009) values for trucks emissions,
the equivalent EC of these trucks is 0.0064kgCO2/kg in the aforementioned scenario.
Although all reinforcement used in Ireland is sourced in the UK, it is bent and cut in
Ireland. The value of EE and EC of recycled steel is 8.8 MJ/kg and 0.42kgCO2/kg,
respectively (Hammond & Jones 2008). Transport and further processing of the steel
must be accounted for. Assuming that a fully loaded truck can carry 24,000 kg of steel
(Iveco 2009), the energy used in transport is 0.00046 MJ/km/kg steel for the outbound
journey and 0.00035 MJ/km/kg steel for the return. For the purposes of this analysis

6 M. McCaffrey, J. Goggins & G. Baylor

the energy used to cut and bend the steel is assumed to be negligible considering the
high energy use in recycling the steel. Wastage of reinforcement at the bending and
cutting facility is, however, not negligible. The standard bar length is 14m. After the
bar is cut there are normally sections of bar remaining which are too short to be used.
As there is no facility in Ireland to recycle these, they must be returned to the UK for
further processing. This analysis will assume that 15% of the steel is returned for
further processing. Assuming a total return journey length of 900km from the steel
recycling facility in the UK to site (via the processing facility in Ireland) the energy
required to transport the steel is 0.365MJ/kg. This is 4.1% of the cradle to gate value
for recycled steel. The EC for transport of the reinforcement is 0.033kgCO2/kg.

3 Case Study
This case study analyses the effects of cement replacements on the EE and EC in the
RC foundation of an on-shore wind turbine if it had been constructed in Ireland, for
the year 2005. The study is based on the Enercon E126/6MW wind turbine
constructed in Emden, Germany (Enercon 2007).
The foundation requires 1500m3 of concrete and 180 tonnes of steel reinforcement.
The batching plant is located 11km from the turbine and a 30MPa concrete mix is
used. A comparison is made using two mix designs. The first contains a binder solely
of OPC, while in the second mix design 50% of the OPC is replaced with GGBS,
which is transported 200km from the grinding plant in Dublin to the batching plant.
The resulting EE and EC of the two mixes are given in Table 2, which highlights the
positive effect that GGBS can have in reducing the EE and EC of a concrete structure.
As can be seen from Table 2, cement is by far the greatest contributor to the total EE
of concrete accounting for 56% and 36% of the EE in the mixes with 0% GGBS and
50% GGBS, respectively. Furthermore it accounts for 65% and 47% of EC of the
respective concrete mixes. Replacing 50% of the OPC with GGBS results in
reductions of 23% and 31% to the EE and EC of concrete used in the foundation,
respectively.
The direct energy refers to the energy required to combine the cement, aggregate
and water into concrete. It should also be noted that reinforcement is also a major
contributor to the total EE, accounting for 35% and 42% of the EE of the foundation
constructed from concrete mixes with 0% GGBS and 50% GGBS, respectively. On
the other hand, reinforcement accounts for 13% and 18% of the EC, respectively.

Table 2 – EE & EC of a reinforced concrete wind turbine foundation.

EE (GJ) EC(kgCO2)
*Mix: Design 1 Design 2 Design 1 Design 2
Aggregate 296 296 15,477 15,477
Cement 2,046 1,023 410,472 205,236
GGBS - 162 - 6,568
Water 0 0 81 81
Direct 1,023 1,023 181,017 181,017
Transport concrete 272 272 24,160 24,160
Reinforcement 1,992 1,992 98,460 98,460
Total 5,629 4,796 729,666 533,626
* Mix design 1: = 100% OPC; Mix design 2: 50% OPC + 50% GGBS

The total energy saving achieved through the use of GGBS is 833GJ, while 196
tonnes of CO2 have been saved. The CO2 savings would equate to 63 cars being taken

M. McCaffrey, J. Goggins & G. Baylor -7-

off the road for one year or the same amount of CO2 would be absorbed by 25 acres of
managed Irish forest for one year. On the other hand, the EE saved is equal to the
energy used by 26 average homes in Ireland in one year (Howley et al. 2008).

4 Conclusions
The ‘Carbon Market’ has incentivised industries to become more sustainable and
change their outlook. If a drive towards true sustainable use of our resources is to be
achieved both EE and EC need to be addressed. Research is ongoing to develop
methods of significantly reducing CO2 emissions. The first step towards achieving this
is to measure, monitor and review all direct and indirect energy use to understand
energy demands using formally recognised methodologies.
This paper uses the hybrid I-O methodology to investigate the energy consumed in
the production of RC in Ireland. The processes involved in the manufacture of
concrete and reinforcement are analysed with the most energy intensive processes
being identified. A process based hybrid analysis is performed and the cradle-to-gate
EE and EC of a 30MPa concrete mix are found to be 0.922MJ/kg and 0.166kgCO2/kg,
respectively. A case-study on a RC wind turbine foundation in Ireland reveals that by
replacing 50% of the cement content with GGBS, results in a 23% reduction in the EE
and a 31% reduction in EC. Future studies will be produced with an aim to show all
emissions in terms of CO2e, along with more recent emission values and energy
intensities. Additionally, it is envisaged to carry out an EE/EC assessment on a pre-
cast concrete beam in the new engineering building in NUI, Galway.
Further reductions in the EE and EC of reinforced concrete can be achieved by
maximising the use of recycled aggregates and addressing the unsustainable use of
coal and petroleum coke (which contribute to 88% of the EE associated with cement).

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Michael Brennan of the CSO for his valuable advice
on the Irish Supply and Use and I-O Tables.

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