Rizal Technological University

M. Eusebio Avenue, Maybunga, San Miguel, Pasig City

Materials Science and Engineering

Composites

Submitted By: Submit To:

Cenabre, Glory Joy Engr. Paul Adrian

Manalang

Delacuesta, Bree

Dememerito, Kerr

Gaslang, Ivan Stefano

Magnaye, Jeric

Tirona, Anathalia

Subida, Carlo

PCEIT-29-201P

Saturday 10:30AM - 1:30PM

 CONT E NT S
Introduction

Particle-Reinforced Composites

Large Particle Composites

Dispersion-Strengthened Composites

Fiber-Reinforced Composites

Influence of Fiber Length

Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration

The Fiber Phase

The Matrix Phase

Polymer-Matrix Composites

Metal-Matrix Composites

Ceramic-Matrix Composites

Carbon-Carbon Composites

Hybrid Composites

Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites

Structural Composites

Laminar Composites

Sandwich Panels
Introduction

Many of our modern technologies require materials that have unusual

combinations of properties that the conventional metal alloys, ceramics, and polymeric
materials cannot meet. This is particularly true for materials required for applications in
aerospace, underwater, and transportation. For instance, aircraft engineers are
increasingly looking for structural materials that have low densities, are durable, rigid,
and resistant to abrasion and impact, and are not easily corroded. This is a rather
formidable combination of characteristics. Frequently, strong materials are relatively
dense; also, increasing the strength or stiffness generally results in a decrease in
impact strength.
In general, a composite is considered to be any multiphase material that exhibits
a significant proportion of the properties of both constituent phases in such a way that a
better combination of properties is attained. According to this principle of combined
action, better property combinations are fashioned by the judicious combination of two
or more distinct materials. Property trade-offs are also made for many composites.
A composite, is a multiphase material that is artificially made, as opposed to one
that occurs or forms naturally. In addition, the constituent phases must be chemically
dissimilar and separated by a distinct interface. Thus, most metallic alloys and many
ceramics do not fit this definition because their multiple phases are formed as a
consequence of natural phenomena.
To simplify, a composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more
materials that results in better properties than those of the individual components used
alone. Most composites have been created to improve combinations of mechanical
characteristics such as stiffness, toughness, and ambient and high-temperature
strength. The main advantages of composite materials are their high strength and
stiffness, combined with low density, when compared with bulk materials, allowing for a
weight reduction in the finished part. The two components are a reinforcement and a
matrix.

Dispersed / Reinforcement
The reinforcing phase provides strength and stiffness. In most cases, the
reinforcement is harder, stronger, and stiffer than the matrix. The reinforcement
is usually a fiber or a particulate. It enhances the matrix properties.

Matrix
The continuous phase is the matrix, which is a polymer, metal, or ceramic.
The matrix (continuous phase) performs several critical functions, including
maintaining the fibers in the proper orientation and spacing and protecting them
 from abrasion and the environment. The purpose of matrix is to transfer stress to
other phase and protect the phase from the environment.

Figure 1.1 A representation of the various geometrical and spatial

characteristics of particles of the dispersed phase that may influence the
properties of composites: (a) concentration, (b) size, (c) shape, (d) distribution,
and (e) orientation.

Particle-Reinforced Composites

There are two sub classifications of particle-reinforced composites: large-

particle composites and dispersion-strengthened composites. The difference
between these is based upon reinforcement or strengthening mechanism. The term
‗‗large‘‘ is used to indicate that particle–matrix interactions cannot be treated on the
atomic or molecular level; rather, continuum mechanics is used. For most of these
composites, the particulate phase is harder and stiffer than the matrix. These reinforcing
particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase in the vicinity of each particle. In
essence, the matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a
fraction of the load.
For dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are normally much smaller.
Particle–matrix interactions that lead to strengthening occur on the atomic or molecular
level. The mechanism of strengthening is similar to that for precipitation hardening.
Whereas the matrix bears the major portion of an applied load, the small dispersed
particles hinder or impede the motion of dislocations. Thus, plastic deformation is
restricted such that yield and tensile strengths, as well as hardness, improve.

Large-Particle Composites

The particle-matrix interaction is treated at a microscopic level. Particulate

phase is harder & stiffer than matrix phase. These reinforcing particles tend to
restrain movement of the matrix phase in the vicinity of each particle. In essence,
the matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a
fraction of the load.

Concrete is a common large-particle composite in which both matrix and

dispersed phases are ceramic materials. Concrete implies a composite material
consisting of an aggregate of particles that are bound together in a solid body by
some type of binding medium, that is, cement.

Figure 1.2 Illustration of cement wherein the matrix phase is the cement
and the dispersed phase is the sand and gravel.
 Cermets

Is an example of ceramic-metal composites. The most common

cermet is the cemented carbide, which is composed of extremely hard
particles of a refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten carbide (WC) or
titanium carbide (TiC), embedded in a matrix of a metal such as cobalt or
nickel. These composites are utilized extensively as cutting tools for
hardened steels. The hard carbide particles provide the cutting surface
but, being extremely brittle, are not themselves capable of withstanding
the cutting stresses. Toughness is enhanced by their inclusion in the
ductile metal matrix, which isolates the carbide particles from one another
and prevents particle-to-particle crack propagation. Both matrix and
particulate phases are quite refractory, to withstand the high temperatures
generated by the cutting action on materials that are extremely hard.

Figure 1.3 Illustration of cermets.

Dispersion-Strengthened Composites

In dispersion strengthened composites, small particles on the order of 10

to 100nm are used. These particles act to help the matrix resist deformation. This
makes the material harder and stronger. Consider a metal matrix composite with
a fine distribution of very hard and small secondary particles. The matrix material
is carrying most of the load and particle improves yield, tensile strength &
 hardness and deformation is accomplished by slip and dislocation movement.
The secondary particles impede slip and dislocation and, thereby, strengthen the
material. Metals and metal alloys may be strengthened and hardened by the
uniform dispersion of several volume percent of fine particles of a very hard and
inert material. The dispersed phase may be metallic or nonmetallic; oxide
materials are often used. The mechanism is the same as precipitation hardening
but the effect is not quite as strong. However, particles like oxides do not react
with the matrix or go into solution at high temperatures so the strengthening
action is retained at elevated temperatures. The strengthening mechanism
involves interactions between the particles and dislocations within the matrix, as
with precipitation hardening.
The high-temperature strength of nickel alloys may be enhanced
significantly by the addition of about 3 vol% of thoria (ThO2) as finely dispersed
particles; this material is known as thoria-dispersed (or TD) nickel. The same
effect is produced in the aluminum–aluminum oxide system.A very thin and
adherent alumina coating is caused to form on the surface of extremely small
(0.1 to 0.2 m thick) flakes of aluminum, which are dispersed within an aluminum
metal matrix; this material is termed sintered aluminum powder (SAP).

Fiber-Reinforced Composites

Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the dispersed
phase is in the form of a fiber. Design goals of fiber-reinforced composites often include
high strength and/or stiffness on a weight basis. These characteristics are expressed in
terms of specific strength and specific modulus parameters, which correspond,
respectively, to the ratios of tensile strength to specific gravity and modulus of elasticity
to specific gravity. Fiber-reinforced composites with exceptionally high specific strengths
and moduli have been produced that utilize low-density fiber and matrix materials.
The fibers can be in the form of long continuous fibers, or they can be
discontinuous fibers, particles, whiskers and even weaved sheets as pointed out in
figure 1.4. Fibers are usually combined with ductile matrix materials, such as metals and
polymers, to make them stiffer, while fibers are added to brittle matrix materials like
ceramics to increase toughness. The length-to diameter ratio of the fiber, the strength of
the bond between the fiber and the matrix, and the amount of fiber are variables that
affect the mechanical properties. It is important to have a high length-to-diameter aspect
ratio so that the applied load is effectively transferred from the matrix to the fiber.
 Figure 1.5 An interpretation of fiber-
reinforced composites

Figure 1.4 An illustration of continuous

fiber, short fiber, and particle

Influence of Fiber Length

The mechanical characteristics of a fiber-reinforced composite depend not

only on the properties of the fiber, but also on the degree to which an applied
load is transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase. This fiber-matrix bond
ceases at the fiber ends under an applied tension, yielding a pattern of matrix
deformation as shown in figure 1.6; to make it simple, there is no load of
transmittance from the matrix at each fiber extremity
For an effective strengthening and stiffening of the composite material
some critical fiber length is required. This critical length is dependent on the fiber
diameter and its ultimate (or tensile) strength and on the fiber–matrix bond
strength.

Figure 1.6 The

deformation pattern in the
matrix surrounding a fiber that
is subjected to an applied
tensile load.

Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration

The arrangement or orientation of the fibers relative to each other, the

concentration of fibers and the distribution all have a significant influence on the
strength and other properties of fibre-reinforced composites. Two extremes are
possible as regards orientation: (1) a parallel alignment of the longitudinal axis of
the fibers in a single direction, and (2) a totally random alignment. Normally,
continuous fibers are aligned (Figure 1.7a), while discontinuous fibers could be
 aligned (Figure 1.7b), lastly, partially or random oriented (Figure 1.7c). Better
overall composite properties are produced when there is uniform fiber
distribution.

Figure 1.7
A graphical
representation of (a)
continuous and
aligned, (b)
discontinuous and
aligned, and (c)
discontinuous
oriented fiber-
reinforced
composites.

Optimum strength and stiffness can be achieved in a composite by

aligning the fibers parallel to the direction of loading. However, in this case, the
composite can perform very poorly when the load is applied perpendicular to the
fibers. To accommodate the direction of the applied force, multiple plies of
continuous fibers with the direction of the fibers differing in each ply, fibers can
vary by 90°, 45°, or 30° angles as demonstrated in figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8 An interpretation of fiber orientation

according to the applied force
The Fiber Phase

An important characteristic of most fibers, particularly brittle ones, is that a fiber

with a small diameter is much stronger than the material in bulk. In addition, the
materials used for reinforcing fibers have high tensile strengths. Fibers are grouped into
three different classifications: whiskers, fibers, and wires.

Whiskers

Whiskers are very thin single crystals that have extremely large length-to-
diameter ratios. Whiskers have a high degree of crystalline consistency as a
result of their small size and are practically flaw-free, which accounts for their
exceptionally high strengths; they are the strongest known materials. Whiskers
are not commonly used as a reinforcement tool given these high strengths,
because they are extremely expensive. Other whisker materials are graphite,
silicon carbide, silicon nitride, and aluminum oxide.
Alumina (Al2O3) has three weak points: (1) low bending strength, (2) low
heat-resistance limit temperature for strength, and (3) low fracture toughness.
Then, Niihara and coworkers have proposed the concept of ―nanocomposite
ceramics‖. It was achieved by uniformly distributing nanosized SiC (Silicon
Carbide) particles in alumina grains as shown in figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9 Microstructure of the SiC

reinforced alumina composite, alumina.
 Fibers

Materials that are classified as fibers are either polycrystalline or

amorphous and have small diameters; fibrous materials are generally either
polymers or ceramics (e.g., the polymer aramids, glass, carbon, boron, aluminum
oxide, and silicon carbide)

Figure 1.10 An illustration of carbon fiber, aramid fiber and glass fiber on an airplane.

Wires

Fine wires have relatively large diameters; typical materials include steel,
molybdenum, and tungsten. Wires are utilized as a radial steel reinforcement in
automobile tires, in filament-wound rocket casings, and in wire-wound high-
pressure hoses.

Figure 1.11 Example of wire

reinforced tube
The Matrix Phase

The matrix phase of fibrous composites may be a metal, polymer, or ceramic. In

general, metals and polymers are used as matrix materials because some ductility is
desirable; for ceramic-matrix composites, the reinforcing component is added to
improve fracture toughness.
The function of matrix phase for fiber-reinforced composites is first, it binds the
fibers together and acts as the medium by which an externally applied stress is
transmitted and distributed to the fibers. The second function of the matrix is to protect
the individual fibers from surface damage as a result of mechanical abrasion or
chemical reactions with the environment. Finally, the matrix separates the fibers and, by
virtue of its relative softness and plasticity, prevents the propagation of brittle cracks
from fiber to fiber, which could result in catastrophic failure, to simplify, the matrix phase
acts as a barrier to crack propagation. Moreover, high-end companies will use two or
more layers of carbon fiber with an orientation of 0°, ±45°, and 90°.

Figure 1.12 A sample of

carbonfiber reinforced polymer
(CFRP).

Polymer-Matrix Composite

The term polymer is often used to describe plastics, which are synthetic
polymers. However, natural polymers also exist; rubber and wood, for example, are
natural polymers that consist of a simple hydrocarbon, isoprene.

Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) consist of a polymer resin as the matrix, with

fibers as the reinforcement medium. These materials are used in the greatest diversity
of composite applications, as well as in the largest quantities, in light of their room-
temperature properties, ease of fabrication, and cost. A good example of polymer-matrix
composite is Glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars. This bar has emerged as an
alternative reinforcement material to steel reinforcement due to certain advantages
especially in terms of overcoming corrosion and repairing works. In addition, GFRP bars
possess higher tensile strength and are lighter than steel bars.
 Figure 1.13 Image of glass fiber reinforced
polymer

Metal-Matrix Composites

Metal matrix composites, consist of fibres or particles surrounded by a matrix of

metal. The use of a metal matrix offers the potential of producing a composite with very
high stiffness and strength as well as very high temperature resistance. The
temperature resistance is not only superior to polymer matrix composites but also to the
pure metal itself. While metal matrix composites enjoy other advantages over polymer
matrix composites such as better abrasion resistance, creep resistance, resistance to
degradation by fluids, dimensional stability, and non-flammability, they are limited in
application due to their much higher weight and cost of production. The downside of
metal matrix composite is the price, metal matrix is much more expensive compared to
polymer matrix composite.
The main matrix materials included in MMCs are aluminium, titanium,
magnesium, and copper. The main reinforcements included are silicon carbide and
alumina.
The superalloys, as well as alloys of aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and
copper, are employed as matrix materials. The reinforcement may be in the form of
particulates, both continuous and discontinuous fibers, and whiskers; concentrations
normally range between 10 and 60 vol%. Continuous fiber materials include carbon,
silicon carbide, boron, alumina, and the refractory metals. On the other hand,
discontinuous reinforcements consist primarily of silicon carbide whiskers, chopped
fibers of alumina and carbon, and particulates of silicon carbide and alumina.
Recently, some of the automobile manufacturers have introduced engine
components consisting of an aluminum-alloy matrix that is reinforced with alumina and
carbon fibers; this MMC is light in weight and resists wear and thermal distortion.
Aerospace structural applications include advanced aluminum alloy metal-matrix
composites; boron fibers are used as the reinforcement for the Space Shuttle Orbiter,
and continuous graphite fibers for the Hubble Telescope.
 Figure 1.14 Application of Silicon
Carbide reinforced aluminum-based
MMC in the fan-exit guide vane of a
Pratt & Whitney engine on a Boeing
777, Chawla and Chawla (2006).

Ceramic-Matrix Composites

The primary advantages of ceramic materials over other materials is their

resilience to oxidation and deterioration at elevated temperatures, their high melting
points, and high compressive strengths. Unfortunately, ceramics suffer from a
susceptibility to brittle fracture and therefore have relatively low values of fracture
toughness. One method of increasing the fracture toughness of a ceramic is to reinforce
it with fibres, whiskers, or particles. Crack propagation is severely hindered by the
presence of the reinforcing phase. In addition, typical reinforcing fiber materials are
carbon, silicon carbide, alumina, and alumina silica.

Figure 1.15 An F-16 Fighting

Falcon F100 engine exhaust nozzle
with five A500 ceramic matrix
composite (CMC) divergent seals,
identified by the yellow arrows. Air
Force Research Laboratory and
industry are partnering to test the
ceramic materials as candidates to
replace nickel-based superalloys
currently used in exhaust nozzles.
(U.S. Air Force photo)

Carbon-Carbon Composite

The carbon fiber-reinforced carbon matrix composite, also called a carbon-

carbon composite, is one of the most innovative and promising engineering materials;
as the name implies, both reinforcement and matrix are carbon. Such materials are
relatively new and costly, therefore it‘s not currently being utilized extensively. Their
desirable properties include high-tensile modulus and tensile strengths that are
maintained at temperatures above 2000 C (3630 F), creep resistance, and relatively
large toughness values for fractures.Furthermore, carbon– carbon composites have low
coefficients of thermal expansion and relatively high thermal conductivities; these
characteristics, coupled with high strengths, give rise to a relatively low susceptibility to
thermal shock. A main drawback is an ability to oxidize at high temperatures. The
primary reason for these composite materials being so costly is the relatively complex
manufacturing techniques used.

Figure 1.16 These detailed views represent a space shuttle left wing with Reinforced
Carbon-Carbon, or RCC, panels with only those panels numbered 1 through 10, 16 and
17 shown. Each wing's leading edge had 22 RCC panels.
Hybrid Composites

Hybrid is a relatively new fiber-reinforced composite, which is obtained by using

two or more different kinds of fibers in a single matrix; hybrids have a better all-around
combination of properties than composites containing only a single fiber type.The most
common hybrid composites are carbon- aramid reinforced epoxy (which combines
strength and impact resistance) and glass-carbon reinforced epoxy (which gives a
strong material at a reasonable price).
When hybrid composites are stressed in tension, failure is usually non
catastrophic (i.e., does not occur suddenly). The carbon fibers are the first to break,
passing the load to the fibers of the glass. After glass fibers break, the applied load
must be maintained by the matrix process. Eventual composite failure is in line with
matrix phase failure.
Lightweight ground, water, and air transport structural components, athletic
products, and lightweight orthopedic components are the main applications for hybrid
composites.

Figure 1.17 Carbon fiber and

aramid fiber hybrid composite.
Carbon aramid hybrid fabrics are
used in aerospace and marine
applications, in construction,
transportation, and for decorative
purposes.

Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites

To fabricate continuous fiber-reinforced plastics that meet design

specifications, the fibers should be uniformly distributed within the plastic matrix and, in
most instances, all oriented in virtually the same direction. In this section newly
developed techniques (pultrusion, filament winding, and prepreg production processes)

Pultrusion

Used for the manufacture of components having continuous lengths and a

constant cross-sectional shape (i.e., rods, tubes, beams, etc.). With this
technique, illustrated schematically in figure 1.18, continuous fiber rovings, or
tows, are first impregnated with a thermosetting resin; these are then pulled
through a steel die that performs to the desired shape and also establishes the
resin/fiber ratio. The stock then passes through a curing die that is precision
machined so as to impart the final shape; this die is also heated in order to
initiate curing of the resin matrix. A pulling device draws the stock through the
dies and also determines the production speed. Glass, carbon and aramid fibers
are the main reinforcements, typically applied at concentrations between 40 and
70 vol percent. Moreover, polyesters, vinyl esters and epoxy resins are widely
used matrix products.
Pultrusion is an easily automated continuous process; production rates
are relatively high which makes it very cost-effective. Furthermore, a wide variety
of shapes are available, and there is really no practical limit to the stock length
that can be made.

Figure 1.18 Schematic illustration showing the pultrusion process

Filament Winding

A method by which the continuous reinforcing fibers are arranged correctly

in a predetermined pattern to form a hollow (usually cylindrical) shape. The fibers
are first fed through a resin bath, either as individual strands or as tow, and then
continuously wound into a mandrel, typically using automated winding equipment
as shown below in figure 1.19. Upon adding the correct number of layers, the
curing takes place either in an oven or at room temperature, after which the
mandrel is extracted. Narrow and thin prepregs as an alternative, 10 mm or less
in width may be filament wound.
Different winding patterns are possible to give the desired mechanical
characteristics (i.e. circumferential, helical, and polar ones). Filament-wound
parts have very high strength-to-weight ratios. This technique often affords a high
degree of control over winding uniformity and orientation.
 Figure 1.19 Schematic representations
of helical, circumferential, and polar
filament winding techniques.

Prepreg Production Processes

Prepreg is the composite industry‘s term for continuous fiber

reinforcement pre impregnated with a polymer resin that is only partially
cured. This material is provided to the manufacturer in tape form, which
then directly molds and cures the product completely without the need to
add any resin. It's probably the most widely used type of composite
material for structural applications.
The prepregging process, represented schematically for thermoset
polymers in Figure 1.20, begins by aligning a series of spool-wound
continuous fiber tows. Next, these tows are sandwiched and pressed
between release paper and carrier paper using heated rollers, a process
called "calendering." The release paper sheet has been coated with a thin
film of relatively low viscosity heated resin solution to ensure the fibers are
fully impregnated. A ‗‗doctor blade‘‘ spreads the resin into a film of
uniform thickness and width. The final prepreg product — the thin tape
that consists of continuous and aligned fibers embedded in a partially
cured resin — is prepared for packaging by winding onto a core of the
cardboard.
 Figure 1.20 Schematic
diagram illustrating the
production of prepreg tape
using a thermoset polymer.

Structural Composites

A structural composite is usually composed of both homogeneous and composite

materials, whose properties depend not only on the properties of the corresponding
materials but also on the geometrical design of the different structural elements. Two of
the most common structural composites are the laminar composites and sandwich
panels.

Laminar Composites

Laminar composites consist of panels or sheets which are two

dimensional that have a preferred high-strength direction such as wood and
continuous and aligned fiber-reinforced plastics. The layers are stacked and then
cemented in such a way that the orientation of the high-strength path differs with
each successive layer as shown in figure 1.21. A good example of laminar
composite is plywood in which layers are bonded together, however the grains
are oriented differently to improve the overall strength.
 Figure 1.21 Stacking of oriented, fiber-
reinforced layers for laminar composite

Sandwich Panels

Sandwich panels are built to be lightweight beams or panels with relatively

high stiffness and strength. A sandwich panel consists of two outer sheets or
faces and separated by a thicker core. The outer sheets are made of a fairly
durable and strong material, usually aluminum alloys, fiber-reinforced plastics,
titanium, steel, or plywood; they give the structure a high degree of rigidity and
strength, and must be thick enough to withstand the tensile and compressive
stresses resulting from the load. The core material is lightweight, and generally
has low elasticity modulus. Core materials typically fall into three categories: rigid
polymeric foams (i.e., phenolics, epoxy, polyurethane), wood (i.e., balsa wood),
and honeycombs.
The center serves many roles, firstly, it gives the faces continuous
support. It must also have sufficient shear strength to withstand transverse shear
stress, and must also be thick enough to provide high shear stiffness.
Sandwich panels are used in a wide range of applications, including
building roofs, floors and walls; and in aerospace and aircraft applications (i.e.
wings, fuselage and tailplane skins).
Figure 1.22 Schematic diagram showing the construction of a
honeycomb core sandwich panel.