Basic MET TD 1004107

Institute of Air Navigation Services
Meteorology
ATCO Basic Training
DOCUMENT CHARACTERISTICS
TITLE
ATCO Basic Training
METEOROLOGY
Training Document
Reference: Edition number: 1.5
IANS / TDH / Basic Training / METB / TN Date issued: 25.08.2010
Foreword and approval
This document has been developed for the purpose of teaching the subject of Meteorology to
ab-initio air traffic controller students in accordance with the objectives in the
EUROCONTROL Specification for the ATCO Common Core Content Initial Training, Edition
1.0, EUROCONTROL-SPEC-0113, where the general objective is described as follows:
“Students shall describe how the basic theory of meteorology affects ATS operations
and aircraft performance and apply meteorological information in the basic
operational procedures of ATS”.
Approved by
Michel PISTRE
Head of TDH Unit
Contact person: Tel / Email: Unit:

511
Michel PISTRE IANS / TDH Unit
Michel.pistre@eurocontrol.int
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Research and Development: ATC Training unit and TDH Unit, EUROCONTROL IANS,
Copyright Notice
© 2010 European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (EUROCONTROL). All rights reserved.
This document is an integral part of the tuition Document provided by the EUROCONTROL Institute of Air
Navigation Services. The Document may only be used in the framework of, and/or in relation with the
pertinent EUROCONTROL courses, workshops and seminars. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise.
Any other use is subject to prior written consent by EUROCONTROL. Requests shall be addressed to:
Director of the Institute of Air Navigation Services, 12, rue Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, L-1432
Kirchberg/Luxembourg
Workbook Production: TDH unit, EUROCONTROL IANS, (EMail: michel.pistre@eurocontrol.int)
Research and Development: TDH unit, EUROCONTROL IANS
This Training Document is intended for use on a standard ATCO Basic training course.
CROSS-REFERENCES
The right margins of the text pages contain ICAO cross-references information such as:
A11 = ICAO Annex 11
D4444 = ICAO Document 4444
The Taxonomy developed by the Task Force for Common Core Content training is used in this document.
The levels of knowledge required for training objectives in this Training Document are:
Level 0 ‘To be aware of’.
Level 1 Requires a basic knowledge of the subject. It is the ability to remember essential points; the trainee is
expected to memorise data and to restore it.
Level 2 Requires an understanding of the subject sufficient to enable the student to discuss intelligently. The
individual is able to represent for himself or herself certain objects and events and to act upon these objects and
events.
Level 3 Requires a thorough knowledge of the subject and the ability to apply it with accuracy. The student
should be able to make use of his/her repertoire of knowledge to develop plans and activate them. The verb “to
appreciate” means that the student is able to state the plan and not required to apply it.
Note: CCC also defines Level 4 and Level 5 but these levels are only applicable to Rating training (Phase 2),
Operational training (Phase 3) and later in Continuation training (Conversion and Refresher training)
Objectives reference of this course are the EUROCONTROL Specification for the ATCO Common Core Content
Initial Training, Edition 1.0, EUROCONTROL-SPEC-0113.
.
25.08.2010 iii
DOCUMENT CHANGE RECORD
The following table records the complete history of the successive editions of the present
document.
Edition Date Reason for change Pages affected
0.1 Jan 2003 Draft All
1.0 09.02.2004 Released issue All
Correction of typing errors.

1.1 12.11.2004 Changes according to CCC -
mapping approved by SC
CR0667: CCC emblem added to
1.2 03.07.2006 Page iii
page iii
CR0712: Update to HRS/TSP-
1.3 15.06.2007 002-GUI-04 Edition 2.0 10 Dec Page 129
2004
CR0816: Change to the front
1.4 19.07.2008 Front Cover
cover
Update to EUROCONTROL
Specification for the ATCO
1.5 25.08.2010 All
Common Core Content Initial
Training, Edition 1.0
iv Basic_MET_TD_v1_5.doc
Meteorology
EUROCONTROL
Institute of Air Navigation Services
Luxembourg
Table of contents ATCO Basic Training
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Page 6 of 196 Basic_MET_TD_v1_5.doc

MET Table of contents
ATCO BASIC TRAINING

METEOROLOGY
TRAINING DOCUMENT
List of sections
1. AVIATION AND METEOROLOGY ................................................................ 13

2. ATMOSPHERE .............................................................................................. 25
3. HEAT AND TEMPERATURE......................................................................... 35
4. WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE ................................................................... 53
5. AIR PRESSURE............................................................................................. 61
6. ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION ................................................................... 75
7. MESOSCALE SYSTEMS............................................................................... 93
8. WIND............................................................................................................ 101
9. CLOUDS ...................................................................................................... 117
10. TYPES OF PRECIPITATION ....................................................................... 133
11. VISIBILITY ................................................................................................... 139
12. METEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS................................................................. 151
13. METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION FOR AVIATION .............................. 163
14. GLOSSARY ................................................................................................. 186
25.08.2010 Page 7 of 196

Table of contents ATCO Basic Training

Aviation and Meteorology
Aviation and Meteorology ATCO Basic Training

MET Aviation and Meteorology
SECTION 1
AVIATION AND METEOROLOGY
Table of contents
TRAINING OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................... 13
THE IMPORTANCE OF METEOROLOGY TO AVIATION....................................... 14
METEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS TO AVIATION ..................................................... 15
THE ORGANISATION OF METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES .................................. 16
THE ORIGIN OF METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION .......................................... 17
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT USED IN METEOROLOGY........................................ 19
THE COLLECTION AND DISSEMINATION OF METEOROLOGICAL
INFORMATION .............................................................................................. 19
25.08.2010 Page 11 of 196


1. AVIATION AND METEOROLOGY

CCC Topics: 1. Introduction
4. Meteorological Phenomena
CCC Sub-topics: 1.1 Units of Measurement
1.2 Aviation and Meteorology
1.3 Organisation of Meteorological Service
4.4 Meteorological Hazards
Training Objectives L Code

1. Apply the units of measurement appropriate to 3 METB 1.1.1
meteorology.
2. Explain the relevance of meteorology in aviation 2 METB 1.2.1
3. Explain the requirements for the provision of 2 METB 1.2.2
meteorological information available to operators,
flight crew members, and to air traffic services.
4. State the meteorological hazards to aviation 1 METB 4.4.1
5. Describe the effect of meteorological hazards on 2 METB 4.4.2
aviation
6. Name the basic duties, organisation and working 1 METB 1.3.1
methods of meteorological offices
7. State the International and National standards for 1 METB 1.3.2
coordination between ATS and MET services.
L ................... CCC Level

Code .............CCC reference
25.08.2010 Page 13 of 196

1.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF METEOROLOGY TO AVIATION

From the earliest days of aviation it has been essential to understand the role of meteorology.
Even with current high technology aircraft, it is impossible to ignore the enormous power and
potential hazards of the weather.
Figure 1.1: Diagram showing the percentage of different accident causes for the 1990’s (Source: Database compiled by
AirCrashInfo.com. These figures exclude accidents involving private or military aircraft.) There has been little change in the
percentage of accidents caused by the weather over the last 50 years.
Personnel in Air Traffic Services must be able to appreciate different types of weather conditions
and the way they affect the operation of aircraft. There are many different weather factors which
each have important influences on flying conditions. The following are examples of the links
between aircraft operations and meteorology:
 The relationship between pressure and altimetry is perhaps the most important, since altitude
measurements depend on the variation of pressure with height in the atmosphere. An aircraft
altimeter measures the pressure at the level of the aircraft and converts this to an estimated
altitude. This can be done because air pressure is greatest at the earth’s surface, and always
decreases with height, and the rate at which it does so is known. A suitable reference level
such as mean sea level, aerodrome elevation or standard setting is input by the pilot and the
altimeter will indicate the vertical distance of the aircraft above this surface.
 Temperature, together with pressure, affects the air density and therefore the efficiency of
engines and the lifting force created by the wings. A temperature below the freezing point is of
course critical for icing and an aircraft flying through clouds or in precipitation at low
temperatures may be subject to icing.

 Condensation depends on humidity and dew point and is responsible for much of the weather
that we experience. Fog and clouds reduce visibility. Precipitation, in the form of rain, snow or
hail, can affect runway conditions.
 Wind affects flying in many ways. Changes in wind speed can affect the lift created by the
airflow over the wings of the aircraft. Rapid changes of wind speed and/or direction with
height, known as wind shear, can be especially dangerous during take-off and landing.
 Turbulence in the wind can also produce rapid variations in updraughts and downdraughts.
 Jet streams are fast moving rivers of air which can strongly influence the ground speed of
aircraft.
1.2 METEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS TO AVIATION

The specific hazards associated with each different weather element are dealt with in detail
during this course. Some examples are given here to illustrate the importance of understanding
the nature of meteorological processes.
• Fog can have a very significant effect on aircraft operations. In some cases landing in fog will
be possible using instrument landing systems (ILS) while in other cases diversion to other
airfields will be required. Fog conditions can change quite rapidly and an awareness of the
possible formation or clearing of fog is vital.
• Icing on aircraft is a major hazard to aviation as it can disturb the aerodynamic flow of air over
an aircraft resulting in higher stall speeds and loss of lift. It can also cause damage to or
flame-out in turbine engines.
• During take-off and landing, when flying at low speeds, aircraft are more susceptible to
changes in the wind. As an aircraft moves through different layers it may encounter winds of
varying speeds and/or directions. This phenomenon, known as wind shear, can produce
significant changes in lift causing an aircraft to suddenly gain or lose height.
• Turbulence is associated with jet streams and also common in clouds which have strong
updraughts and downdraughts, such as thunderstorms, and may cause an aircraft to lose
height rapidly and unexpectedly. The hazards in thunderstorms are not limited to turbulence
but also include hail, lightning and micro bursts.
• Flying over mountainous regions at levels close to the terrain requires careful consideration of
the meteorological factors which affect altimeter settings. It must also be recognised that
airflow over mountains can produce locally and rapidly varying winds influencing both the
horizontal and vertical motion of the air and hence the aircraft.
• Jet engines may be suffocated by volcanic ash, leading to engine failure. In addition, its
abrasive action may reduce the transparency of the windscreen making a subsequent landing
hazardous. Aircraft weather radar is normally not able to detect the presence of volcanic ash.
 A shower out of a thunderstorm cloud may be accompanied by a strong downdraft and a
horizontal outflow of damaging winds close to the ground. This phenomena are extremely
dangerous for aircraft and are called microbursts or macrobursts, depending from their size.
 Another phenomenon, often associated with thunderstorms, are squalls. A squall is a strong
wind which rises suddenly and lasts for at least one minute. Especially during take-off and
landing, squalls have been very often the cause for severe aircraft accidents.
25.08.2010 Page 15 of 196

1.3 THE ORGANISATION OF METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

The international standards for meteorology are set by the WMO, World Meteorological
Organization. Specific standards and recommended practices for meteorological services for air
navigation are set by ICAO and are detailed in Annex 3 to the Convention on International Civil
Aviation, “Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation” with additional regional
requirements given in Doc 7754, “European Region Air Navigation Plan”.
The objective of the meteorological services for air navigation is to contribute towards the safety,
regularity and efficiency of air navigation. It is achieved by supplying the users with the
meteorological information necessary for the performance of their respective functions. These
users include operators, flight crew members and ATS units, amongst others.
Each contracting state determines the meteorological service which it will provide in accordance
with international and regional requirements and designates the authority which will provide this
service. Details of the services provided shall be included in the State Aeronautical Information
Publication, AIP.
The World Area Forecast System (WAFS) supplies meteorological authorities and other users
with forecasts of global meteorological parameters like upper wind and temperature information.
This objective is achieved through a comprehensive, integrated, world-wide and uniform system.
On behalf of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the Satellite Distribution system
(SADIS) was developed which is a high quality, cost-effective and error-free satellite data
distribution system to provide vital flight information to aviation users around the world.
From the aviation point of view the organisation of the meteorological service starts with a local
meteorological station or meteorological office at an airport, which carries out regular
observations and prepares local met reports. They are connected through the national
meteorological organisation to a regional area forecast centres and a world area forecast centre.
Figure 1.2: The organisation of meteorological services for air navigation.

A meteorological office responsible for and serving other meteorological stations and offices
within a designated area, normally a flight information region (FIR), is known as a meteorological
watch office (MWO).
A regional area forecast centre (RAFC) is a meteorological centre designated to prepare and
supply significant weather forecasts and upper wind and temperature charts for flights departing
from aerodromes within its service area and to supply grid point data in digital form for up to
worldwide coverage.
A world area forecast centre (WAFC) is a meteorological centre designated to prepare and
supply significant weather forecasts and upper-air forecasts in digital and/or pictorial form on a
global basis to RAFCs, and direct to states by appropriate means as part of the aeronautical
fixed service.
A volcanic ash advisory centre (VAAC) provides reports and forecasts for the movement of
volcanic ash plumes.
1.4 THE ORIGIN OF METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION

Meteorological information is collected by a global network of observation stations using a
number of techniques. Observations are carried out regularly and the information is exchanged
globally in real time.
Surface Observations
Airports form an important part of the network of locations where observations of meteorological
parameters such as air pressure, wind speed and direction, air temperature, and dew point, are
made at fixed intervals, often on a half-hourly basis. At sea, ships and buoys collect the same
variables as the land stations with the important additions of sea surface temperature and wave
height and period.
Upper Air Observations
Data on air pressure, wind velocity, temperature, and humidity from just above ground to heights
up to 30 km is obtained by tracking radiosondes attached to free-rising balloons while monitoring
their transmissions.
Weather radar provides highly accurate real time data of air movement and humidity, especially
in the lower layers of the atmosphere. It is used mainly for wind measurements and estimates of
the intensity of approaching precipitation and is useful for short-range forecasting of severe
weather phenomena.
Observations from Aircraft in Flight
Air-reports are given from aircraft in flight in conformity with requirements for meteorological
reporting at specific locations, normally where little or no radiosonde data are available, or in
case of significant weather. Such reports provide accurate readings of wind and temperature, as
well as valuable information on conditions which are often not detected by other means, such as
wind shear and clear air turbulence. When received by ATS, reports from aircraft in flight shall be
passed on to the met service as required.
25.08.2010 Page 17 of 196

Observations from Satellites

Satellites are one of the most valuable tools for the collection of meteorological data for the
following reasons:
• They observe meteorological conditions continuously and in real-time.
• They monitor very wide areas and detect the evolution of the weather systems, significantly
increasing the efficiency and accuracy of forecasting.
• They detect both visible and invisible weather phenomena. For example, they are equipped
with sensors which collect information on temperature distribution and vapour movements
which makes it possible to assess wind speed and direction.
There are two main types of MET satellites, polar orbiting and geostationary.
Both types of satellites are normally equipped with visible and infrared imagers, microwave
sounders and sounding instruments that can provide vertical profiles of temperature and
humidity. Other sensors detect vapour at various levels indicating the movement of air masses,
cloud formations, thunderstorm etc. Wind velocity can be measured by tracking of clouds and
water vapour.
Figure 1.3: Polar orbiting and geostationary satellites.

1.5 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT USED IN METEOROLOGY

The following table lists the common weather elements, gives examples of the instruments used
to measure these elements, and the units normally used in weather reports and forecasts
distributed to the Air Traffic Services. In most cases SI units (The International System of Units)
are used. This is the modern form of the metric system.
Weather element Instrument Unit
Air pressure barometer hPa, inch HG
Air temperature thermometer °C
Air density calculated kg/m³
Dew point calculated °C
Relative humidity hygrometer %
Cloud amount ceilometer okta
Cloud base ceilometer ft
Precipitation rain gauge mm
Ground visibility estimated by km or m

observer
Runway visual transmissometer m

range
Wind direction wind vane / wind degree (°)

sock
Wind speed anemometer kt
1.6 THE COLLECTION AND DISSEMINATION OF METEOROLOGICAL

INFORMATION
Meteorological data from various types of regular observations are the base of all the different
types of met reports and forecasts. Met data are collected, analysed, formatted and distributed
within national and international met services following international and regional standards
using high capacity internal communications systems.
ATS personnel may receive meteorological information directly from the local met office or from
aircraft in flight. The majority of information, however, comes from the met service as a whole
and is distributed to ATS via the Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications Network, AFTN, in
accordance with international and regional standards.
Reports made for aviation are issued in specific and agreed formats, for example, METAR, TAF,
SIGMET, etc. The standards for coded messages used for the international exchange of
25.08.2010 Page 19 of 196

observed and processed data is defined by WMO and published in Manual of Codes, publication
number 306.
An air traffic controller has to be able to decode these messages and have sufficient knowledge
and understanding of meteorology in order to appreciate the relevance of their content. For
example, although during their preparations for a flight, pilots will brief themselves carefully on
the meteorological conditions expected throughout the flight, they still rely on ATS for information
on the actual weather on take-off and landing and significant weather en-route.
Figure 1.4: A met display from the control tower at Heathrow airport.
Regular observations are made by the met station or met office at each airport and forwarded,
either on paper or electronically, to the local ATS in the form of a met report. This is the “local
routine report”. In case of significant changes, exceeding stipulated criteria, a “local special
report” will be issued. In addition, the ATS units for tower and approach will have displays
showing the actual wind, and may also have indicators for the actual air pressure and the
runway visual range.
For transmission and distribution beyond the airport of observation, local reports are written in a
specific code, called the METAR/ SPECI code. A local routine report thus becomes a “METAR”
and a special routine report becomes a “SPECI”. The coding and transmission of these reports,
may be the responsibility of the local met office or of the meteorological watch office, MWO, to
which area the airport belongs. This is also the case for routine and amended aerodrome
forecasts, which are exchanged in the TAF code form as “TAF” and “TAF AMD”.
The meteorological watch office is responsible for a continuous weather watch and the issuing of
appropriate information within its area, normally a flight information region. Examples are en-
route forecasts for winds and temperatures, significant weather charts, synoptic charts, and
“SIGMET” or “AIRMET” messages. The latter contain information about specified en-route
weather phenomena that may affect the safety of aircraft operations.

Figure 1.5: Examples of meteorological messages.
A Regional Area Forecast Centre receives, stores and processes data. It prepares upper wind
and temperature charts, significant weather charts, SIGMETs, etc. and distributes data and
charts to users within its service area. In the EUR area RAFCs are located in Frankfurt, London,
Moscow and Toulouse.
A World Area Forecast Centre provides international forecasting services including actual and
forecast global upper wind and temperature data twice each day, significant weather charts, etc.
There are two WAFCs, with the EUR region being primarily served by WAFC London.
The Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres in London and Toulouse provides ASHTAMs and other
reports on volcanic activity as required for Europe, the Middle East and Africa.
25.08.2010 Page 21 of 196


MET The Atmosphere
The Atmosphere
25.08.2010 Page 23 of 196

The Atmosphere ATCO Basic Training
SECTION 2
ATMOSPERE
Table of contents
IMPORTANCE TO ATS ............................................................................................ 26
DIVIDING THE ATMOSPHERE INTO LAYERS ....................................................... 26
THE TROPOSPHERE ........................................................................................................... 26
THE STRATOSPHERE ......................................................................................................... 27
THE OTHER ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS ............................................................................... 27
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE ................................................................ 28
TEMPERATURE VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE ..................................................... 28
PRESSURE VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE, TIME AND LOCATION ...................... 29
DENSITY................................................................................................................... 29
ICAO STANDARD ATMOSPHERE .......................................................................... 30
PURPOSE OF THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE................................................................ 30
ELEMENTS OF THE ICAO STANDARD ATMOSPHERE.................................................... 31

MET The Atmosphere
2. ATMOSPHERE
CCC Topic: 2. ATMOSPHERE
CCC Sub-topics: 2.1 Composition and Structure
2.2 Standard Atmosphere
Training objectives L Code

1. State the composition and structure of the 1 METB 2.1.1
atmosphere
2. Describe the basic characteristics of the 2 METB 2.1.2
atmospheric parameters measured
3. List the tools used for the collection of 1 METB 2.1.3
meteorological data
4. Describe the elements of the ISA 2 METB 2.2.1
5. State the reasons why the ISA has been defined 1 METB 2.2.2
L - CCC level
Code - CCC reference
25.08.2010 Page 25 of 196

2.1 IMPORTANCE TO ATS

The atmosphere is the gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth. The lower part of it is called the
troposphere. Most aviation takes place within this sphere, which is also the origin of almost all
those weather phenomena that effect aircraft.
Water is the most important constituent of the troposphere because it is the raw material from
which most weather is formed.
The weight of the atmosphere creates air pressure, a measurement of force per unit area.
Pressure, in turn, is linked to density and both are affected by temperature. The temperature and
density of the air affect the lift and drag of an aircraft, and the power that can be produced by its
engines.
An International Standard Atmosphere has been agreed on in order to standardise aircraft
instruments, define the relationship between pressure levels and flight levels and avoid having to
constantly compensate for local variations during flight.
The relationship between pressure and altimetry is extremely important since vertical separation,
either from other aircraft or from terrain, is based on pressure measurements and depends on
correct altimeter settings. At low altitudes, for example during take-off, approach and landing
phases, a precise altitude or height indication is required to ensure separation from terrain and a
current local pressure value must be used as the reference.
2.2 DIVIDING THE ATMOSPHERE INTO LAYERS

The atmosphere can be described as five layers, one on top of the other. Since these layers are
around the spherical Earth they are defined as spheres. Starting from the innermost sphere, they
are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. The
thermosphere is also sometimes known as the ionosphere.
2.2.1 The Troposphere

This is the most important layer for civil aviation. The majority of civil flights and almost all the
weather phenomena take place within this layer. The main characteristics of the troposphere
are:
 A marked fall of density, pressure and temperature with height.
 The presence of virtually all the atmospheric water vapour from which clouds and most
atmospheric weather phenomena are derived.
 A marked variation in space and time in vertical and horizontal motion.
The temperature in the troposphere drops with height at variable rates, but averaging 2 degrees
Celsius per 1000 feet, up to its upper limit, the tropopause. The height of the tropopause varies
with season and latitude, from about 20,000 ft (7 km) over the poles to about 55,000 ft (18 km)
over the equator, due to differences in surface temperatures and the fact that warm air expands
more. The height of the tropopause can also be influenced locally by large weather systems in
the troposphere below.

MET The Atmosphere
2.2.2 The Stratosphere

Above the tropopause the temperature rises back to values approaching those found close to
the earth’s surface due to some solar radiation being absorbed by ozone. The increase in
temperature stops at about 50 km above the ground, marking the upper limit of the ozone. This
layer is called the stratosphere and its upper limit the stratopause. The term stratosphere implies
that this layer is stratified and stable, few vertical motions occur in this part of the atmosphere,
although at times high cloud tops can penetrate into the stratosphere and some clear air
turbulence may be experienced. This layer, however, is far less turbulent than the troposphere
and usually free of most of the typical weather phenomena.
2.2.3 The Other Atmospheric Layers

Above the stratosphere lies the mesosphere where there is no heat source, so that temperature
keeps decreasing down to the minimum found in the atmosphere. At the top of the mesosphere,
at a height of around 80 km, temperature is from –80 °C to –100 °C. No typical meteorological
phenomena are expected in this layer.
Beyond the mesosphere lies the thermosphere, extending up to a height of around 500 km. It
is characterised by a very high increase in temperature which can reach up to 1200 °C or 1700
°C. Due to the bombardment of this region with high-energy radiation from the Sun, many of the
molecules and atoms are ionised, giving rise to the name ionosphere. This region, with a
vertical extent normally considered to be about the same as that of the thermosphere, is mainly
known to civil aviation due to the reflection or propagation of radio signals for
telecommunications and radio navigation. The aurora borealis in the northern polar regions and
the aurora australis in the southern polar regions are found in the ionosphere. They are
produced by charged particles accelerated by the earth’s magnetic field, which is denser and
stronger at the poles. These excite the atmospheric atoms and molecules resulting in the
emission of visible light. No typical meteorological phenomena can be expected in this layer.
The outmost layer of the atmosphere is called the exosphere, which extends to around 9,600
km from the Earth’s surface.
Figure 2.1: Vertical structure of the atmosphere
25.08.2010 Page 27 of 196

2.3 COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Nitrogen and oxygen are by far the most abundant gases found in the atmosphere. Together
they account for almost 99 % of a dry atmosphere. The remaining 1% is mostly argon. Other
gases, such as hydrogen and helium exist in very small quantities. Analyses reveal no
measurable variations in composition up to a height of about 60 kilometres, except for some
ozone, which has a maximum at about 25 kilometres. Additionally, a small amount of carbon
dioxide is present, varying with season due to photosynthesis and also increasing over time due
to the use of fossil fuels.
The atmosphere is never entirely dry. Water vapour is invariably present in a proportion of
between 1 and 4 %. Water vapour is by far the most important gas from the meteorological point
of view, because it is the raw material from which so much of our “weather” is formed. Fog,
clouds, rain, snow, hail, dew, frost and ice all originate from atmospheric water vapour.
Additionally, particles of dust, smoke and other minute solid or liquid particles, called aerosols,
are present, usually at lower levels. Although present in relatively small quantities, they can
influence the formation of clouds and precipitation, cause atmospheric obscuration and can
influence air temperature by absorbing solar radiation.
Constituents of % by Constituents of % by volume

dry air volume varying presence
Nitrogen 78 Water vapour 1–4
Oxygen 21 Carbon dioxide  0.03
Argon, hydrogen, 1
helium
Table 2.1: Approximate percentage by volume of each of the major atmospheric constituents. Percentages, except for water vapour,
are quoted as a proportion of dry air.
2.4 TEMPERATURE VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE

The atmosphere is quite transparent to sunlight, except when clouds are present, so most of the
light and heat from the Sun is absorbed at the Earth’s surface, although some is reflected.
The lowest layers of the atmosphere are heated from below by being in contact with the Earth’s
surface. On average, the temperature decreases with height up to an altitude of about 36,000
feet (11 km). The rate at which temperature decreases with height is described as a lapse rate.
At any time or place the lapse rate can take almost any value, however, the average
temperature lapse rate in the atmosphere is around 2°C/1000 ft.
The temperature would continue to decrease with height if there was no source of heat at upper
levels in the atmosphere. The ozone layer, with a maximum at a height of about 25 km, absorbs
ultra-violet light from the Sun and the energy absorbed leads to heating of the air. This means
that the temperature stops dropping, remains constant for some distance and then starts to
increase with height.

MET The Atmosphere
2.5 PRESSURE VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE, TIME AND LOCATION

The weight of the atmosphere is significant since on average, near the ground, every cubic
metre weighs about 1 kg. Pressure exists because the atmosphere, acting under the force of
gravity, exerts a force.
The weight, density and associated pressure of the atmosphere are not constant. With increased
height (or altitude) the portion of the atmosphere above decreases and so the pressure always
decreases with height. Values are greater near the Earth’s surface and smaller at higher levels
and so the vertical distance corresponding to each hectopascal ( hPa) is less at lower levels.
The average pressure at mean sea level (MSL) is approximately 1013 hPa, but the observed
pressure at a specific time and place is normally different from this. In real life, the pressure
varies constantly with time and location. Usually the value is between 950 hPa and 1050 hPa.
2.6 DENSITY
Density is defined as the mass in a unit volume (one cubic metre), and so a specific volume of
air with a high density has a greater mass than the same volume of air with a lower density.
Since the density of the air depends on the pressure (and to a lesser extent on temperature) the
density, like pressure, decreases with an increase in height.
Remember that air density has an effect on:

 take-off performance associated with required runway length
 the lift of an aircraft and its rate of climb and ceiling;
 the manoeuvrability of an aircraft due to the aerodynamic forces created by the control
surfaces;
 the amount of drag acting on an aircraft;
 the power delivered by a jet engine due to the oxygen content of the air intake;
 the thrust of propellers due to the aerodynamic forces created by their blades.
 the content of oxygen and as consequence the human ability to survive at higher levels
without appropriate cabin pressurization and supply with additional oxygen.
In the table below we summarise some very important aircraft performance characteristics
related to density and height which have a direct impact on the work of an air traffic controller:
25.08.2010 Page 29 of 196

Relation between air density and aircraft performance

Aircraft at lower levels, due to higher air density, will have :
Lower ground speed and Due to higher drag
higher fuel consumption
Higher rate of climb and Due to higher lifting force and more
smaller turn radius oxygen available for the engine
Aircraft at higher levels, due to lower air density, will have :
Higher ground speed and Due to less drag
better fuel economy
Lower rate of climb and Due to less lifting force and less
larger turn radius oxygen available
 A heavy loaded aircraft, for example a B747 on a long-range route, will have to start
cruise flight at a rather low level (about 30,000 feet) because of the weight of the fuel and
the need for higher lift. During the flight, as fuel is burnt and weight reduced, the pilot will
request higher levels from the ATS unit in order to find more economic conditions at
levels where drag is lower.
 A medium range aircraft on a shorter route is more likely to request climb directly to its
optimum economic level, say 35,000 feet, and may initially be observed to climb at more
than 3000 ft/min. This creates the impression that the cruising level will be reached in
about 10 minutes. However, as the aircraft reaches higher levels the rate of climb will
decrease considerably. Towards the end of the climb and as consequence of the
decreasing air density, the pilot may actually be unable to climb at a rate of 2000 ft/min or
greater
 A rapid cabin decompression has to be regarded as a case of severe emergency and
forces the pilot to execute an immediate emergency descent to levels around 10.000 ft.
2.7 ICAO STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

Due to the pressure and temperature variations in the real atmosphere one would need to
constantly update the input and correct the indications of aircraft instruments to get true values.
To avoid this one approach is to assume that the structure of the atmosphere is always the same
in a Standard Atmosphere, ISA). This means using a standard reference to get indicated values,
which are not necessarily true values, but which will provide comparable values for all aircraft in
the vicinity of each other.
2.7.1 Purpose of the Standard Atmosphere

The ICAO Standard Atmosphere is intended for use in calculations in the design of aircraft, in
presenting test results of aircraft and their components under identical conditions, and to
facilitate standardisation in the development and calibration of instruments. Its use is also
recommended in the processing of data from geophysical and meteorological observations.
The basic parameter values of the ISA can be found in ICAO Annex 8 (Airworthiness of Aircraft;
definitions) and it is described in detail in ICAO Doc 7488/3 (Manual of the ICAO Standard
Atmosphere). The adopted properties of ISA are not met exactly in every day life, they have
been derived from laws of physics and average values observed over long periods.

MET The Atmosphere
2.7.2 Elements of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere
The air in the standard atmosphere is considered to be a perfect dry gas with constant
composition at all levels and assumed to have the following physical constants:
2.7.2.1 At Mean Sea Level (MSL):

Temperature = 15 °C
Pressure = 1013.25 hPa hectopascal
Density = 1.225 kg/m³
2.7.2.2 Above Mean Sea Level:

Temperature
In the standard atmosphere air temperature is assumed to decrease with height at a constant
rate throughout the troposphere, then, in the stratosphere, the temperature is considered to be
constant with height (at – 56,5 °C):
The temperature lapse rate is considered to be
 2 °C/1000 1 ft from MSL up to 11 km and
 0 °C/1000 ft from 11 km to 20 km
Lapse rate is again negative from 20 to 47 km (as the temperature is increasing with altitude),
then becomes zero in an isothermal layer around 50 km before taking a small positive value from
51 to 80km.
100000
90000
80000
70000
Altitude (feet)
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
-60 -40 -20 0 20
Temperature (degrees Celsius)
Figure 2.2: Variation of temperature with altitude in the ISA
1
For every practical purpose, calculations and examples in this course will use a temperature lapse
rate of 2 °C /1000 feet, although the exact value is 1.98 °C /1000 feet (6.5°C/1000 m). There is no
need for a minus sign since a lapse rate signifies a decrease.
25.08.2010 Page 31 of 196

The rate of change in temperature can also be called temperature gradient (instead of
temperature lapse rate), in which case the sign in front of it will be reversed. The gradient is
negative in layers where temperature is decreasing and positive in layers where the temperature
is increasing.
Pressure
Pressure always decreases with altitude, but the rate of decrease varies with altitude (and to
smaller extent with temperature). Near the surface, where the average pressure is 1013.25 hPa,
the pressure drops very rapidly, at a rate of 1 hPa for every 27 feet. With increased altitude
each hPa corresponds to an increased vertical distance. Approximate vertical distances
corresponding to a pressure difference of 1 hPa are: 35 ft at 10,000 ft; 50 ft at 20,000 ft; 70 ft at
30,000 ft and 100 ft at 40,000 ft. For any layer in the atmosphere which is 18,000 feet deep, the
pressure at the top of the layer is approximately half of the pressure at the bottom.
100000
A
l 90000
t 80000
i
t 70000
u 60000
d
e 50000
40000
f
e 30000
e 20000
t
10000
0
0 250 500 750 1000
Pressure (hPa) blue line / Density (g/m 3) red dotted line
Figure 2.3: Variation of pressure and density with heigh
Density
Density decreases with pressure. It also increases, but to a much lesser extent, as temperature
decreases. Therefore, density decreases with height at all levels and is halved for every 20,000
ft that is climbed. The graphs for pressure and density are very similar. The difference is caused
by the counter-acting effect on density of temperature’s decrease with altitude.

SECTION 3
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
Table of contents
SPECIFIC HEAT ....................................................................................................... 37
BASIC MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER ........................................................ 37
CONDUCTION....................................................................................................................... 38
RADIATION ........................................................................................................................... 38
TURBULENT MIXING ........................................................................................................... 39
CONVECTION AND ADVECTION ........................................................................................ 39
HEAT TRANSFER PROCESSES............................................................................. 39
SOLAR RADIATION ............................................................................................................. 39
REFLECTION ........................................................................................................................ 40
ABSORPTION ....................................................................................................................... 40
SCATTERING........................................................................................................................ 40
TERRESTRIAL RADIATION................................................................................................. 40
SURFACE HEATING................................................................................................ 41
DIURNAL TEMPERATURE VARIATION.............................................................................. 41
MODIFYING INFLUENCES ON SURFACE TEMPERATURES ........................................... 42
TEMPERATURE INVERSIONS ............................................................................................ 43
SEASONAL TEMPERATURE VARIATION .......................................................................... 44
ADIABATIC PROCESSES AND TEMPERATURE LAPSE RATES ........................ 44
STABILITY AND INSTABILITY IN THE ATMOSPHERE ......................................... 46
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING TEMPERATURE AND DEW POINT............... 49
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH TEMPERATURE AND DEW POINT .................... 50
OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF TEMPERATURE AND DEW POINT.............. 50
METAR/SPECI CODE FOR TEMPERATURE AND DEW POINT............................ 50

MET The Atmosphere
3. HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

CCC Sub-topic: 2.3 Heat and Temperature

1. Define the processes by which heat is transferred 1 METB 2.3.1
and how the atmosphere is heated
2. Describe how temperature varies 2 METB 2.3.2
L ................... CCC Level

25.08.2010 Page 35 of 196


MET The Atmosphere

Heat is a form of energy. Condensation is the process responsible for the formation of clouds,
mist and fog. Latent heat is released when condensation occurs. This is the principal power
source behind most weather phenomena.
Temperature is an important factor in the performance of an aircraft. At a given pressure, high
temperature implies low air density and this has an adverse effect on both piston-engine and jet
aircraft. Since the lift produced by air flowing over an aircraft wing is related to the air density,
there is less lift in warm air than in cold air, for the same air speed. The effect is usually most
significant at take-off when the aircraft is fully loaded. Care must be taken if climbing into warmer
air where the lift will decrease.
The efficiency of jet engines depends, in part, on the difference in temperature between the air
temperature and the maximum temperature attainable in the combustion chamber. Thus jet
engines are less efficient in warm air.
3.2 SPECIFIC HEAT

When two objects are heated by the same amount of energy their temperature does not
necessarily rise by the same number of degrees. This is because different materials have
different specific heats. The specific heat is the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of a body by 1 degree Celsius. The specific heat of soil is about four times
less than the specific heat of water, but varies depending on how much water it contains. This
means that if a water body and a land surface both receive the same amount of energy, such as
bright sunshine, the water temperature will rise by much less than the land temperature.
Another factor which reduces the heating of the water surface is that the water is heated to a
greater depth because the sunlight penetrates below the surface, whereas it is only the
uppermost layer of the soil that is heated.
3.3 BASIC MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer acts to reduce temperature differences. Heat is always transferred from the hotter
body to the colder body.
The main heat transfer mechanisms are conduction, radiation and turbulent mixing. In some
circumstances only one form of heat transfer is possible. In other cases where more than one
method is possible, there is usually one which is much more effective than the others.
Convection and advection are mechanisms where a volume of air is displaced by another
volume of air. When the two volumes of air contain different amounts of heat this constitutes a
heat transfer.
25.08.2010 Page 37 of 196

3.3.1 Conduction
When two bodies at different temperatures are brought into contact, heat is transferred from the
warmer body to the colder body in order to try to reduce the temperature difference. This
process is conduction of heat and operates only when bodies are in physical contact. It is
important in the atmosphere only in the first few centimetres above the ground where the air is in
physical contact with the Earth’s surface.
3.3.2 Radiation
Heat transfer by radiation is the only way heat can be transferred between bodies that are not in
close proximity. The earth receives all its heat from the Sun in the form of radiation. It also loses
heat to space in the form of radiation.
All bodies radiate heat. Hotter bodies radiate more than cold bodies. This means that all bodies
would be continuously losing heat if they didn’t also gain heat from somewhere. Each body is
surrounded by other bodies emitting heat radiation. It absorbs some of that emitted radiation to
achieve a state of radiative equilibrium where the amount of heat absorbed is equal to the
amount lost.
In the atmosphere the situation is more complex because air is transparent to radiation at some
but not all wavelengths. This means that some radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere and
some passes through. If the atmosphere was completely opaque at visible wavelengths then no
light from the Sun would reach the Earth’s surface.
Heat transfer by radiation is present all the time in the atmosphere. In some situations it is the
dominant factor, for example, the difference between the Earth’s surface heating during daylight
hours and cooling at night, while at other times and places it is not so important.
Meteorologists often refer to radiation as “solar” or “terrestrial” depending on whether its source
is from the Sun or the Earth-Ocean-Atmosphere system. This convenience is possible only
because the wavelengths of the radiation are very different. Solar radiation is primarily in the
ultra-violet and visible part of the spectrum while terrestrial radiation is of longer wavelength and
purely infra-red.
Solar radiation
Terrestrial radiation
0.5 1.0 5.0 10.0

Wavelength (micrometres)
Figure 3.1: Solar and terrestrial radiation spectra. The vertical scale shows intensity of radiation. Note that the amplitude of the
terrestrial radiation is exaggerated, as it is very much less than the solar radiation.

MET The Atmosphere
3.3.3 Turbulent Mixing

Heat is transferred widely through the atmosphere by turbulence. The gusts and swirls in the
wind are evidence of turbulent eddies which mix the air. If some air is cold, for example, very
close to the Earth’s surface at night, turbulence can produce mixing with warmer air above. The
effect is that heat is transferred from the warmer air to the colder air, resulting in an increase in
the temperature of the air near the ground but a decrease in the temperature of the air above.
Turbulent mixing differs from convection since it can transfer heat downwards as well as
upwards.
Solid objects transfer heat mostly by conduction. A piece of metal heated at one side transfers
the heat through its volume by collisions of the molecules that is by conduction. Air, in contrast,
is a poor conductor of heat and a similar function is performed in a volume of air by the turbulent
eddies which act on a much larger scale.
3.3.4 Convection and Advection
The term convection describes heat transportation in the atmosphere due to upward-moving
currents of air. This is often caused by air which has been heated by contact with the ground, by
conduction, and so is warmer and more buoyant than the air above it. It will rise through any
cooler air in a convective current.
Advection is heat transportation in horizontally moving currents of air. When warm air is blown
into a region to replace cold air this is described as warm air advection. Convection and
advection are very common in the atmosphere and are significant factors in the process of
atmospheric circulation, and cloud formation.
Gliders use convective air currents to gain altitude. This is why glider pilots will try to find rising
thermals whose presence is often indicated by clouds formed by convection which often have a
distinctive “lumpy” form.
3.4 HEAT TRANSFER PROCESSES
3.4.1 Solar Radiation

Heat is transferred from the sun to the earth, between the earth’s surface (land and ocean) and
the atmosphere, between one air mass and another, and from the atmosphere to space.
Radiation from the sun includes ultra-violet light, visible light and infra-red light. The amount of
radiation reaching the earth’s surface depends on the latitude, time of day, season of the year,
and atmospheric conditions. Of the radiation, which does not reach the surface, some is
absorbed by dust and gases, some is reflected back and some is scattered. The albedo is the
proportion of the radiation which is reflected or scattered. For the earth-atmosphere system the
albedo is about 30%.
The interaction of the solar radiation with the atmosphere and earth’s surface is complex as is
shown below.
25.08.2010 Page 39 of 196

Incoming solar radiation 100%
Reflected
Reflected Scattered Earth’s albedo = 30% upwards
upwards upwards
20%
4% 6%
19%
Absorbed by
gases and dust
Scattered Reflected
downwards Direct downwards
6% 21% 24%
Total absorbed at surface = 51%

Figure 3.2: Distribution of solar radiation through the atmosphere. About 50% of the incoming radiation is absorbed at the surface
and 30% is lost to space.
3.4.2 Reflection
Some surfaces, such as clouds, snow and ice, reflect a large proportion and only absorb a small
amount of the radiation falling on them. Other surfaces, such as asphalt, paved surfaces,
ploughed fields, or forests reflect little of the radiation falling on them. For example, whereas
snow reflects 80% to 90% of the radiation, forest only reflects about 10%.
Water is a special case. When the radiation falls on it from almost overhead it penetrates to
great depths and very little is reflected. However, when the sun is lower on the horizon much
larger amounts of radiation will be reflected.
3.4.3 Absorption
Heat is transferred into a body when radiation is absorbed. Radiation falling on the Earth’s
surface is either reflected or absorbed. Approximately half of the incoming solar radiation is
actually absorbed at the Earth’s surface. A further 19% is absorbed in the atmosphere. For
example, ozone in the stratosphere absorbs ultra-violet radiation. Infra-red radiation is absorbed
by water vapour and carbon dioxide, but the air absorbs very little of the visible light arriving from
the Sun.
3.4.4 Scattering
Radiation passing through the atmosphere is scattered. Different wavelengths are scattered by
different particles in the air. Visible light is scattered by air molecules. Blue light is scattered
much more strongly than red light. This explains the blue colour of the sky. Dust and other
microscopic particles also scatter light.
3.4.5 Terrestrial Radiation

The earth, the atmosphere and the oceans all emit radiation. This radiation is usually described
as “long-wave” because the greatest emission is at wavelengths of about 10 micrometres as
compared with the “short-wave” radiation from the sun which peaks at 0.5 micrometres.

MET The Atmosphere
Long-wave radiation is lost to space. Because the earth-atmosphere system emits the same
amount of radiation as it absorbs from the sun there is no significant change in the earth’s
temperature over a long period of time. It is this balance that is disturbed by the “greenhouse”
effect, which means that increased carbon dioxide in the air reduces the amount of long-wave
radiation leaving the atmosphere thereby causing a net heating of the whole system.
3.5 SURFACE HEATING

The temperature at the earth’s surface is determined by the balance between incoming solar
radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation. The effect of heating or cooling is greatest at the
surface. It is also influenced by seasonal changes.
The balance of heating has both a daily and an annual cycle and is affected by location and also,
in the daily cycle, by the amount of cloud or wind.
3.5.1 Diurnal Temperature Variation

The ground loses heat by long-wave radiation during day and night. In the early morning, just
after sunrise, the ground is at its coolest and the air close to the ground has been cooled by
conduction and mixing during the night. As the Sun rises in the sky it heats the ground and, in
spite of the long-wave heat loss, there will be a net heating of the ground surface. The surface
temperature starts to rise and the air closest to the ground is warmed by conduction. As more
sunlight is absorbed this process continues and the heat is transported upwards by convection.
The warming reaches a maximum in the afternoon after the sun has passed its peak, the exact
hour depends on the latitude and season.
As the sun sinks in the sky, the balance between incoming and outgoing radiation begins to shift.
The ground begins to cool. At first the cooling is slight because incoming solar radiation
compensates for some of the outgoing long-wave radiation. Later, when the sun sinks further
and convection is reduced, the long-wave heat loss remains and the ground cools more rapidly.
The imbalance in radiation is not the whole story since some heat is also removed from the
surface by continuing convection while the surface is still warm.
During the night heat is lost continuously by long-wave radiation and the ground cools more and
more. The air close to the ground cools by conduction and, to some extent, by mixing. The
amount of mixing is determined by the wind speed. This also determines whether the coolest air
is confined to a layer within a few metres of the surface or through a much greater depth,
perhaps a few hundred metres. The surface temperature reaches its minimum value at, or
shortly after, sunrise.
25.08.2010 Page 41 of 196

T e m p e ra tu re
In c o m in g O u tg o in g
s h o rt-w a v e lo n g -w a v e
(s o la r) (te rre s tria l)
ra d ia tio n ra d ia tio n
N o o n
Figure 3.3: Variation of radiation and temperature during a 24 hr cycle.
3.5.2 Modifying Influences on Surface Temperatures

The diurnal cycle is modified by local conditions which vary from day to day. The presence of
cloud will reduce both the incoming solar radiation and the outgoing terrestrial radiation and the
maximum and minimum temperatures will be less extreme than in clear conditions.
Wind is another significant modifying factor. It acts as a stirring mechanism mixing the air close
to the ground, which has been receiving or losing heat through radiation, with air above it. The
effect is that the mixing of heat through a deeper layer reduces temperature extremes, so that
the daytime maximum becomes lower and the night-time minimum higher. Without wind as a
modifying factor there will be greater temperature variations between day and night in a shallow
layer close to the surface.
The nature of the surface is also important. Temperature variations over water are very much
less than those over land. Since the specific heat of water is higher than that of soil there is a
smaller temperature increase in water for the same heat input. The moisture content of the soil
affects the specific heat. Dry sand will exhibit a much larger temperature variation than moist
clay, other factors being equal. In addition to the specific heat, the colour of the surface can be
important since dark surfaces will absorb more sunlight than lighter surfaces. For example, the
temperature maximum during a sunny day immediately above a tarmac runway will be very
much greater than immediately above grass or snow in a neighbouring area.

MET The Atmosphere
DAY
3m calm
w ind y
2m
1m
8 °C 1 0 °C 1 2 °C 1 4 °C
N IG H T
3m ca lm
w in d y
2m
1m
8 °C 1 0 °C 1 2 °C 1 4 °C
Figure 3.4: Temperature variation with height close to the ground by day and by night in windy and calm conditions.
3.5.3 Temperature Inversions

If the temperature increases instead of decreases with altitude this is known as an inversion. An
inversion layer where warmer air is overlying colder air may occur close to the surface or at
higher altitudes. There are different possible causes.
For example:
· At the end of a clear night: Earth radiates heat and air close to the surface is cooled more
than the air above if wind speed is low.
· Associated with a cold front: Warm air overrides colder, more dense air.
· Below an anticyclone: Air in the anticyclone is subsiding and warmed as it descends. A
layer of colder air may be trapped below preventing the warmed air from reaching the
surface.
Inversions can often be found at the top of a cloud layer. This is usually the result of a cloud
rising until it meets the inversion which prevents any further upward cloud growth. Instead the
cloud may spread out horizontally.
25.08.2010 Page 43 of 196

3.5.4 Seasonal Temperature Variation

The diurnal cycle varies from season to season. In the summer the days are longer and the sun
also rises higher in the sky. As a result the heating during the day and the maximum
temperatures are higher in summer and the maximum arrives later in the afternoon. The nights
are shorter so that the cooling is less, resulting in relatively high night-time minima.
In winter the opposite effects are dominant. The long nights lead to low minimum temperatures
and short days with low solar altitudes give relatively low maximum daytime temperatures.
These effects vary with latitude. In the tropics the day length does not vary much, while at high
latitudes there is either permanent day or night at the solstices. However, the long summer days
at high latitudes do not compensate for the fact that the sun does not rise high in the sky so the
total heating in these long days fails to produce very high maximum temperature.
3.6 ADIABATIC PROCESSES AND TEMPERATURE LAPSE RATES

When a bubble of air rises it expands as it moves into a layer of lower pressure. As it expands it
cools. The reason for this is that energy is required to expand the air bubble and it is taken from
the heat in the air. Conversely, if a bubble of air descends, its pressure will increase and so will
its temperature. This process is described as adiabatic cooling or heating.
An adiabatic process is a thermodynamic process without any exchange of energy with the
surrounding environment. In meteorology the heating or cooling of vertically moving air is mainly
an adiabatic process, although, in reality, there will often be some minor exchange of heat with
the environment.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
When unsaturated air rises, it cools at a constant rate due to the adiabatic process. This rate is
referred to as the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) and its value is approximately 3 °C/1000 ft.
When air sinks it is compressed, the process is reversed and unsaturated air is warmed at the
DALR.
Altitude (feet)
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Temperature (C)
Figure 3.5: Dry adiabatic lapse rate, approximately 3 °C / 1000 ft. The graph, which may be transposed laterally, describes adiabatic

MET The Atmosphere
temperature change without any condensation or evaporation taking place.
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate

If rising air is cooling then it will eventually become saturated. Further lifting together with the
associated cooling, will result in condensation. This condensation releases latent heat which
reduces the rate at which the air cools. While condensation takes place in a parcel of rising air, it
cools at the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR).
The value of the SALR is typically 1.5 to 2 °C/1000 ft. It is not constant as it depends on the
amount of water and the pressure in the air. The value of the SALR is lower when the humidity
and the pressure are high and it generally increases slightly with altitude.
Altitude (feet)
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Tem perature (C )
Figure 3.6: Saturated adiabatic lapse rate, typically 1.5 to 2 °C/1000 ft. The graph, which may be transposed laterally, describes
adiabatic temperature change, between surface level and 10 000 feet, in combination with the moderating effect of condensation in
rising air and evaporation in descending air.
Environmental Lapse Rate

The rate at which air cools with altitude at any given time and location is the environmental lapse
rate (ELR). The ELR is normally less than the DALR, but can take almost any value and there is
no reason why it should be identical to the DALR or SALR. It can even exhibit a temperature
increase with height, an inversion, through a layer.
A large number of air temperature readings from different heights are provided by a radiosonde,
an instrument package carried aloft by a balloon, or by data from meteorological satellites. A
graph of the vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere based on the air temperature data
illustrates the ELR.
This graph is used in the analysis and forecasting of the weather at upper levels.
25.08.2010 Page 45 of 196

A ltitu d e (fe e t)
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
-1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15
T e m p e ra tu re (C )
Figure 3.7: An example of a typical environmental lapse rate. Surface temperature is 8 °C and temperature decreases and increases
at different rates in different layers, depending on day to day conditions.
3.7 STABILITY AND INSTABILITY IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Vertical movements of air can be very rapid in regions of instability. On the other hand upward
movement of air can be inhibited in stable situations.
Definitions
Stable: A stable state is one in which any small perturbation to a body, or a bubble of air, will
encounter a restoring force which tends to return it to its original position. An example might be a
small ball in the bottom of a saucer. If the ball is moved a small amount it will always return to
the original position.
Unstable: An unstable situation is one in which a small perturbation to an object encounters a
force which will move the object farther from its original position. A small ball placed on top of an
upturned saucer is unstable.
Neutral stability: When a perturbation to a body results in no restoring or displacing force being
applied, so that the body remains in its perturbed position, the state is described as neutral. A
ball on a horizontal surface is neutrally stable.
Stable
Unstable
Neutral
Figure 3.8: Examples of stable, unstable and neutral conditions
A parcel of air will rise or descend depending upon its density in relation to the density of the
surrounding atmosphere. Density is related to temperature.

MET The Atmosphere
The ELR describes conditions in the atmosphere at a given time and location. A Met forecaster
is able to identify stable and unstable layers and likely associated cloud development by
comparing the ELR with the DALR and the SALR.
Absolute Stability
When the ELR in a layer of the atmosphere is less than the SALR, the layer is described as
absolutely stable. Any upward movement of an air parcel from this environment will cause it to
cool at the DALR (if it is unsaturated) or at the SALR (if it is saturated). In either case, after a
small upward movement, the air parcel will have reached a state where it is colder than the
surrounding air. Since the air inside the parcel is then more dense than its new surroundings it
will sink back to its original location.
Conversely, in the case of a downward motion the air would be warmed at the DALR and
become warmer than its new surroundings causing it to rise back to its original position. Thus,
vertical air movement is strongly inhibited in absolutely stable conditions.
Altitude (feet)
10000
9000
8000
SALR 7000
DALR 6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Temperature (C)
Figure 3.9: Example of an ELR showing an absolutely stable layer between 2,000 and 5,000 ft. The thick portion of the line illustrates
a lapse rate of approximately 1°/1,000 ft, which is less than both the DALR and SALR.
Absolute Instability
When the ELR is greater than the DALR, the layer is absolutely unstable. Any air movement will
result in the air moving rapidly farther from its original position. If it rises the air will be warmer
than the surroundings and more buoyant and so rise farther. If the motion is downward, the air
becomes colder than the surroundings and therefore more dense, and so sinks farther.
Absolute instability is rare in the atmosphere. One reason for this is that the instability causes a
lot of vertical movement in the layer, and very soon the instability in this layer is removed due to
mixing. The most common place for absolute instability to occur is close to the surface when the
surface is strongly heated by sunlight. This produces a layer in which the lower parts are much
warmer than the upper parts.
25.08.2010 Page 47 of 196

Altitude (feet)
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
DALR SALR
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Temperature (C)
Figure 3.10: Example of an ELR showing an absolutely unstable layer between the surface and 2,000 ft. The thick portion of the line
illustrates a lapse rate of approximately 4°/1,000 ft, which is greater than both the DALR and SALR.
Conditional Instability
Conditional instability is a state where an atmospheric layer is unstable for the motion of air
which is saturated, but stable if the air is unsaturated. The “condition” is whether or not the air is
saturated, i.e. condensation is taking place.
If displaced upwards, saturated air will cool at the SALR as condensation takes place, and thus
be warmer than its new surroundings and have a tendency to continue upwards. Unsaturated
air, however, will cool at the DALR and will have a tendency to return to its original position.
Conditionally unstable layers are common and are an important factor in the vertical
development of clouds.
Altitude (feet)
10000
9000
SALR
8000
7000
DALR 6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Temperature (C)
Figure 3.11: Example of an ELR showing a conditionally unstable layer between 2,000 and 6,000 ft. The thick portion of the line
illustrates a lapse rate of approximately 2.5°/1,000 ft, which is less than the DALR but greater than the SALR.

MET The Atmosphere
3.8 INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING TEMPERATURE AND DEW

POINT
Temperature is measured using a thermometer. The most common type is mercury-in-glass. A
column of mercury in a graduated tube of glass has a reservoir at one end. When the
temperature changes the mercury expands or contracts and the length of the column can be
measured.
Electrical (electronical) thermometers are also used. They have the advantage that they can
have a remote sensor and a digital display can be made available wherever the temperature
needs to be known, e.g. in airplanes.
Variations of both types of thermometer exist to measure maximum and minimum temperatures,
but it is the actual temperature that is of most interest to aviation.
In order for temperatures to be measured in a standard way the thermometers/temperature
sensors should be installed at a height of 1.5 m above ground and protected by a shelter. The
shelter, which is normally white to minimise the absorption of heat from solar radiation, is there
to protect the thermometers from direct sunlight and precipitation but must allow free circulation
of air.
Figure 3.12: Thermometer shelter – a traditional met station housing wet and dry bulb thermometers together with other instruments,
e.g. barograph.
The traditional way to measure humidity is to include a second thermometer in the instrument
shelter. The second thermometer differs from the first by having water evaporating constantly
from the surface of its reservoir. This is achieved by feeding distilled water from a supply, by the
means of capillary action through a piece of cloth covering the reservoir of the thermometer. As
air flows past, the heat needed for this evaporation causes this “wet-bulb” thermometer to have a
lower temperature than the “dry-bulb” thermometer.
If the air is fully saturated there will be no net evaporation and both thermometers will show the
same value. The lower the humidity and the higher the temperature of the air the greater the
difference between the thermometers, since evaporation is more intense in drier and warmer air.
The dew point is not directly indicated by the wet-bulb thermometer. It is calculated from the
difference between the wet and dry thermometers.
The relative humidity can be calculated from the temperature and dew point. Instruments able to
25.08.2010 Page 49 of 196

directly measure relative humidity are based either on the expansion of natural fibres, such as
hair, or on changes in chemical properties of substances due to the level of humidity. While
these instruments have the advantage of permitting remote displays, they tend to take longer to
respond when air becomes drier after having been fully saturated.
3.9 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH TEMPERATURE AND DEW POINT

The difference between the temperature and dew point is an indication of the humidity and is
called spread. For pilots and controllers it is an indicator for the probability of condensation in a
given altitude. If the two reach the same value, i.e. if the spread is zero, then the air will be
saturated and condensation will begin, with mist or fog forming. A low spread signals a high
probability for fog formation, a high spread signals a low probability for fog formation.
Temperature affects the density of air and therefore the efficiency of engines and the lifting force
created by the wings. High temperatures at an airport mean, that an aircraft will need a longer
take-off run than in lower temperatures, or that climb performance will decrease.
A temperature inversion may have the effect of suddenly reducing both factors with possible
danger to an aircraft climbing under close to marginal conditions. Low level inversions often
occur near the top of the friction layer, which is normally at a height of around 3,000 feet (see
section 8.5, Turbulence and Wind shear). The air close to the earth’s surface is affected by
friction and so moves at a slower speed and in a slightly different direction to the air above. The
presence of an inversion at the top of the friction layer will accentuate the differences in wind
speed and direction. Thus the decrease in lift experienced when climbing into the warmer air of
the inversion layer may be further compounded by a sudden decrease in the head wind
component, or increase in the tail wind component.
Temperature also affects both the possibility and the nature of icing, a temperature below or
close to the freezing point is of course critical for icing.
3.10 OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF TEMPERATURE AND DEW

POINT
Observations of air temperature and dew point temperature should be representative of the
whole runway complex.
In meteorological messages the humidity information is given by reporting air temperature and
the dew point temperature.
The air temperature and the dew point temperature should be reported in degrees Celsius,
rounded to the nearest whole degree, with observed values involving 0.5 C rounded up to the
next higher whole degree Celsius. For example, 2.5 °C should be rounded up to 3 °C, while –
2.5 °C should be rounded up to –2 °C.
The air temperature and the dew point temperature are reported in local routine/special reports
and in METAR/SPECI. In local routine/special reports the air temperature should be identified by
‘T’, and the dew point temperature by ‘DP’, with values below 0 °C preceded by ‘MS’.
3.11 METAR/SPECI CODE FOR TEMPERATURE AND DEW POINT

The METAR/SPECI code format for temperature and dew point is a group of five to seven
characters. It gives, in whole degrees Celsius, the temperature in two digits and the dew point in
two digits separated by a slash ‘/’, with the letter ‘M’ preceding any values below 0 °C. If a value

MET The Atmosphere
is not measured/reported two slashes ‘//’ will replace this value.
3.11.1 Examples:
Observation: Coded in METAR as:
Air temperature is 17 degrees Celsius, dew point temperature is 17/12
12 degrees Celsius
Air temperature is 5 degrees Celsius. Dew 05/M03
point is minus 3 degrees Celsius
Air temperature is 10 degrees Celsius and dew point is not 10///
measured/reported
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SECTION 4
Water in the Atmosphere
Table of contents
PHASES OF WATER ............................................................................................... 55
THE WATER CYCLE ............................................................................................................ 55
CONDENSATION AND EVAPORATION.............................................................................. 55
MELTING AND FREEZING................................................................................................... 55
SUBLIMATION AND DEPOSITION ...................................................................................... 55
SUPER-COOLING................................................................................................................. 56
SATURATION........................................................................................................... 56
RELATIVE HUMIDITY........................................................................................................... 57
DEW POINT........................................................................................................................... 57
LATENT HEAT ...................................................................................................................... 58

MET The Atmosphere
4. WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

CCC Sub-topic: 2.4 Water in the Atmosphere

1. Differentiate between the different processes 2 METB 2.4.1
related to atmospheric moisture
2. Characterise relative humidity, dew point and latent 2 METB 2.4.2
heat.
L ................... CCC Level

25.08.2010 Page 53 of 196


MET The Atmosphere
Water in the atmosphere is the element that weather is made of. Many of the flight hazards
encountering in aviation operations owe their existence to the presence of water vapour (may
reduce visibility), water (fog or clouds) and ice in the atmosphere.
4.2 PHASES OF WATER
4.2.1 The Water Cycle

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of
water on, above and below the surface of the earth. Since the water cycle is truly a "cycle,"
there is no beginning or end. Water can change states among liquid, vapour, and ice at various
places in the water cycle. Although the balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over
time, individual water molecules can come and go.
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in the oceans. Water evaporates as vapour
into the air. Rising air currents take the vapour up into the atmosphere where cooler
temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move clouds around the globe,
cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Most precipitation falls back
into the oceans or onto land, where the precipitation flows over the ground as surface runoff.
Over time, the water returns to the ocean, where our water cycle started.
Water can exist in our atmosphere in three phases: as a solid (ice); as a liquid (water); as a gas
(water vapour). The earth is the only planet in our solar system with suitable temperatures for
this to occur. Even more exceptional is the fact that water can exist in all three phases in one
place at the same time. It is common for ice crystals, water droplets and water vapour all to be
present in the same cloud.
4.2.2 Condensation and Evaporation

Condensation is the process through which water changes from being a gas to a liquid. When
air is cooled it eventually reaches a temperature where it can no longer hold all of its water
vapour and some condenses as a liquid. An example of this is condensation found on cold
windows. Another form is dew, which occurs after the air is cooled at night. Energy in the form
of heat is released when condensation occurs.
When water changes from a liquid to a gaseous state the process is known as evaporation.
Energy is required for this transition to occur. The energy is needed to break the molecular
bonds that hold the water together as a liquid, allowing some molecules to fly freely as a gas.
The energy is taken from the surrounding air and water, and if energy is not added from some
other source, for example sunshine, the process results in a drop in temperature. This
phenomenon is evaporative cooling and it explains why a person feels cool when getting out of
a swimming pool, especially if the air is dry. Our bodies release sweat when we are hot so that
evaporative cooling can regulate our body temperature.
4.2.3 Melting and Freezing

Melting is the process through which water changes from ice to water. Freezing is when water
becomes ice. Melting requires energy input and freezing releases the same amount of energy.
4.2.4 Sublimation and Deposition

Sublimation is the process where water changes from ice (a solid) into water vapour (a gas)
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without passing through the liquid state. Deposition is the reverse process where water vapour
forms ice directly, as in the formation of frost. Sublimation requires more heat than evaporation
since the molecular bonds in a solid are even stronger than in a liquid. In fact the heat required
equals the sum of the amounts required to melt the ice and then evaporate the water. The
deposition process releases the same amount of heat.
4.2.5 Super-cooling
When water droplets are cooled below 0 °C they do not freeze in the way that puddles on a
road would freeze. This is due to changed physical characteristics caused by the curvature of
the surface of water droplets, lowering especially the freezing point, and also to a lesser extent
the condensation point. The smaller the droplets the more severe the curvature of their
surfaces. At temperatures below 0 °C “super-cooled” water droplets are common in the
atmosphere, extremely small droplets are the last to freeze and a temperature of -40 °C may be
required before all droplets are frozen.
4.3 SATURATION
Air in the atmosphere is usually unsaturated. That is, it holds less water vapour than it is
potentially capable of holding. Saturation is the state achieved when the air is incapable of
holding any more water vapour.
A state of saturation is usually achieved in one of two ways:
1. Air is cooled to a temperature where it can hold no more water vapour. This frequently
happens when fog or dew form at night.
2. Water vapour is added to the air by evaporation until it is saturated. The water
evaporated into the air may come from the earth’s surface or falling rain.
The amount of water vapour needed to achieve saturation is largely dependent on the
temperature and to a smaller extent the pressure. Warmer air can absorb much more water
vapour than colder air before becoming saturated. The amount of water vapour needed to
saturate the air approximately doubles for every 10 C increase in temperature.
Figure 4.1: Variation with temperature of the water vapour density (g/m³) at which saturation exists. It approximately doubles for
every 10 °C rise in temperature.

MET The Atmosphere
4.3.1 Relative Humidity

Relative humidity measures the degree of saturation of the air. If the air is saturated then the
relative humidity is 100%. If the air contains only half of the water vapour needed for saturation
at a given temperature, then the relative humidity is 50%. Note that relative humidity does not
measure actual amounts of water vapour in the air, only relative amounts.
Assuming a change in temperature only, for example the air becomes warmer, then the amount
of water vapour that it can hold will increase. As a result the relative humidity will fall, but the
actual amount of water vapour held by the air has not changed. Conversely a fall in temperature
will lead to an increase in relative humidity.
4.3.2 Dew point

The dew point is a temperature. It is the temperature to which the air would have to be cooled
for it to become saturated assuming pressure and water vapour content remain constant. Its
name comes from the fact that this is the temperature at which dew could start to form.
If water vapour is added to the air, for example by evaporation from the earth’s surface, then
the dew point will increase since it relates to the actual amount of water vapour in the air. The
dew point does not depend on the temperature of the air, and apart from in one exceptional
case, it will not be affected by any temperature variation. The exception occurs when they are
both the same and the temperature then decreases. Under these circumstances the dew point
must decrease with the temperature, since it cannot be higher.
Figure 4.2 Cooling air reaches saturation at the dew point. Air with a temperature 26 °C and water vapour density of 14 g/m³ is
cooled until it is saturated at a temperature of 11 °C. This is the dew point.
When the air temperature and the dew point are close, the relative humidity is high, reaching
100% if they are the same. When they are widely separated, the humidity is low, being
approximately 50% if 10 C apart and 25% if 20 C apart.
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4.3.3 Latent Heat

The heat released or absorbed when water changes state is described as latent heat. Latent
heat is released during freezing, condensation and deposition and is absorbed during melting,
evaporation and sublimation. Water is constantly changing state and this process is always
trying to achieve an equilibrium.

MET The Atmosphere
25.08.2010 Page 59 of 196

SECTION 5
Air Pressure
Table of contents
IMPORTANCE TO ATC............................................................................................ 63
AIR PRESSURE ....................................................................................................... 63
SURFACE PRESSURE ......................................................................................................... 63
ISOBARS AND ISOBARIC SURFACES .............................................................................. 64
RELATION BETWEEN PRESSURE, DENSITY AND TEMPERATURE .................. 64
INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE PRESSURE ................................................ 64
BAROMETERS AS ALTIMETERS ........................................................................... 66
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH PRESSURE SETTINGS............................................ 67
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH PRESSURE AND ALTIMETRY ........................... 69
INCORRECT PRESSURE SETTINGS .................................................................................. 69
TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS FROM STANDARD ATMOSPHERE ................................. 69
PRESSURE VARIATIONS .................................................................................................... 69
OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF PRESSURE VALUES.................................... 69
METAR/SPECI CODE FOR PRESSURE ................................................................. 70

MET The Atmosphere
5. AIR PRESSURE
CCC Sub-topic: 2.5 Air Pressure

1. Describe the relationship between pressure, 2 METB 2.5.1
temperature, density and height.
2. Explain the relationship between pressure settings 2 METB 2.5.2
3. Explain the effect of air pressure and temperature 2 METB 2.5.3
on altimeter readings and the true altitude of
aircraft.
L ................... CCC Level

25.08.2010 Page 61 of 196


MET The Atmosphere
5.1 IMPORTANCE TO ATC
The relationship between pressure and altimetry is extremely important since vertical
separation, either from other aircraft or from terrain, is based on pressure measurements
and depends on correct altimeter settings. At low altitudes, for example during take-off,
approach and landing phases, a precise altitude or height indication is required to ensure
separation from terrain and a current local pressure value must be used as the reference.
5.2 AIR PRESSURE
5.2.1 Surface Pressure

Pressure altimetry is the method of determining vertical distances by measuring the pressure. It
is used for the vertical separation of aircraft and terrain clearance. Since air pressure decreases
continuously with height, pressure differences can be interpreted as vertical distances. By setting
the subscale the pilot selects a reference pressure. Then the altimeter indicates the vertical
distance between the measured and the subscale pressure value, under the assumption of an
ISA pressure profile.
One possible reference pressure is the surface pressure. Since it is the local pressure that is
used as the reference value at lower altitudes, it is essential for the pilot to know the local
surface pressure in order to correctly set the altimeter, so that it will show correct altitude
reference to the ground.
As the surface pressure is usually measured at airports, the altimeter will indicate the altitude
above that specific airport, the pressure of which is used as reference pressure. This is
meaningful for pilots using that airfield. However, it is not meaningful for pilots flying somewhere
else, because the pressure is dependent from the altitude of the specific airfield above sea level.
Subscale
H
p ISA
altimeter indication
pmeasured p Subscale P
The Met office always “correct” pressures to Mean Sea Level, so that they can make a direct
comparison between pressure measured at different places. Pressure for meteorological maps
25.08.2010 Page 63 of 196

and analysis is carefully corrected for altitude and also for the actual temperature. This
“corrected” pressure is called QNH . It is always important to recognise the difference between
airfield pressure and mean sea level pressure.
5.2.2 Isobars and Isobaric Surfaces

The observed pressure values for different locations, reduced to MSL, are plotted on
meteorological charts. Lines, called isobars, are drawn to connect locations with the same
pressure.
The pressure at the Earth’s surface varies from place to place. The rate at which the pressure
decreases with height also varies form place to place, mainly due to differences in temperature
of the air. Nevertheless, there will always be some level above any location where the pressure
will be 900 hPa, or 800 hPa, or 500 hPa.
800hPa
850hPa
900hPa
950hPa
Figure 5.2: Isobaric surfaces are surfaces on which the pressure is constant. They are not always parallel or horizontal and some
intersect with the surface.
5.3 RELATION BETWEEN PRESSURE, DENSITY AND TEMPERATURE
A decrease in pressure will lead to a decrease in density. A decrease in temperature will lead to
an increase in pressure. However, the effect of pressure is much stronger than the counteracting
effect of temperature and so density will always decrease with height, although at a slightly
lower rate than does pressure.
5.4 INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE PRESSURE

The instruments that measure air pressure are known as barometers. They can measure the
pressure exerted by the atmosphere by using water, air, or mercury.
Water-based barometers are not used in aviation.
In a mercury barometer the air pressure supports a column of mercury. Measuring the column
height in millimetres and knowing the density of mercury allows the calculation of the air
pressure.

MET The Atmosphere
Figure 5.3: Mercury barometer
The air-based barometer is called aneroid barometer. The heart of this type of barometer is a
light metal vacuum box called a aneroid cell, or, after its inventor Lucien Vidie, a Vidie-capsule..
A spring within the capsule prevents it from collapsing under air pressure. It is sensitive to
pressure changes and expands and contracts. It is common to have a stack of thin capsules or
‘wafers’ acting together. These movements are transferred and amplified by levers to a pointer
acting over a dial indicating pressure values. The aneroid barometer is used in aircraft
instruments because it is less fragile, it can be made smaller than the mercury barometer and it
is more practical to read.
Calibration of barometers is done by the use of a standard barometer. This is normally a
mercury barometer.
Figure 5.4: Aneroid barometer
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The Vidie capsule of an aneroid barometer is also used in a barograph, which contains a slowly
rotating drum on which a pen records the changes in pressure.
Figure 5.5: Barograph
A radiosonde carries an aneroid barometer and a thermometer and registers their readings as
the weather balloon rises. The readings are transmitted to a computer in the Met office. When
the pressure at two levels and the mean temperature in the layer between them is known the
vertical distance between the two levels may be calculated. Vertical distances between levels
are summed over the ascent of the radiosonde. Thus values for pressure at different altitudes,
as well as the altitude of different pressure levels, may be determined.
5.5 BAROMETERS AS ALTIMETERS

The pressure at the actual vertical position of an aircraft is measured by a barometer and
converted to a vertical distance.
The typical aviation altimeter is an aneroid barometer, whose scale is graduated to read vertical
distance (feet or metres) instead of pressure itself. The pressure is converted to height above
the surface by using the known surface pressure and assuming that the temperature and the
pressure lapse rate are as per the ISA.
Figure 5.6: Pressure altimeter

MET The Atmosphere
In the ICAO standard atmosphere (ISA) the variation of pressure with height is defined precisely
for all levels. In the real atmosphere it is necessary to know the surface pressure and the
temperature of the air between the surface and the aircraft to accurately relate pressure and true
height/altitude. (The correction for temperature is normally not done and aircraft are actually
flying around on indicated altitudes rather than true altitudes, or pressure levels if flying on
standard setting.)
The aircraft altimeter has a display, which shows the altitude, either through pointers or on a
digital display. The altimeter also contains a small window showing the altimeter sub-scale. This
is where the pilot sets the value to be used as the pressure datum from which the height/altitude
is to be found.
Figure 5.7: Altimeter displays showing sub-scale settings
Modern commercial aircraft are additionally equipped with radar altimeters which accurately
measure true height above the surface. Radar altimeters provide readings up to approximately
2,500 feet above ground and are basically used by aircraft for approach and landing, especially
in low-visibility conditions. Such altimeters do not use pressure, but are based on the
transmission and reflection of an electromagnetic signal.
5.6 TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH PRESSURE SETTINGS

The various vertical positions can be defined from the following definitions:
5.6.1 Elevation
The vertical distance of a point or a level, on or affixed to the surface of the Earth, measured
from mean sea level.
5.6.2 Height
The vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured from a
specified datum.
5.6.3 Altitude
The vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured from mean
sea level.
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5.6.4 Flight Level (FL)

A surface of constant air pressure which is related to a specific pressure datum, 1013.2
hectopascal hPa, and is separated from other such surfaces by specific pressure intervals.
The associated pressure settings for Height, Altitude and Flight level are (in the corresponding
order):
5.6.5 QFE
QFE is the barometric pressure at the level of an aerodrome or at any other specified datum.
When set on the sub-scale of an altimeter, the altimeter will indicate height above the QFE
reference datum (i.e. the aerodrome or the runway threshold).
5.6.6 QNH
QNH is the value of pressure, corrected to mean sea level, at a particular time, at a particular
aerodrome or in a particular area. When set on the sub-scale of an altimeter, the altimeter
indicates altitude (above the mean sea level).
5.6.7 Standard Setting

Standard setting is the value of the pressure in the standard atmosphere at mean sea level and
corresponds to 1013.2hectopascal hPa.
5.6.8 Summary
For a pressure altimeter to show the height above the aerodrome the pilot must set the altimeter
sub-scale setting to QFE.
If a pilot wants to know the altitude, it is obvious that the pressure datum must be set to mean
sea level (MSL), so the MSL pressure for the specific place must be known. This MSL value is a
code named QNH.
Height or altitude is used to define vertical position when close to the ground and in relation to
ground obstacles and the QFE / QNH pressure setting must be updated regularly. Flight levels
are used at greater heights and necessitates referencing the altimeter to the standard datum,
which is the same everywhere (1013.2 hPa) and does not require updating.
5.6.9 Pressure Datum:

Pressure Datum Altimeter This is:
(sub-scale setting) indicates:
Standard Flight level A pressure surface related to a specific
1013,2 hPa pressure interval from the 1013,2 hPa
pressure surface
QNH Altitude Vertical distance from mean sea level
QFE Height Vertical distance from the QFE datum

MET The Atmosphere
5.7 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH PRESSURE AND ALTIMETRY
5.7.1 Incorrect Pressure Settings

The most common and greatest danger associated with pressure altimeters is an error in the
sub-scale setting or a failure to up-date the setting. An error may happen at any place in the
chain from when pressure is observed on the barometer until it is physically set on the altimeter.
The consequences may be a loss of prescribed vertical distance to other aircraft or to terrain in a
procedural approach.
5.7.2 Temperature Variations from Standard Atmosphere

In reality, pressure lapse rates will very rarely be identical to those in the ISA, to which the
altimeters are calibrated, mainly because of temperature. Warmer air masses have lower density
than cold air masses. This is why a temperature distribution deviating from the ISA will cause
local air pressure variations. Over the same true vertical distance, warmer air will have a lesser
pressure difference than standard, and colder air a greater pressure difference than standard.
Assuming a constant surface pressure, a specific pressure level will climb in warmer areas and
descend in colder areas according to the vertical positioning of the isobars. This is why when
flying on a constant but not temperature corrected altimeter indication, an aircraft will experience
a change in true altitude. When flying into colder areas the true altitude of the aircraft will
decrease and this is considered as a potential danger.
5.7.3 Pressure Variations

If an aircraft flies at a constant indicated altitude from an area with higher surface pressure
towards an area with lower surface pressure without updating the pressure datum, then the
aircraft’s true altitude will in fact become gradually lower. This also applies to Flight levels.
To maintain a safe distance from terrain, when using QNH as the pressure datum, a pilot must
inform himself about regional and local QNH values and update the altimeter sub-scale setting
with any new value.
5.8 OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF PRESSURE VALUES

The air pressure should be measured and QNH and/or QFE values should be computed.
Pressure is computed and reported in hectopascal ( hPa). Reported values should be rounded
down to the nearest whole hectopascal and given in four digits (in local reports followed by the
units used), so for example a pressure of 992,7 hPa would be reported as 0992 hPa.
The reference level for QFE should be the aerodrome elevation, although under certain
circumstances it should refer to the relevant threshold elevation.
In local routine reports QNH should be included regularly and QFE as agreed locally. This
should be supplemented by the issue of new data whenever changes occur exceeding an
agreed magnitude (unless the ATS-unit has its own indicator/barometer).
Reports in the METAR/SPECI code forms should include QNH Area forecasts for low-level
flights and AIRMET shall include lowest QNH during the period of validity; for example, “MNM
QNH: 1004 HPA”.
Surface weather charts show pressure values, converted to mean sea level, and isobars,
connecting locations with the same pressure.
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Weather charts drawn for levels above the earth’s surface are not drawn for a particular altitude,
such as 30,000 feet. Instead the chart shows the altitude of a particular pressure level, an
isobaric surface, such as the 500 hPa pressure level.
Figure 5.8: Example of a 500 hPa level weather chart. Indicated values show the altitude of the 500 hPa isobaric surface, on this
chart in tens of metres.
The contours on such a chart are contours of altitude. The chart looks like a normal topographic
map, but with lines showing the shape of the isobaric surface instead of the shape of hills and
valleys. The values on the lines indicate the altitude of the pressure surface, becoming gradually
greater towards a high pressure area and gradually less towards a low pressure area. The
centre of high pressure areas can be seen as the tops of high terrain and the low pressure areas
are the valleys.
The observation of upper air pressure is carried out at specific locations and times by releasing a
weather balloon with an attached radiosonde.
5.9 METAR/SPECI CODE FOR PRESSURE

The METAR/SPECI code format for air pressure (QNH) is a five character group consisting of
the letter ‘Q’ followed by four digits giving the pressure value in whole hectopascal.
5.9.1 Examples:
QNH is 1024 hPa Q1024
QNH is 986 hPa Q0986

MET The Atmosphere
25.08.2010 Page 71 of 196


Atmospheric Circulation
Atmospheric Circulation ATCO Basic Training
SECTION 6
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
Table of contents
AIR MASSES............................................................................................................ 77
SOURCE REGIONS .............................................................................................................. 77
PROPERTIES........................................................................................................................ 78
MODIFICATION..................................................................................................................... 79
GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION .............................................................. 79
PRESSURE SYSTEMS ............................................................................................ 81
CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES..................................................................................... 81
TROUGHS OF LOW PRESSURE ......................................................................................... 82
RIDGES OF HIGH PRESSURE ............................................................................................ 82
COLS 82
TROPICAL STORMS ............................................................................................................ 82
FRONTAL SYSTEMS ............................................................................................... 83
WARM FRONT ...................................................................................................................... 83
COLD FRONT ....................................................................................................................... 84
OCCLUDED FRONTS........................................................................................................... 85
POLAR FRONT DEPRESSIONS.............................................................................. 86
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH FRONTS .............................................................. 89
OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF FRONTS ........................................................ 90

MET Atmospheric Circulation
6. ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
CCC Topic: 3. ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
CCC Sub-topic: 3.1 General Air Circulation
3.2 Air Masses and Frontal Systems

1 Describe the origin and movement of typical air masses 2 METB 3.2.1
and their general effect on European weather
2 State the major atmospheric circulation features on the 1 METB 3.1.1
Earth
3 Describe the main isobaric features 2 METB 3.2.2
4 Describe the difference between various fronts and the 2 METB 3.2.3
associated weather
L CCC Level
Code CCC reference
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Fronts and their associated weather systems are responsible for most of the weather
phenomena experienced, especially in north-western Europe, where pressure systems move
along the polar front in a more or less continuous flow from west to east.
The significant weather phenomena associated with fronts include low visibility, low cloud base,
strong winds, heavy precipitation and thunderstorms.
It is important for a controller to appreciate and plan for the effects of an approaching front line.
For example: the weather conditions may rapidly deteriorate to IMC, increased distances will be
needed between landings and/or departures, in winter snow clearance may suddenly be
required, etc.
6.2 AIR MASSES

An air mass is a volume of air with many uniform characteristics extending over a large region.
For example, within an air mass the temperature and humidity does not vary much, even over
distances as great 1,000 km. There are still significant variations with height, but at any particular
altitude the variations should be limited over a horizontal distance.
Source Regions
Different air masses form over different regions of the Earth’s surface. They are strongly
influenced by the underlying surface and the longer the time spent over a specific area, the more
they will be influenced by the characteristics of the region. The latitude of the source region
usually determines the temperature of an air mass.
Equatorial air masses are very warm, while tropical and polar source regions produce warm and
cold air masses respectively. The term ‘arctic’ is reserved for very cold air masses originating in
the Arctic Ocean.
In addition, the different air masses are classified as dry or humid depending on their source
region. A maritime air mass is relatively humid, whereas a continental air mass is relatively dry.
The air masses influencing a particular region have their typical source regions and paths.
Figure 6.1: Source regions and paths of air masses as viewed from Western Europe.
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Different air masses are classified by their temperature and relative humidity leading to the
following common types:
Arctic: A Very cold and humid
Polar Maritime: Pm Cold and humid
Polar Continental: Pc Cold and dry
Tropical Maritime: Tm Warm and humid
Tropical Continental: Tc Warm and dry
Equatorial: E Hot and humid
Properties
The major characteristics of temperature and humidity influence other typical features of each
type of air mass, such as stability, cloud type, visibility and weather.
Stability and cloud type are strongly related. When cold air masses move, they usually travel
over warmer surfaces (land or sea) compared to their source region. This warming from below
produces instability, rising thermals of air and convective clouds. While these clouds may initially
be quite small, they can grow sufficiently in size to produce showers. On the other hand, air from
warm source regions is cooled when it moves from its source region. If the air mass is moist, the
cooling is likely to produce condensation in the form of layers of cloud or fog.
When air is heated from below it becomes more unstable, meaning that it is more likely to rise.
When it is cooled from below it becomes more stable, upward motion is inhibited.
Cold, polar air is usually clear of pollution and contains less water vapour than warmer air. This
usually results in air with very high visibility values. Warm air from moist regions contains a lot of
water vapour which reduces visibility. Even when warm air is from a continental source, it can
often contain appreciable amounts of dust and, therefore, have poor visibility.
Cold Air Warm Air

over a warmer surface over a colder surface
Stability Unstable with convection Stable and smooth
Type of clouds Convective Layered
Cloud base Fairly high, except Generally low

during precipitation
Precipitation Showers, Continuous,

sometimes heavy light or moderate
Visibility Excellent, except Poor, with risk of
in precipitation mist, fog or haze
Table 6.1: Meteorological conditions are greatly influenced by the type of air mass and the
temperature of the surface.

Modification
Air masses are modified by the surfaces over which they pass. The further an air mass moves
from its source region, the more it is modified and the more its characteristics change, and it may
become more or less stable. For example, an arctic air mass passing over a relatively warm
ocean will initially develop small convective clouds. As it moves farther, it takes up more
humidity, becomes more unstable, the clouds develop more, become deeper and are eventually
large enough to produce showers. In contrast, stable conditions with layer clouds are common in
cooled moist air. The cooling of a tropical maritime air mass by a colder surface produces large-
scale condensation, which may result in precipitation and the air mass losing some of its
humidity.
6.3 GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION

Weather systems do not occur randomly. There is a pattern to the nature of weather systems in
different parts of the world, and although the air flow at altitudes where most flights occur varies
from day-to-day, clear characteristics can be seen in different regions over a long time period.
The forces driving this circulation come from the different amounts of solar radiation that are
absorbed at different latitudes. Whilst energy is absorbed in tropical regions, there is a net loss
at the poles. This, inevitably, leads to warm tropics and cold polar regions. However, the poles
would be much colder and the tropics much warmer if the atmosphere did not flow to move the
warm air from the tropics towards the poles and the cold air in the opposite direction. The global
circulation of air has the effect of reducing the heat difference between the equator and the
poles. Clouds and weather systems tend to develop in regions with strong upward motion, and
as a result, it is possible to identify these areas on satellite images.
Figure 6.2: Composite satellite image showing cloud formation in the equatorial region and weather systems along the polar front
lines.
It is convenient to divide the atmosphere in each hemisphere into three latitude bands since
each band has its own characteristics.
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Low latitu des (0° to 30°): The strong surface heating in the equatorial region causes
convergence, rising motion and considerable cloud development. At lower levels air converges
from both the northern and the southern hemisphere into a region known as the inter-tropical-
convergence-zone (ITCZ). As it is linked to the warmest tropical region, the ITCZ moves with the
seasons to about 20° north of the equator in July and to 20° south of the equator in January. It is
dominated by the lifting of humid air, and areas with little or no surface wind, known as the
doldrums, can be found here.
Between the equator and 30°, the circulation is dominated by warm air rising near the equator.
This air cools in the upper troposphere as it moves towards either pole and then sinks at around
30°. It then moves back towards the equator at lower levels, warming again as it does so.
The Hadley cell is a circulation pattern that dominates the tropical atmosphere, with rising motion
near the equator, poleward flow 10-15 kilometers above the surface, descending motion in the
subtropics, and equatorward flow near the surface. This circulation is intimately related to the
trade winds, tropical rain belts, subtropical deserts and the jet streams.
Since the earth is rotating, air moving in the northern hemisphere experiences a deviation to the
right as it moves due to the Coriolis effect. This means that the main wind direction at upper
levels is not from south to north but from south-west to north-east. At lower levels the air moves
from north-east to south west - the so-called “trade winds”.
At around 30° the sinking air, in which clouds and precipitation do not form, creates the region
described as the sub-tropical anticyclone belt, or sub-tropical highs.
Mid-latitudes (30° to 60°): Here the circulation is significantly different. At the polar front, which
is boundary between the cold polar air and the warm tropical air, rising air creates condensation,
cloud formation and precipitation. It moves seasonally and is found at around 45°N in winter and
at around 65°N in summer.
South of the polar front the predominant surface winds are from the south-west, whereas to the
north of the polar front they are from the north-east. Using a simplified model of global
circulation, upper level winds are again opposite in direction to the surface winds, flowing
southwards before descending at the sub-tropical highs, or flowing northwards before
descending in the polar region.
Thermal winds create a flow along the meandering polar front line, predominantly from west to
east and particularly strong in the jet streams.
Figure 6.3: Global wind flow at lower and upper levels (surface and 30,000 ft). Where air rises condensation and cloud formation
normally take place. Compare with the satellite image above.

Polar region (60° to 90°): Within 30° of the polar cap the air circulation is primarily away from
the poles at low levels and towards the poles at upper levels. Circulations are not as important
because the area of this region is small and the troposphere has a relatively low vertical extent.
In this region there is a net radiative heat loss from the atmosphere. Cold air subsides at the
pole, creating an area of high pressure at the surface, and spreads towards the equator. Due to
the Coriolis effect wind direction turns right and is generally from the north-east.
6.4 PRESSURE SYSTEMS

Cyclones and Anticyclones
Low pressure systems, also known as depressions or cyclones, are characterised by strong
winds and rising air, which tend to produce condensation, cloud development and precipitation.
They revolve in an anti-clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere. Depressions are usually
between 1,000 m and 2,000 km across and extend from the earth’s surface to the tropopause.
They are easily recognisable on a weather chart by closely spaced isobars showing surface
pressure decreasing towards the centre of the system.
Anticyclones are the opposite of cyclones. They are generally larger than depressions and
revolve in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere. Anticyclones extend horizontally
over 2,000 km to 4,000 km. The central area with the highest pressure is fairly large and isobars
around it are generally widely spaced.
Figure 6.4: An isobaric chart showing a high pressure system, an anticyclone, over the Atlantic and a low pressure system, a
cyclone, over south-eastern Europe.
High pressure systems are generally characterised by light winds and subsiding air, leading to
clear skies and fine weather with no precipitation. However, fog or low clouds are not uncommon
in anticyclones during the winter season, due to low level inversions formed by air subsiding over
a cold surface.
Both systems extend vertically throughout the entire depth of the troposphere.
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Troughs of Low Pressure

A trough is an outward extension of low pressure leading away from a depression. It is like a
valley in which the pressure is lower than in the surrounding area. A trough often extends to high
altitudes and has similar characteristics to the rest of the low pressure system, with upward
motion, extensive cloud formation and precipitation. In figure 8.4 one trough of low pressure
extends over the Black Sea and another extends outwards from the North American continent
over Greenland.
Ridges of High Pressure
A ridge of high pressure extends from an anticyclone in the same way as a ridge of high ground
extends from a hilltop. The weather associated with the anticyclone extends out into the ridge,
i.e. clear skies, light winds and little or no precipitation. In figure 8.4 ridges of high pressure
extend outwards from the centres of high pressure, one over the eastern Atlantic into the
Norwegian Sea and another east of Scandinavia into the Baltic.
Cols
If a ridge stretching outwards from a high meets a ridge from another high, the adjoining ridges
will separate two areas of lower pressure lying on either side. This area is described as a col.
The horizontal variation of pressure in cols is small and the winds are therefore light. No
significant weather is associated with cols. In figure 8.4 a col is covering most of Scandinavia.
Tropical Storms
In the tropics the most severe weather systems are tropical revolving storms called hurricanes,
tropical cyclones or typhoons, depending on the region in which they occur. They form and
intensify over the warmest regions of the oceans and build up enormous resources of energy.
They begin to dissipate on reaching land, but the process can take several days. Their paths are
somewhat unpredictable.
Tropical storms have very strong winds revolving around a relatively calm “eye”. Very heavy
precipitation is common in the deep clouds around the storm.
Figure 6.5: Hurricane over the north-west Atlantic.

6.5 FRONTAL SYSTEMS

A front is a boundary between two air masses. Through the line of a front large differences in the
temperature and humidity between two air masses are found within a distance of a few tens of
kilometres. In contrast, conditions may change very little over thousands of kilometres within
each air mass.
A weather map shows fronts as lines, while in fact, they are always sloping surfaces extending
upwards through the troposphere. Front lines on common surface weather charts indicate where
frontal surfaces meet the earth’s surface.
Fronts are of two basic types: warm fronts and cold fronts. Both are essentially the same. The
front separates a warm air mass and a cold air mass. When cold and warm air meet, the denser
cold air undercuts the warmer air.
10 km W a rm a ir
C o ld a ir
500 - 1000 km
S u rfa c e fro n t
Figure 6.6: Vertical cross-section of a front. Type depends on direction of motion
The type of front is determined from the direction of temperature change. A front moving so that
warm air is displacing and replacing cold air is defined as a warm front. Conversely, a cold front
occurs when cold air is replacing warm air.
Other frontal types also exist: occluded fronts are a combination of warm and cold fronts in
motion. Quasi-stationary fronts are fronts which cannot be defined to be warm or cold because
they are not moving significantly.
Warm Front
An advancing warm air mass will slide on top of colder, denser air. The inclination of this frontal
surface is very low, typically around 1° C, with the foremost part of the front, at the tropopause
level, typically extending 300 to 500 nm ahead of the surface front.
As the front advances at speeds of 10 to 30 kt this means that the first signs of an advancing
warm front, high Ci and/or Cs clouds, may be seen many hours before the surface front passes.
The cloud sequence will be Ci, Cs, As, Ns and St. Continuous widespread precipitation starts
from the Ns at approximately 100 NM ahead of the surface front. The cloud base continues to
lower with St, and possibly precipitation fog, accompanying the Ns. As the surface front passes
the precipitation ceases, the wind veers, the temperature rises and the cloud starts to rise,
forming some Sc, and then clears.
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Figure 6.7: Sequence of clouds and precipitation accompanying a warm front.
Cold Front
The advancing air behind a cold front is colder and denser than the air it displaces, and so it will
push its way underneath the warmer air mass. This creates a frontal surface with a steep nose,
or front end, and an overall inclination of around 2° C. The rapid lifting of the warmer air causes
forced convection with deep convective clouds appearing in a band above and behind the
surface front. The accompanying precipitation is of varying intensity, often as showers, and may
be heavy. It occurs as the surface front passes, together with a sudden drop in temperature and
a veering of the wind. Cb cloud and thunderstorms are a common feature.
As cold fronts generally travel across the surface at a higher speed, and also because the
steeper inclination of their frontal surfaces makes the horizontal extent of the fronts shorter than
that of warm fronts, the weather system associated with a cold front generally passes much
faster than that of a warm front. Visibility in the cold air mass behind the front is often excellent,
but convective clouds and showers are common.
A squall line is a violent cold front, typically accompanied by distinctive roll-shaped clouds, a
sharp fall in temperature, a rise in relative humidity and a series of squalls.

Figure 6.8: Cloud formation and precipitation at a cold front. The denser cold air forces the warm air to rise as it cuts underneath it.
Occluded Fronts
An occluded front forms when a faster-moving cold front catches up with a warm front. The cold
air behind the cold front lifts the warm air. As its progress continues it next runs into the colder
air in front of the warm front, and the air in the warm sector will no longer reach down to the
surface.
Figure 6.9: Cold front about to overtake a warm front.
The weather associated with the occluded front is similar to that of a warm front immediately
followed by a cold front. However, the occluded front tends to resemble one type more than the
other. The two varieties are known as warm occlusions and cold occlusions, depending on the
relative temperature of the cold sector behind the cold front compared to the cold sector in front
of the warm front.
A cold occlusion occurs when the cold front lifts the colder air in front of the original warm front.
This occlusion will resemble a cold front. A warm occlusion occurs when the cold front slides on
top of the colder air in front of the original warm front. It transforms into a weak warm front.
Figure 6.10: Cold occlusion. The air behind the occlusion is colder than the air in front of it. It is similar in cloud and precipitation
distribution to a cold front.
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6.6 POLAR FRONT DEPRESSIONS

Polar front depressions are low pressure systems, or cyclones, which develop on and move with
the polar front, which is the confrontation line between warm air from lower latitudes and cold air
from the polar region.
These depressions gain energy from the temperature contrast between the warm and cold air
and are responsible for much of the weather in northern Europe throughout the year. In the anti-
clockwise circulation around low pressure systems, cold air flows southwards at the surface on
the western side of lows, while warm air is carried northwards on their eastern flank.
Along this line, due to thermal winds and global circulation, air rises and condensation takes
place. Jet streams, situated on the polar side of the front, flow in a west-east direction along the
meandering polar front line.
A typical polar front depression begins with air being removed by the flow at upper levels leading
to a reduction in the pressure at the surface. A small kink develops in the polar front, which is still
quasi-stationary.
Figure 6.11: Quasi-stationary front. Left: a birds eye view of cold air on the polar side and warm air on the equatorial side. Right:
vertical cross-section along the dotted line as seen from the west (left) showing the sloping frontal surface developing.
As the pressure drops a cyclonic circulation develops. The winds move the air masses, and the
warm and cold fronts, as well as a distinct sector containing the warm air, can be clearly
identified.
Once the depression becomes mature, it reaches a stage when the warm air is restricted to a
diminishing sector to the south or south east of the depression centre. The cold polar air on the
western side of the low moves faster than the warm air, so that the cold front gradually catches
up with the warm front.
Figure 6.12: Frontal depression in a mature stage (left). The vertical cross-section (right) is a long the dotted line showing the sloping
surfaces of the diminishing warm sector between the two fronts.
In a typical polar front depression a trough extends from the centre of low pressure, usually in
the direction of the warm front. Surface pressure decreases as the warm front with the
associated trough approaches, and increases after the cold front has passed. There will also be

significant changes in wind direction and speed as the pressure system passes.
The distance between the fronts keeps decreasing, and starting at the centre of the depression,
the gap between the cold front and the warm front will close. As it does so, the warmer and less
dense air is lifted above the two colder air masses. An occluded front, either a cold occlusion or
a warm occlusion, is formed. At this stage the depression is at its most vigorous and the wind
speeds are highest.
The reason for the cold sectors, which started as one air mass, now having slightly different
characteristics is that they have been modified to different extents by condensation, precipitation
and the surface conditions.
Figure 6.13: Occluded stage of a frontal depression in plan view (left) and vertical cross-section along the dotted line (right). This
example is of a cold occlusion where the air behind the occluded front is colder than the air ahead. A long occluded front will develop
as the warm sector continues to close.
The two fronts have transformed into a long occluded front, with the warm sector lifted above
surface level. Towards the end of the life cycle the momentum of the cold front keeps the
occluded front turning anti-clockwise. As the depression fills in the pressure returns to higher
values and the wind speeds decrease. The front and the associated weather will weaken and
disappear.
Example of the life cycle of a polar front depression
A depression generally moves towards the east, usually within the north-easterly to south-
easterly quadrant. Normally, polar front depressions in various stages of development succeed
each other in a chain with one following behind another. The typical life cycle of individual
depressions varies in time, as does the speed at which they move across the surface. In this
example, the life cycle lasts for around 5 days.
Day 1: Strong upper winds remove air from the lower layers along a stationary section of the
polar front. This causes an area of local low pressure to develop at the surface. Where this
occurs, the band of cloud along the stationary front will show a bulge on the cold, northern side.
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Day 2: Surface winds are moving towards the centre of low pressure and due to the Coriolis
effect an anti-clockwise circulation has developed. With the circular movement of the air, the
stationary front has transformed into a warm and cold front on opposite sides of the low. Cloud
coverage and precipitation extends along the two fronts.
Day 3: While the whole weather system has moved, the cold front has been moving faster and
the warm sector is becoming narrower. The increased number of and more closely spaced
isobars indicate that the low is deepening with increasing wind speeds.
With the passing of the warm front at surface level, the cloud base may start to lift and
precipitation will gradually cease. However, due to cooling from the surface and depending on
the humidity in the warmer air, weather in the warm sector is often to a certain extent
characterized by mist or fog and layered clouds.
Close to the centre of the low there is little time for dry weather before the passing of the cold
front brings new precipitation and a drop in temperature. At locations further out, where the warm
sector is wider, the weather may be warm and relatively stable for a day or so.
In the cold air mass behind the cold front some convective clouds and showers will occur, but
visibility is generally excellent.

Day 4: The system is now reaching its maximum intensity with the cold front undercutting the
warm front. This process starts at the centre of the low with the fronts combining into one
occluded front with a diminishing warm sector lifted above the surface. The large mass of thick
cloud is starting to wrap around the centre of the low as the circulation has now spread up to
upper levels. The character of precipitation along the front will depend on whether it is a cold or a
warm occlusion. This, in turn, depends on whether the coldest air is found in front of the warm
front or behind the cold front.
Day 5: Towards the end of the life cycle the speed of movement of the depression slows down
and so the anti-clockwise frontal swing becomes more pronounced. In the final stage, the long
occluded front curves around the centre and there is little left of the warm sector. Curving lines of
Cu and Cb rotate around the centre and a thinning band of cloud, in which the intensity of the
precipitation is decreasing, extends along the front. Within a day or two, this pressure system will
fill and the front will disappear.
6.7 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH FRONTS

Low cloud, fog, icing, squalls, thunderstorms, wind shear and turbulence may all, individually or
in combination, accompany fronts. These hazards are detailed in the corresponding chapters.
For any VFR flight, the presence of a front may be a reason to cancel the flight, as the low cloud
and the reduction of visibility associated with the precipitation area are likely to present values
below the required minima.
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6.8 OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF FRONTS

Traditionally fronts were plotted and identified on synoptic charts using data from numerous
observations, mainly from surface stations. The use of satellites has dramatically facilitated the
task of observing the development of frontal systems. Ground based weather radar is also a very
useful tool for monitoring fronts, especially the intensity of precipitation and thunderstorm activity.
In local reports and METAR the weather associated with a front is reported in the form of the
observed values for the various meteorological elements, but the front as such is not mentioned.
Pressure centres and fronts are reported in a number of other reports and charts. Area forecasts
for low-level flights shall contain information about pressure centres and fronts and their
expected movement and development. AIRMET and SIGMET messages will contain information
about tropical cyclones, squall lines, thunderstorms, turbulence and icing. Surface analysis and
synoptic charts will show the positions of pressure centres and fronts. Significant weather charts
for different levels show fronts and all significant weather associated with them, including jet
streams.
A tropical cyclone advisory centre, TCAC, is responsible for monitoring and issue advisory
information ‘TC ADVISORY’ on tropical cyclones. There is no TCAC in the EUR region.

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SECTION 7
MESOSCALE SYSTEMS
Table of contents
MESOSCALE SYSTEMS ......................................................................................... 95
MOUNTAIN WAVES AND ROTORS .................................................................................... 95
FÖHN WINDS........................................................................................................................ 96
KATABATIC, ANABATIC AND VALLEY WINDS ................................................................ 97
LATERAL PERTURBATIONS DUE TO MOUNTAINS ......................................................... 97
SEA BREEZES...................................................................................................................... 98
LAND BREEZES ................................................................................................................... 99

7. MESOSCALE SYSTEMS
CCC Sub-topic: 3.3 Mesoscale Systems

1. Describe the main phenomena caused by mesoscale 2 METB 3.3.1
systems.
2. State the relevance of mesoscale systems to aviation. 1 METB 3.3.2
L CCC Level
Code CCC reference
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7.1 MESOSCALE SYSTEMS

Mesoscale meteorology is the study of weather systems smaller than synoptic scale systems but
larger than microscale and storm-scale cumulus systems. Horizontal dimensions generally range
from around 5 kilometres to several hundred kilometres. Examples of mesoscale weather
systems are sea breezes, squall lines, and mesoscale convective complexes.
The geostrophic wind, driven by large-scale pressure gradients, can be expected to be the
predominant wind over large areas. In addition to the general effect of friction caused by the
surface, there may be a number of local factors influencing the wind on a more or less local
scale. Local wind circulations develop due to local variations in temperature and frequently
appear at the coast or on the slopes of mountains. They exist on smaller or larger scales, often
in combination with the large scale wind. They may be given a general name, such as the sea
breeze, or a specific name, like the Mistral, the Chinook, the Monsoon, or the Sirocco.
Predominant geographical features, such as mountains, ridges, valleys, steep coastlines or
islands frequently cause perturbations to existing large scale winds, resulting in local changes in
wind speed and direction producing turbulence and rotors. This is sometimes known as friction
layer turbulence.
Mountain Waves and Rotors

Mountains disturb the flow of air considerably. One effect is that air is forced to flow up the
windward side and down the lee side but this can also induce a wave-like motion which persists
downwind of the mountains. These waves are described as lee waves and can produce
considerable upward and downward motions well away from the mountains, in certain conditions
causing severe turbulence in regions more than 100 km from the original mountain source.
Figure 7.1: Waves and rotors are created when wind passes a mountain. Air moves up and down creating pockets of higher and
lower pressure. Clouds may form in the rotating air below the crests of the lower waves or as lenticular, i.e. lense shaped, clouds
between waves.
In a strong air flow across a ridge or mountain range, the pressure on the leeward side will be
slightly reduced and a rotor circulation is induced. This may also occur at the base on the
windward side of steep slopes. Rotors produce very rapidly varying wind directions close to
mountains and are extremely dangerous to aviation.
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Figure 7.2: Rotor on the leeward side of a ridge.
Föhn Winds
Föhn winds occur as a result of cloud formation and precipitation caused by wind passing over a
mountain range. As the air rises on the windward side it cools, due to adiabatic expansion, at the
DALR. When clouds form, latent heat is released and the air cools at a slower rate (SALR).
Precipitation occurs, mainly on the upward (windward) slope. When the air starts to flow down
the leeward side of the mountain, it contains less water vapour. It warms as it descends as a
result of adiabatic compression, at first at the SALR, but as soon as the clouds have evaporated,
at the DALR.
When the air has completed its passage over the mountain it has become drier and considerably
warmer. The gain in temperature is proportional to the amount of water vapour that has been lost
from the air as precipitation, as this water is no longer present to absorb energy in the
evaporation process on the downward side. The difference is illustrated by the higher cloud base
on the leeward side of the mountains.
The term “Föhn wind” is usually applied to the warm, dry down-slope wind on the lee side of the
mountains.
Figure 7.3: Föhn wind

Katabatic, Anabatic and Valley Winds

Katabatic winds appear in mountain regions during the night. Heat is lost through radiation,
particularly on clear nights. As the slopes cool down the air above them becomes cooler and
more dense and flows down the hillside. The colder the air the stronger the flow. Katabatic winds
can become very strong in regions where the hillsides are long and steep, especially if the upper
slopes are covered with ice and snow.
Anabatic winds are the opposite of katabatic winds. They are up-slope winds which develop
when the slopes are warmed during the day. As the air above the slopes is heated and becomes
buoyant, it rises up the slopes and a wind starts to blow uphill.
Katabatic winds flow down the hillsides at night and are cold. Anabatic winds flow up the hillsides
during the day and are warm.
Figure 7.4: Katabatic (down-slope) and anabatic (up-slope) winds
Valley winds flow along a valley and are the result of an anabatic or katabatic wind on the two
facing slopes. An anabatic flow creates a wind in the direction of that end of the valley which has
the higher slopes, whereas a katabatic flow creates a wind away from that end.
Lateral Perturbations due to Mountains

When wind approaches a mountain it can either move up and over it or sideways around it.
When the mountain is part of an extended range there is no option and the flow of air must rise
over it. If it is an isolated peak the flow of air may split with some passing to each side of it. This
obviously causes important changes in wind direction around the mountain resulting in horizontal
rotors or vortices on the leeward side. These swirls produce rapid variations in wind direction.
The vortices are carried away from the mountains by the prevailing wind and can exist long
distances downwind.
The wind speed will increase when the wind passes through a gap in a mountain ridge or
through a narrowing part of a valley.
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Figure 7.5: Vortices resulting from the disturbed air flow around the island of Jan Mayen. The left most dark area shows the peaks
penetrating through the cloud cover. The disturbed airflow around these peaks has created a series of swirls, clearly shown by the
pattern of the clouds, extending for hundreds of kilometres downwind.
Sea Breezes
Sea breezes and land breezes are caused by the difference in the specific heat of land
compared to water. A sea breeze is a wind that blows from the sea to the shore, usually during
the afternoon. It arises from the different rates at which land and sea are heated by solar
radiation during the day.
By early afternoon, the air over the land will be considerably warmer than the air over the sea.
As the warm air over the land rises, due to convection and lower density, it is replaced by air
from the sea. The air from the sea is in turn replaced by air from higher levels sinking
downwards, and this air is in turn replaced by the air that is rising over the land and then flowing
out to sea. A circulation has been established with the surface wind flowing from the sea to the
land.
The warming of the air over the land causes it to expand and so the pressure levels become
more widely spaced. This explains why in the diagram, a local high pressure develops at an
altitude while a local low develops at the surface. These circulations only reach up to a few
thousand feet.
The sea breeze may be superimposed upon an existing surface wind and would enhance a land-
ward wind and reduce a sea-ward wind.
H
L
L H
WARMER
COLDER
Figure 7.6: Sea breeze circulation showing isobaric surfaces and regions of local high and low pressure.

Land Breezes
Land breezes are the opposite of sea breezes. The wind blows from the land to the sea. They
occur late at night after the land has cooled to a temperature where it is colder than the sea.
The air sinks over the land and rises over the sea, and the positions of the local high and low
pressure areas are reversed. As with the sea breeze, the land breeze may be superimposed on
an existing wind. Land breezes generally are of lower intensity than sea breezes.
L
H
H L
COLDER WARMER
Figure 7.7: Land breeze circulation showing regions of local high and low pressure
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SECTION 8
WIND
Table of contents
TRAINING OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................... 101

IMPORTANCE TO ATS .......................................................................................... 103
FACTORS CAUSING WIND................................................................................... 103
THE PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE AND WIND SPEED ............................................... 104
GEOSTROPHIC WIND........................................................................................................ 105
THE FRICTION LAYER AND SURFACE WIND .................................................... 106
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ACTUAL AND GEOSTROPHIC WIND .................................. 107
BUYS-BALLOT’S LAW....................................................................................................... 107
THERMAL WIND .................................................................................................... 108
JET STREAMS ....................................................................................................... 109
TURBULENCE AND WIND SHEAR....................................................................... 110
CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE ................................................................................... 111
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING WIND ............................................................ 111
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH WIND .............................................................................. 112
OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF WIND ........................................................... 112
METAR/SPECI CODE FOR WIND ......................................................................... 113

8. WIND
CCC Sub-topic: 3.4 Wind

1. Explain the significance of wind phenomena and types 2 METB 3.4.1
2. Explain effect of forces which influence wind. 2 METB 3.4.3
3. State how wind is measured. 1 METB 3.4.2
L CCC Level
Code CCC reference
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Wind is the major environmental factor affecting an aircraft’s movement in relation to the ground.
The landing phase is critical for all flights and the presence of wind shear, which can cause
aircraft to lose lift, is a major hazard.
Wind direction and speed, as well as low level inversions and wind shear, must be taken into
consideration when deciding on runway in use. A strong crosswind may cause missed
approaches or make a runway or an airfield unsuitable for certain types of aircraft. Light
turbulence is merely inconvenient to passengers, but severe turbulence is a real danger that can
cause injuries to passengers and over-stressing of the airframe.
Wind produces important differences between track and heading which will affect radar
vectoring. Thus similar looking scenarios may have different solutions due to different wind
conditions. For an approach controller knowledge of how wind changes through the friction layer
is of importance.
Depending on headwind or tailwind, there can be great differences in ground speed, creating a
need to adjust calculations for estimates for time over reporting points. Jet streams and
turbulence make some levels less attractive to pilots and requested level changes increase ATC
workload. A strong headwind may reduce the endurance of an aircraft to a point where it needs
to divert for refuelling, which may also add to the workload for ATC.
8.2 FACTORS CAUSING WIND

Wind is air in motion. The two properties used to describe wind are speed and direction.
Air movement is caused by differences in pressure. It is the result of a balance between a
number of forces acting on and trying to move a parcel of air from an area of high pressure
towards an area of lower pressure.
Wherever there are variations in pressure in the atmosphere there is a natural tendency for the
system to strive to find a balance. In the vertical, the pressure force acting upwards is normally
balanced by gravity. However, in the horizontal, there is no equivalent balancing force and so the
air starts to move from places where the pressure is high to places where it is low.
Figure 8.1: Diagram illustrating one way in which areas of local high and low pressure may develop.
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Since pressure varies constantly with time and location, areas of higher and lower pressure may
appear in different ways. One example, typical for both global and local wind circulations, is
heating and convection. When air expands and rises, due to heating at the surface, an area with
a relatively lower pressure is created at the surface. As the air stops ascending it will move
horizontally, lose its heat and eventually descend again and an area of relatively higher pressure
will develop where it meets the surface.
In the upper layers of the atmosphere areas of higher and lower pressure will also develop. At a
specific altitude the rising warmer air will create an area of relatively higher pressure compared
to the pressure at the same altitude in the area where the air is descending. Thus a circulation is
created due to pressure levels sloping downwards from higher towards lower pressure, i.e.
pressure gradients.
The Pressure Gradient Force and Wind Speed
The pressure gradient, or the slope of the pressure levels, will be greater when the pressure
difference is greater and it will also be greater when the distance between the areas of low and
high pressure is smaller. The force which moves air towards lower pressure is known as the
pressure gradient force (PGF). A steep pressure gradient means a high PGF and, as the speed
of the wind is proportional to the PGF, strong winds. On a weather chart, small spacing between
isobars indicates a steep pressure gradient, high PGF and strong winds.
Figure 8.2: Pressure gradient force acts from high pressure towards low pressure.
The Coriolis Force and Wind Direction

The wind will always blow from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure. The
direction would be perpendicular to the isobars, along the PGF, if it were not for a deflective
force arising from the rotation of the Earth on its axis, known as the Coriolis force (CF).As soon
as air starts to move due to the PGF it will experience a CF, which always acts at 90° to the
direction of motion and with a force proportional to the speed of movement. It will reach a state
of equilibrium where the CF is equal in size but opposite in direction to the PGF.
The CF acts to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere,
with stronger intensity at higher latitudes and for higher speeds. The effect of the CF is that the
direction of wind is deflected to the right of its initial direction in the northern hemisphere and to
the left in the southern hemisphere. Close to the equator the CF is almost nil.

Figure 8.3: Theoretical movement of a particle of air. It starts to move with the PGF and is turned right by the CF.
Geostrophic Wind
The geostrophic wind is a theoretical wind based on the CF and PGF. The direction of the wind
becomes parallel to the isobars due to the CF counteracting and balancing the PGF. Wind speed
is higher in areas where the PGF is stronger, indicated by tighter spacing of the isobars. The
theory is most accurate when the isobars are straight and parallel, and when the pressure
remains the same over a period of time. It also assumes that friction is negligible. In spite of
these severe assumptions, it is a good approximation to the wind at altitudes above 3000 feet.
At these heights the observed wind normally differs from the geostrophic wind by less than 10%
in speed and 10 degrees in direction.
It is possible to deduce the geostrophic wind speed and direction from any weather map with
isobars.
Figure 8.4: Weather map with arrows indicating the direction and relative speed of the geostrophic wind.
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The friction layer and surface wind

In reality, wind close to ground, below 2,000 ft to 3,000 ft, is greatly influenced by friction arising
from turbulence induced by ground obstructions. This friction reduces its speed, alters its
direction and develops local turbulence around buildings and hills. The wind at the bottom of this
friction layer is the surface wind. Compared to the geostrophic wind, the surface wind is
noticeably reduced in speed and the direction is backed (turned anti-clockwise) by 10 to 30
degrees. The explanation for this is that as wind speed is reduced so also is the CF, because it
is directly dependent on wind speed. As a result, the PGF is now larger than the CF and the
wind is pulled across the isobars towards low pressure.
Figure 8.5: Balance of friction, Coriolis and pressure gradient forces produces a wind which blows slightly across the isobars from
high towards low pressure.
The amount of friction depends on the structure of the surface. Tall objects, such as buildings
and trees, create more surface friction than fields or lakes. Predominant geographical features,
such as mountains, create turbulence and disturbances of a much larger magnitude. This will be
covered later in this section.
The effect of friction decreases with increasing altitude. As the frictional effect decreases the
wind speed increases and the wind direction becomes more parallel to the isobars. This results
in a consistent veering (turning clockwise) of the wind with the altitude in the layer from the
surface to about 3,000 ft, where the observed wind is very close to the geostrophic wind.
Figure 8.6: Wind speed and direction changes through the friction layer. Near the surface the wind blows slightly across the isobars
but this decreases with altitude and the wind blows approximately parallel to the isobars at the top of the friction layer (2000 to 3000
ft).

Differences between actual and geostrophic wind

The geostrophic wind is usually a good approximation to the actual wind at levels above the
friction layer. However, in addition to friction there are other forces acting on the wind which this
theory does not take into account. An example is the centripetal force, which comes into play
when isobars are curved. For circular motion there must always be a constant inward force
pulling the body towards the centre of the circle. If this force did not exist the body would move
off in a straight line.
The centripetal force is the force required to make an object travel in a curved path and since
isobars are not straight, parallel and unchanging, it is always present. It creates an imbalance
between the PGF and the CF resulting in actual winds following curved paths with speeds which
are not always exactly proportional to the PGF.
Figure 8.7: Imbalance between the PGF (pressure gradient force) and CF (Coriolis force) produces a curved flow.
Buys-Ballot’s Law
The result of the PGF trying to move the air towards lower pressure, together with CF acting to
the right in the northern hemisphere, is a wind which will always blow clockwise around a high
pressure area and anti-clockwise around a low pressure area. This applies to both geostrophic
and surface winds. In the southern hemisphere the CF acts to the left and direction of rotation
will be the opposite.
Thus direction of wind is always related to the location of high and low pressure. Buys-Ballots
law is a simple rule which states that in the northern hemisphere, if you stand with your back to
the wind, low pressure will be on your left hand side.
Figure 8.8: Buys-Ballot’s Law
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8.3 THERMAL WIND

When the air at one location has a significantly different temperature from the air at another
location, this can influence the variation of wind speed and direction with height. Because the
effect arises from temperature differences, the wind difference is called a thermal wind.
Consider two columns of air next to each other, one warmer and the other colder. Assume that
the surface pressure at the base of both columns is the same, so that there is no pressure
gradient between them and therefore no wind at the surface. At some altitude, let’s say 10,000 ft,
there will be a pressure difference between the columns because to achieve the same drop in
pressure a greater vertical distance is needed in warmer air due to it being less dense. As the
columns continue upwards, the difference in pressure will increase. The result is that at any
specific level there will be a local higher pressure area in the warmer air compared to the colder
air, with a PGF going from warm to cold and increasing with altitude. Again, as the air starts to
move, it will be subject to a CF, which will deflect the direction of movement to the right, giving
the thermal wind its direction.
Figure 8.9: Thermal wind induced by temperature differences. Wind speed increases with height if cold air is on the left (northern
hemisphere).
If the surface pressure in a colder air mass is lower than the surface pressure in an adjacent
warmer air mass, the PGF caused by the pressure differences at the surface and the PGF
caused by the temperature differences between the air masses will act in the same direction.
The effect will be that any wind already present at the surface will rapidly increase with height
and upper winds will be strong. In the opposite situation, the surface and thermal wind would not
complement each other.
Just as pressure values, in the form of isobars, can be used to determine geostrophic and
surface winds, so temperature values, in the form of isotherms, can be used to determine
thermal winds. By combining isobars and isotherms winds at all levels can be estimated and
forecast.

8.4 JET STREAMS

Jet streams are bands or “rivers” of fast flowing air at high altitudes, close to the tropopause.
They typically have a length of 1000s of km, width of 100 to 200 km and a vertical depth of
10,000 to 20,000 ft, but their dimensions vary greatly from one situation to another. They are
distinguished not only by the high wind speed in the core of the jet stream, commonly around
100 kt and sometimes as strong as 200 kt, but also for the sharp speed gradient around this
tube.
Figure 8.10: Vertical cross-section through a jet stream. The direction of the wind flow is away from the reader and into the picture.
Wind speeds often reach in excess of 100 kt. Note that the level of the tropopause is higher in the warm air mass.
Jet streams form in areas where air masses with strong temperature differences meet, leading to
the development of strong thermal winds. One such area is the polar front line found at mid-
latitudes. Here the general circulation of the atmosphere causes warm air from the equatorial
regions to meet cold air from the polar regions. This will be described further in section MET 8,
Air Masses and Frontal Systems.
Along the polar front, areas with low pressure are common on the polar side and areas with high
pressure are common on the equatorial side. The resulting geostrophic wind along the front will
be westerly in both hemispheres, due to the reversed position of the air masses and the Coriolis
effect acting in opposite directions.
The cold and warm air masses extend through the depth of the troposphere and create a
thermal wind which works in unison with the geostrophic wind. The result is that the wind speed
will increase with altitude all the way up to the tropopause. In addition, since the tropopause is at
a higher level in the warm air mass, air rushes across and down from the warmer sector adding
to the flow within the jet stream. This leads to a jet of very strong wind situated above the cold
side of the surface front and with its core at the cold air mass tropopause level, known as the
polar front jet stream. The general direction is from west to east, but on sections of the front the
direction will vary.
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L L
Figure 8.11: Upper air weather map showing isobars and a jet stream (heavy line).
Examples of other, weaker and more seasonal, jet streams are the subtropical jet stream and
the tropical jet stream.
Crossing in and out of jet streams can be uncomfortable due to the turbulence often associated
with their bordering areas.
Flying with a jet stream saves time and fuel and, for obvious reasons, pilots try to avoid flying
against them. Avoiding or benefiting from the maximum wind in a jet stream in a fixed route
system is normally achieved by changing the cruising level a few thousand feet. For example,
over Europe on a specific day and at specific levels an average 80 kt tailwind could be available
on the route from Dublin to Paris. This means that traffic heading towards Paris will request level
changes to these levels, whereas the Dublin bound traffic will request levels above or below the
core of the jet stream where the headwind is not so strong.
If a flight path can be arranged such that a jet stream offers a tail wind then the flight can be
completed more quickly and therefore more efficiently. his is the case over the Atlantic, where
the tracks are changed on a daily basis taking account of the position of the jet streams in order
to let the traffic benefit as much as possible from tailwind and reduce the exposure to headwind.
8.5 TURBULENCE AND WIND SHEAR

Turbulence is caused by random fluctuations in the wind flow causing the wind to vary in speed
and/or direction over a short distance. When this occurs at lower levels, or in the vicinity of an
airfield, it is known as wind shear, rather than turbulence.
Wind shear can be caused by vertical winds, for example the updraughts/downdraughts
associated with deep convective clouds, or due to disturbances to the winds caused by
substantial obstacles in the terrain, such as mountains or ridges. It may also be experienced
when either climbing or descending through layers which are moving horizontally at different
speeds and/or directions.
Low level inversions often occur near the top of the friction layer (2,000 to 3,000 ft). This has the
effect of isolating one air mass from the other and increasing the difference in the wind in the
friction layer and the geostrophic wind above it. The air below the inversion is affected by friction
at the Earth’s surface and is slow moving, while the air above the inversion is in the free
atmosphere and can be moving very much faster. The wind directions may also be completely
different. The possibility of turbulence at lower levels, if caused by friction or convection, will

normally be indicated by the terrain or clouds, even if the turbulence is in clear air at some
distance from those features.
8.6 CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE

Clear air turbulence (CAT) is turbulence that is not associated with or indicated by the presence
of terrain or cloud. The most severe CAT is found in the vicinity of jet streams, particularly on the
cold air mass side, the polar side, where vertical winds from the higher troposphere in the warm
sector descend along the jet stream on top of the lower cold sector.
Figure 8.12: Region of clear air turbulence on cold side and immediately below the core of the jet stream.
8.7 INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING WIND

The latest models of wind sensors have no moving parts and use microphones and the Doppler
effect to calculate the direction and speed of wind with high accuracy. Other instruments used
are usually a cup anemometer for wind speed and a wind vane for direction. At airfields it is also
common for wind socks to be used to give a visual indication of wind speed and direction.
Figure 8.13: Wind sensor, wind vane with cup anemometer, wind sock.
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Doppler radar is used to obtain information on the horizontal and vertical wind speed and
direction up to an altitude of several thousand metres. It is particularly useful in detecting wind
shear.
Wind measurements at upper levels in the atmosphere are traditionally made by tracking a
weather balloon, which has a radar reflector attached to it, as it rises through the atmosphere.
The horizontal motion of the balloon reveals the wind in different layers as the balloon passes
through. Newer versions of radiosondes do not need to be tracked as they are GPS-equipped
and transmit information about their position together with the readings of pressure, temperature
and relative humidity.
Satellites provide highly accurate information about upper winds. Reports from aircraft (AIREPs)
also contain upper wind information. Air/ground data links can be used to report upper wind
information automatically.
8.8 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH WIND
Wind is a major hazard to all categories of aviation and the combination of flying close to the
terrain and encountering a sudden change in wind speed and/or direction can be fatal. This
change in wind can be the result of gusts, squalls, microbursts, or mountain rotors.
A strong crosswind makes the handling of an aircraft at landing and take-off more critical, and
each aircraft type has its maximum allowed crosswind component for these phases.
The hazard of wind shear mostly affects aircraft in the approach and landing phase and is
dangerous because the sudden change in lift disturbs the precision of the landing. Wind shear,
especially in connection with a low level temperature inversion, can also be a danger to
departing traffic because the loss of lift caused by climbing into a layer of warmer air can be
compounded by a sudden loss in lift due to the wind shear.
At higher levels severe CAT has on many occasions caused serious injuries to passengers. It
can also subject an airframe to dangerous levels of stress.
8.9 OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF WIND

Surface wind observations made for reports in the METAR/SPECI code forms should be
representative of conditions at a height of 6 to 10 metres above the whole runway or runway
complex. In addition, local reports need to contain observations for the different touchdown and
lift-off zones. Sensors should be appropriately sited as determined by local conditions.
The appropriate ATS units, TWR and APP, shall be equipped with surface wind indicators clearly
marked to identify from which sensor each reading originates.
The averaging period for wind observations for reports in the METAR/SPECI code forms should
be ten minutes, if there is no marked discontinuity in the wind. For local routine and special
reports and for wind indicators in ATS units it should be two minutes.
Wind direction should be given in three figures rounded to the nearest 10° true. When the
direction of the wind varies, depending on if the variation is within 180° or not, and on the wind
speed, either the two extreme directions between which the wind has varied will be reported or
wind is reported as variable.
Wind speed shall be reported in km/h or kt, and under certain conditions gusts, i.e. variations
from the main wind speed, should be reported. The various criteria for this will be explained in
the decoding section.

Information on surface and/or upper winds is also included in other met reports, for example,
local and aerodrome forecasts, area forecasts, and on charts.
Information on wind shear is to be included as supplementary information in local reports and
reports in the METAR/SPECI code forms. Moderate and severe turbulence is reported in
SIGMETs. Moderate and severe turbulence, and also jet streams, are shown on significant
weather charts.
Figure 8.14: How wind with variable direction is reported.
8.10 METAR/SPECI CODE FOR WIND

Wind in METAR/SPECI code is normally a seven or eight character group consisting of 5 digits
followed two or three letters. The first three digits give the direction and the next two the speed.
The letters give the unit, normally ‘KT’ for the unit of knots, but ‘MPS’ for metres per second or
‘KPH’ for kilometres per hour are also possible.
In case of variations from the mean wind speed, an additional two digit group preceded by a ‘G’
give the wind speed of gusts as appropriate. In case of variations in direction, the letters ‘VRB’
will replace the digits for direction, or an additional group of two sets of three digits separated by
the letter ‘V’ will give the directions between which the wind is varying, as appropriate. See the
decoding section.
Wind shear warnings are given in abbreviated plain language.
Examples:
Wind direction is from 210 degrees and the speed is 5 knots 21005KT
Wind direction is from 270 degrees and the speed is 4 metres per 27004MPS
second
Wind direction is from 340 degrees and the speed is 10 knots 34010G25
with gusts up to 25 knots
Wind direction is variable over more than 180 degrees and the VRB05KT
speed is 5 knots
Average wind direction is from 190 degrees but varying from 160 19007KT 160V230
to 230 degrees and the speed is 7 knots
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Meteorological
Phenomena
Meteorological Phenomena ATCO Basic Training
SECTION 9
CLOUDS
Table of contents
TRAINING OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................... 117

THE MAIN FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CLOUD DEVELOPMENT................ 119
CONDENSATION AND EVAPORATION ............................................................... 119
GROWTH OF DROPLETS .................................................................................................. 120
ICE-CRYSTAL GROWTH ................................................................................................... 120
SUPER-COOLING............................................................................................................... 120
CLOUD DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................................... 121
FREE CONVECTION .......................................................................................................... 121
SLANT-WISE ASCENT: FRONTAL ASCENT AND OROGRAPHIC ASCENT ................. 122
FORCED CONVECTION..................................................................................................... 122
TURBULENT MIXING ......................................................................................................... 123
DIURNAL VARIATION OF CLOUDS ..................................................................... 123
CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS – THE TEN MAIN CLOUD TYPES .................... 124
HIGH CLOUDS.................................................................................................................... 124
MIDDLE CLOUDS ............................................................................................................... 125
LOW CLOUDS .................................................................................................................... 126
HEAP CLOUDS................................................................................................................... 127
CLOUD BASE, CEILING AND VERTICAL VISIBILITY ......................................... 128
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING CLOUD ......................................................... 128
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH CLOUDS ............................................................ 129
OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF CLOUDS...................................................... 129
AMOUNT OF CLOUD ......................................................................................................... 130
CLOUD BASE ..................................................................................................................... 130
METAR/SPECI CODE FOR CLOUDS.................................................................... 130

MET Meteorological Phenomena
9. CLOUDS
CCC Topic: 4. METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA
CCC Sub-topic: 4.1 Clouds

1. Explain the different conditions for the formation of 2 METB 4.1.1
clouds
2. Recognize different cloud types 1 METB 4.1.2
3 State the cloud types main characteristics. 1 METB 4.1.3
4 State how the cloud base and the amount of cloud are 1 METB 4.1.4-
measured and/or observed.
5 Define cloud base and ceiling 1 METB 4.1.5
6 Differentiate between cloud base and ceiling 2 METB 4.1.6
L CCC Level
Code CCC reference
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Clouds may reduce flight visibility. The cloud base, or more specifically the ceiling, affects the
ability of flights to proceed under VFR.
The cloud type will often indicate the type of processes currently taking place in the environment
and knowledge of this may help to provide an understanding of the general weather situation
and how it could develop.
Icing may occur under certain conditions in both stratiform and cumuliform clouds, in addition,
large cumuliform clouds indicate the presence of significant turbulence.
9.2 THE MAIN FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CLOUD DEVELOPMENT

Cloud development depends on a number of factors. Humidity, in combination with a drop in
temperature, is needed for condensation to take place, and a trigger action of some kind is
required to initiate this process. The main factors deciding the speed of development, and
whether or not the clouds will develop with a great vertically extent or in horizontal layers, are the
vertical temperature profile and humidity at different levels of the troposphere.
9.3 CONDENSATION AND EVAPORATION

Clouds, mist and fog are composed of very small water droplets. A typical droplet size is about
0.02 mm. The number of droplets in a cubic centimetre (cc) is typically about 300. The droplets
are so small that they fall very slowly, at about 0,5 metres per minute, and they are kept
suspended in the air by even a slight upward motion.
Cooling
Condensation takes place when the air is cooled until it becomes saturated. Further cooling may
be required to maintain this process, as the vapour level of the air will be reduced by the
condensation that has already taken place. The change of state of water is always a balance,
and evaporation will always take place at the same time as condensation. It is the amount of
heating or cooling which will decide which of the two will be predominant.
The cooling required to produce clouds is usually adiabatic as air is displaced upwards either by
thermal convection or slantwise ascent.
Condensation Nuclei
As air cools it would be reasonable to expect droplets to form exactly at the point where the air
becomes saturated. However, water droplets in the atmosphere do not form in this way. They
contain minute particles, known as condensation nuclei, onto which water condenses. Since
there is no shortage of condensation nuclei in the air, droplets are formed as the dew point is
reached, and in fact, these nuclei even allow water droplets to form when the relative humidity is
less than 100%.
This apparent contradiction arises because saturation is defined for flat water surfaces while
droplets, with strongly curved surfaces, have a much higher saturation level. Absolutely clean air
would have to be cooled far beyond the point of saturation for a flat surface before pure droplets
would form.
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Growth of Droplets
Cloud droplets formed by condensation fall very slowly and will not reach the ground as rain.
Due to their extremely small size they would need a day to fall only a few thousand feet, and
furthermore they would not be individually noticeable! Therefore, there must be some
mechanism which enables these cloud droplets to grow rapidly. The typical diameter of a
raindrop is about 2 mm, and it takes about one million cloud droplets to make one raindrop!
A common mechanism for the growth of raindrops is collision and coalescence. Since clouds
contain drops and droplets of different sizes, they fall at different speeds. Large drops fall faster
than small drops and droplets and so collide with them and coalesce. As drops become even
larger they fall faster and sweep up small drops even more efficiently.
Figure 9.1: Drops collide and grow as they coalesce. The larger drops fall faster and collide with more droplets and so grow even
faster.
Ice-crystal Growth
With the exception of the tropics, portions of clouds nearly always have temperatures below 0 °C
and it is common to find both ice crystals and water droplets. Under these conditions, another
mechanism, known as the Bergeron process, is also important. Since ice crystals have a lower
saturation level than water droplets, a situation can arise where the air is less than saturated for
water drops but beyond the saturation point for ice crystals. Under these conditions ice crystals
grow rapidly as water evaporates from the droplets and condenses or deposits onto them.
As the ice crystals grow they fall faster and sweep up both ice crystals and water droplets in the
collision and coalescence process.
Super-cooling
The strong curvature of the surface of a water droplet not only affects the saturation level of
water, but also its freezing point. Water freezes at 0 °C under normal conditions, but droplets
have a much lower freezing point. It becomes lower with decreasing size, and may be as low as
-40 °C.
Water droplets with a temperature below 0 °C are said to be super-cooled.
What happens when a super-cooled water droplet comes in contact with a flat surface, such as
an aircraft wing? Since the reason why droplets do not freeze is that their surfaces are curved,
and since they flatten on impact with the wing, they usually freeze on contact.

9.4 CLOUD DEVELOPMENT

Cloud is nearly always the result of upward motion, which produces cooling and, eventually,
condensation. The upward motion can be almost vertical, as in the case of convective air
streams, or it can be slant-wise, where the air moves a large distance horizontally while moving
only a small distance upwards. Often, the ratio of horizontal motion to vertical motion is about
100:1.
When air moves upwards in an unstable situation, for example a conditionally unstable layer in
which condensation is taking place, it tends to move farther and farther in a convective air
stream. This will produce cumuliform clouds of great vertical extent, sometimes referred to as
heap clouds.
Vertical cloud development is limited by stable layers restricting upward movement. Under these
circumstances, clouds tend to be of stratiform type, spreading out horizontally below a stable
layer of the atmosphere. Compared to their vertical extent, the horizontal extent of stratiform
clouds is great, sometimes forming a uniform layer covering the entire sky. They are also known
as stratified or layer clouds.
Sometimes cloud development results from sequences involving both stable and unstable
conditions and the resulting clouds may combine stratiform and cumuliform features.
9.5 TRIGGERS FOR CLOUD DEVELOPMENT

The type of cloud development is normally named after the first step in the sequence, the trigger
action.
Free Convection
Free convection is the term given to process in which air that has been warmed through contact
with the surface rises freely as a result of now being warmer, less dense and more buoyant than
its surroundings. The air continues to rise through a conditionally unstable layer in which
condensation takes place. Convective clouds such as cumulus are the result of free convection.
Figure 9.2: Clouds formed by free convection
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Slant-wise Ascent: Frontal Ascent and Orographic Ascent

When an air mass is moving horizontally and encounters a sloping surface it will be forced to rise
with this surface. As the air mass is forced to rise it will cool adiabatically and, if rising into stable
layers above, stratiform clouds such as altostratus, cirrostratus and nimbostratus will form.
This forced lifting of an air mass is generally known as slant-wise or large-scale ascent, but may
also be called, depending on the nature of the sloping surface, frontal ascent or orographic
ascent. The surface may be either another, colder, air mass or rising terrain.
With frontal ascent the whole system will move across the surface at a certain speed. In the case
of a warm front the cold sloping air slides away, as the warm air advances on top of it. A cold
front pushes in under and lifts the warmer air, which at the same time slides away. In both cases
the clouds and precipitation will not remain over the same area for a prolonged period.
Stratiform clouds can also form by orographic ascent on the windward slope of rising terrain. As
orographic ascent is triggered by terrain forcing a humid flow of air to rise, the process of cloud
formation and associated precipitation will continue as long as this flow of air continues and will
also remain above the same geographical area. This causes certain locations to receive
exceptional amounts of annual precipitation.
However, with frontal ascent the whole system will move across the surface at a certain speed.
In the case of a warm front the cold sloping air slides away and in the case of a cold front the
wedge of cold air is pushing in under and lifting the warmer air. In both cases the clouds and
precipitation will not remain over the same area for a prolonged period.
Figure 9.3: Clouds formed by large-scale, slant-wise ascent
Forced Convection
If air is forced to rise by slant-wise ascent and then encounters a conditionally unstable layer
convection may take place resulting in formation of cumuliform cloud, in addition to any
stratiform clouds formed. This is likely to happen in mountainous areas as well as along the line
of an advancing cold front.

Figure 9.4: These clouds are the result of forced convection associated with a cold front.
Turbulent Mixing
When layers of air move at different speeds and in different directions, mixing due to small-scale
turbulence will take place at their common boundary. Condensation may take place due to the
differences in temperature and humidity. The clouds formed will initially tend to be stratiform and
spread out horizontally in thin layers of, for example, stratus. The eddies within the boundary
layer often shape such clouds into rolls or lumps leading to the development of layers of
stratocumulus, altocumulus or cirrocumulus depending on the altitude at which they are formed.
Stratiform clouds can also form through mixing of moist air with cooler air throughout a layer
which is limited in vertical extent by an inversion. For example, advection of warmer air over a
colder surface in combination with sufficient wind producing stratus cloud instead of fog.
Figure 9.5: Clouds formed by mixing
9.6 DIURNAL VARIATION OF CLOUDS

Clouds formed by free convection have a very clear diurnal cycle since their main triggering
mechanism is surface heating by the Sun. When convective clouds start to form in the morning it
indicates a conditionally unstable atmosphere and suggests that much stronger convection will
occur during the afternoon.
The maximum occurrence of convective clouds is normally found in the late afternoon, a few
hours after the maximum surface heating. When the surface heating is reduced, as the Sun
descends, convective clouds usually die out, unless they have already developed into
thunderstorms. In this case, they will have established a strong circulation and may persist into
the late evening.
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Stratified clouds do not normally follow a diurnal cycle. However, those produced by lifting fog,
such as low level stratus, are most common in the morning. As the fog is warmed by the Sun, it
lifts and forms a layer of stratus. Further heating causes the layer of stratus to break up into
stratocumulus, possibly lifting further and becoming cumulus, and often dissipating completely
by noon. Cooling during the late afternoon and the night may cause first the clouds, and then the
fog to reappear, and so the whole process is repeated. This commonly occurs in the autumn.
9.7 CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS – THE TEN MAIN CLOUD TYPES

The following are the ten main types, or ‘genera’, of clouds as classified by the WMO (World
Meteorological Organization). In addition, there are many sub-types (species) and varieties, only
a very few of which are mentioned here.
High Clouds.
Cloud base: 16,500 to 45,000 feet.
(Note. The grouping of clouds is used to describe a general relationship between the individual
clouds. Height bands should be used as an indication of the height at which a cloud normally
appears. Values are approximate and vary with latitude, higher towards the equator and lower
towards the poles, and to some extent the different height bands may overlap)
Cirrus (Ci)
Delicate, white clouds of fibrous
appearance, forming strands or hooks.
Formation is sometimes triggered by
condensation trails.
Cirrocumulus (Cc)
A layer of very small lumps, rolls, or thin
sheets.
Cirrostratus (Cs)
A very thin, white layer or veil totally or
partially covering the sky. The Sun or
Moon can usually be clearly seen through
the cloud, often with a halo.

Cirrus, cirrocumulus and cirrostratus are composed entirely of ice crystals. No precipitation is
associated with these clouds. Layers are thin. Ci and Cs are common in advance of a warm
front, but as the front approaches, they gradually develop into altostratus.
Middle Clouds.
Cloud base: 6,500 to 23,000 feet.
Altocumulus (Ac)
A layer of lumps, rolls, or thin sheets,
similar to Cc, but generally larger. The
difference is magnified by their
appearance at lower altitudes. Ac may
also appear in a less uniform pattern.
Altostratus (As)
A layered cloud, uniformly grey, totally or
partially covering the sky, sometimes with
banks or rolls showing. The Sun may be
vaguely visible through the cloud, but
without a halo.
Middle clouds are made up of ice crystals and water droplets, sometimes super-cooled.
Altostratus may give rise to light precipitation in the form of rain, snow or ice pellets. Middle
clouds do not usually have a great vertical extent, but the layers are deeper than those of high
clouds. Two forms of altocumulus are of significance to aviation. Altocumulus castellanus, with
the appearance of towers, is sometimes a precursor to thunderstorm development, indicating
instability at middle levels. Altocumulus lenticularis, so-called because the clouds are lens-
shaped, indicates turbulence in the form of wave motion and rotors on the leeward side of hills.
Thickening altostratus is found in the vicinity of warm fronts where it develops into nimbostratus.
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Low Clouds.
Cloud base: surface to 6,500 feet.
Stratocumulus (Sc)
A grey or whitish cloud composed of
patches, rolls or sheets, merging into
layers. The individual parts look larger
compared to altocumulus.
Stratus (St)
A uniform, grey, and dense cloud. It is
shallow and the Sun may appear through
it. The cloud base is often very low, and
when it touches the ground it is regarded
as fog rather than a cloud.
Nimbostratus (Ns)
A grey cloud layer, often dark, whose
appearance is rendered diffuse by
precipitation falling more or less
continuously. It forms a solid layer
through which the Sun cannot be seen.
The lower clouds are composed of water droplets, ice crystals and/or snow flakes. Precipitation
from stratus takes the form of drizzle or snow grains, from stratocumulus light rain or light snow,
and from nimbostratus continuous rain or snow, sometimes with ice pellets. Both stratocumulus
and stratus have a limited vertical extent. Nimbostratus, however, can extend upwards
considerably, often high into the layer of middle clouds, and it is sometimes classified as either a
vertically extending cloud or as a middle cloud.
Light turbulence may be experienced both in and underneath Sc.

Heap Clouds.
Cloud base: surface to 6,500 feet.
Note: This group of convective clouds is frequently referred to as clouds of vertical
development (or extent). Due to its sometimes great vertical extent, nimbostratus may be
grouped together with the heap clouds, although it does not share all their characteristics.
Cumulus (Cu)
Cumulus are detached clouds with sharp
outlines, appearing with the base forming
a layer. They can vary in size from small,
puffy, white clouds, to large, deep clouds
with a darker base and whose bulging
upper parts resemble a cauliflower.
The base may be at less than 1,000 ft,
and a towering cumulus (TCu) can have a
vertical extent of up to 25,000 feet.
Cumulonimbus (Cb)
Cumulonimbus are heavy masses of
cloud with great vertical development
often having developed from cumulus
through towering cumulus. The upper
parts often have a fibrous appearance
and are drawn out into the shape of an
anvil.
Cumulonimbus usually extend from near
the surface to the tropopause
(approximately 45,000 ft depending on
latitude and season), and may even reach
into the lower stratosphere.
Cumulus is composed mainly of water droplets, but ice crystals may form in those parts where
the temperature falls well below 0 °C. The greater its vertical development, the greater will be the
part of the cloud that will be composed of ice crystals.
Cumulonimbus is composed of water droplets and, especially in the upper parts, ice crystals. It
also contains large raindrops, snowflakes and hailstones, growing in size and moving around
with the strong vertical currents in the cloud before falling to the surface as precipitation. The
water droplets and raindrops may be substantially super-cooled.
Smaller cumulus are normally associated with fine weather.
Cumulus of greater development, especially following a cold front, frequently produce showers of
rain, snow or snow grains.
Precipitation from cumulonimbus takes the form of showers of rain, snow, snow grains, hail or
small hail. The intensity of the precipitation may be heavy. Cb can be distinguished from well-
developed cumulus or nimbostratus by the presence of thunder, lightning or hail.
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Cumulus clouds often have a great vertical extent, however, a layer of numerous small cumulus
may resemble a layer of Sc or Ac, but as long as their tops remain dome-shaped and their bases
are not merged, they should be identified as cumulus.
Even small cumulus are, like Sc, associated with some turbulence. The turbulence is caused by
the convective currents developing the cloud; the greater the convection, the greater the vertical
extent of the cloud, and the stronger the turbulence. TCu and Cb should always be regarded as
signalling the presence of severe turbulence.
9.8 CLOUD BASE, CEILING AND VERTICAL VISIBILITY

The height of the cloud base refers to the vertical distance from the place of observation to the
underside of a cloud or a layer of clouds, regardless of the amount of cloud.
Note that ceiling, as defined in ICAO Doc 4444 ATM, is the height above the ground or water of
the base of the lowest layer of cloud below 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) covering more than half the
sky. Thus ceiling, which is not an item in any Met report but is referred to in some ATS
regulations, differs from cloud base in stipulating the presence of a certain minimum amount of
cloud. The vertical visibility, if available, should be reported when the sky is obscured.
9.9 INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING CLOUD

It is only the cloud base that is measured by instruments. The amount of cloud and, when
relevant, the cloud type are always determined by visual observation.
Modern ceilometers use lasers to determine cloud height. Pulses of light are transmitted
vertically upwards and part of the light is scattered back by particles in the atmosphere. Based
on this, the ceilometers can determine cloud base, as well as vertical visibility and precipitation
status. Normally, these systems can report several layers of cloud simultaneously. If required,
the beam can be pointed manually to obtain information in a specific direction.
Fig 9.6: A Ceilometer

Cloud base can also be measured/calculated by projecting a light beam upwards. By observing
and measuring the angle to the spot on the cloud base from a known distance from the
searchlight, it is possible to calculate the height of the cloud base. Another method to determine
the cloud base is to time the ascent of a balloon with a known rate of ascent until the balloon
enters the cloud.
Figure 9.7: Measuring cloud base using a searchlight.
In the absence of any measuring equipment the height of the cloud base can be estimated by an
observer from the ground or determined and reported by pilots from the air. Some visual
observation is always necessary in order to verify the data given by equipment and complement
this if, for instance, cloud is present in a direction or angle where the equipment would not detect
it under normal operation.
9.10 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH CLOUDS

The hazards associated with clouds are mainly related to accompanying weather phenomena
such as precipitation, icing, thunderstorms and fronts.
Stratified clouds pose fewer problems for aviation than convective clouds. While both can
produce icing conditions, stratified clouds produce no significant turbulence. Convective clouds
produce turbulence in proportion to their size. Small cumulus clouds produce only slight
turbulence, though they can be an early warning of more severe conditions developing. Deep
cumulus clouds have large updraughts which can produce moderate to severe turbulence.
Reduced visibility, due to clouds and precipitation, and a low cloud base has an immediate effect
on VFR traffic, which is totally dependent on visual weather conditions. Any VFR flight away from
the local traffic circuit at an airfield requires a good met briefing.
Some of the hazards associated with the clouds and other weather phenomena are listed under
"Hazards Associated with Weather Phenomena " in section MET 12, Meteorological Hazards.
A low cloud base as well as reduced flight and surface visibility will affect VFR flights and
approaches to airfields without instrument landing systems. The hazards associated with
reduced visibility at levels close to the surface are described in section MET 11, Visibility.
9.11 OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF CLOUDS

Cloud observations made for reports in the METAR/SPECI forms should be representative of the
aerodrome and its immediate vicinity. Cloud amount and height of cloud base should be
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observed and reported. The type of cloud should be identified only in the case of either
cumulonimbus (Cb), or towering cumulus (TCu).
Cloud information is included in many different met reports and charts, for example, local and
aerodrome forecasts, area forecasts for low level flights, AIRMETs, SIGMETs, and on low level
and significant weather charts.
9.11.1 Amount of Cloud

The amount of cloud covering the sky is estimated by eye in ‘oktas’, meaning eighths of the sky.
Since clouds occur in layers at various heights and clouds in lower layers may obscure clouds in
a layer above, reported cloud amounts are often based on estimates for all but the lowest layers.
If there are no clouds and no restriction on vertical visibility “Sky Clear” is reported. Amounts in
the range 1 to 2 oktas are described as Few, 3 to 4 oktas as Scattered, 5 to 7 oktas as Broken
and 8 oktas as Overcast, i.e. a layer of cloud covering the whole sky.
The corresponding abbreviations and METAR codes are: SKC, FEW, SCT, BKN, and OVC.
When several layers, or masses, of cloud are observed, their amount and height should be
reported as follows: the lowest layer is reported regardless of amount, then the next layer
covering 3 oktas or more, and then next layer covering 5 oktas or more. This is commonly
referred to as the “1-3-5” rule.
In addition, the presence of Cb and/or TCu will always be reported, regardless of amount and
with the type of cloud indicated. If both are present in one individual layer (mass) of cloud, then
the type of cloud should be reported as Cb.
For the information on cloud the abbreviation NSC, ‘nil significant cloud’, will be used if there is
no cloud below 1,500 m (5,000 ft) or below the highest minimum sector altitude, whichever is the
greater, and no Cb. The term ‘CAVOK’, ‘cloud and visibility OK’, will be used instead if, in
addition, certain conditions for visibility and present weather are met (see section MET 6,
Weather Phenomena).
9.11.2 Cloud Base

The height of the base of cloud should normally be reported above aerodrome elevation and the
minimum height of the cloud or cloud fragments should be given. Local reports may, in addition,
refer to the height above threshold elevation and/or indicate if the cloud base is diffuse, ragged
or fluctuating rapidly.
When the base of the cloud cannot be seen, due to fog or precipitation, the sky is described as
obscured, OBSC, and the vertical visibility, if available, should be reported.
9.12 METAR/SPECI CODE FOR CLOUDS

The format for reporting a layer of cloud in METAR/SPECI code is a group without spaces and
without any unit. The group is composed of three letters, three digits, and possibly two/three
further letters. The first three letters indicate the amount of cloud as described above, the
following three digits indicate the cloud base in 100s of feet, and the last two or three letters,
when required, are CB or TCU: for example, SCT045CB.
When the sky is obscured and information on vertical visibility is available this should be
reported with the letters ‘VV’ followed by three digits, representing the vertical visibility in 100s of
feet.

Examples:
Few (1 - 2 oktas) cloud at 1200 feet FEW012
Overcast (8 oktas cloud) at 3000 feet OVC030
Few (1 – 2 oktas) at 1000 feet, scattered (3 – 4 oktas) at FEW010 SCT090 BKN200
9000 feet and broken (5 – 7 oktas) at 20000 feet
Scattered (3 – 4 oktas) Towering Cumulus at 3500 feet SCT035TCU
Vertical visibility is 300 feet VV003
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SECTION 10
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Table of contents
PRESENT WEATHER PHENOMENA .................................................................... 135
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION .............................................................................................. 135

10. TYPES OF PRECIPITATION

CCC Sub-topic: 4.2 Types of Precipitation

1. Explain the significance of precipitation in aviation 2 METB 4.2.1
2. Describe types of precipitation and their corresponding 2 METB 4. 2.2
cloud families
L CCC Level
Code CCC reference
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Precipitation, obscuration and other phenomena are reported as present weather and, under
certain conditions, as significant or recent weather. The present weather section of a met report
will explain the type of obscuration responsible for any reported reduced visibility (section MET
11 - Visibility) and define what type of precipitation, if any, is falling from any reported clouds
(section MET 9 - Clouds).
A number of weather phenomena, including precipitation, fog or other obscuration, storms of
various types, turbulence, wind shear, icing, etc, are potential hazards to aviation. Bad weather
may affect aircraft during any phase of flight. Most of the extreme weather phenomena are
associated with thunderstorms.
Precipitation is important to aviation as it reduces visibility, it often appears in connection with
low clouds and, in the case of heavy precipitation, it can be accompanied by downdraughts.
Contamination of the runways and taxiways by precipitation remaining on the ground causes a
number of possible problems. For example, the clearing of snow or ice increases the ATS
workload tremendously and may temporarily close a runway or airport. Freezing rain, slush,
snow or ice may reduce the braking action below operational values and, even if only wet, the
runway has a reduced braking action. With standing water on the runway aquaplaning is a risk.
The contamination will often remain on the runway for some time after the precipitation has
actually ceased.
Depending upon the type of phenomena observed and when it occurs, weather may be reported
as present, significant or recent.
10.2 PRESENT WEATHER PHENOMENA

Each type of the present weather phenomena reported in met reports belongs to one of the
following groups: precipitation, obscurations and other phenomena.
A number of qualifying descriptors are used to indicate their characteristics, for example
‘shallow’, ‘thunderstorm’ or ‘shower’. A second qualifier may be used to describe the intensity as
‘heavy’ or ‘light’. Each type of weather phenomena and qualifier has a two-letter abbreviation
which is also used for the METAR/SPECI code. The abbreviations/codes are included after the
names in the lists below.
10.2.1 Types of Precipitation

All precipitation is water in various forms, such as rain, drizzle, hail or snow, falling from clouds
and reaching the ground. It can vary in terms of intensity and duration and is different from dew,
frost, fog and cloud in that it must fall and reach the earth’s surface. The onset of precipitation is
usually associated with a lowering of the cloud base and a reduction in visibility. Heavy
precipitation will substantially reduce visibility.
The different types of precipitation are strongly related to the type of cloud from which they fall.
Stratified clouds produce continuous precipitation, composed of smaller sized particles, of steady
intensity, normally ranging from light to moderate. Convective clouds, depending on their vertical
extent, give rise to precipitation, composed of larger sized particles, of more intermittent duration
and of varying, often heavy, intensity. For example, drizzle falls from stratus, while heavy hail
falls from cumulonimbus. Moderate snow or rain may fall persistently from nimbostratus or, in the
form of showers, from cumulus.
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ICAO Annex 3 lists the following different types of precipitation:
10.2.1.1 Drizzle (DZ)

Tiny, slowly falling, water droplets with diameters of less than 0.5 mm, so small that their
individual impact at a water surface is imperceptible. It is often associated with fog.
10.2.1.2 Rain (RA)
Water droplets of diameters greater than 0.5 mm. In temperate latitudes rain may form in layer
clouds. Continuous rain falls from clouds formed by slant-wise ascent, while heavy showers of
shorter duration are produced by deep convective clouds. Condensation in clouds often takes
place in sub-zero temperatures and rain is frequently the result of snow melting before reaching
the ground.
10.2.1.3 Snow (SN)

White or translucent ice-crystals in a complex branched hexagonal form.
Snow will reach the ground if surface temperature is below 0 °C, or if the zero temperature level
is at a sufficiently low altitude, otherwise it is likely to turn into rain.
10.2.1.4 Snow Grains (SG)

Frozen precipitation in the form of very small, white and opaque grains of ice. The diameter is
generally less than 1 mm, and this can be said to be the solid equivalent of drizzle.
10.2.1.5 Ice Pellets (PL)

Precipitation in the form of transparent or translucent pellets of ice, consisting of frozen rain
drops or largely melted and refrozen snowflakes. They have a diameter of 5 mm or less and can
be irregular in shape.
10.2.1.6 Ice Crystals (IC)

Precipitation in the form of very tiny, singular or unbranched ice needles, columns, or plates.
They occur at very low temperatures and are frequent in polar regions. They may fall very slowly
from a cloud or a cloudless sky, appearing to be suspended in the sky, and often produce optical
phenomena such as halos, coronas, and sun pillars. They may be called ice prisms or "diamond
dust".
10.2.1.7 Hail (GR)

Small balls or pieces of ice (hailstones) with a diameter of 5 mm or more, falling either separately
or agglomerated into irregular lumps.
10.2.1.8 Small Hail (GS)

Hailstones with a diameter of less than 5 mm. Also includes snow pellets (or soft hail), which are
white and opaque grains of ice with a diameter of 2 to 5 mm.
Note: Mixed precipitation is described by using the abbreviations together, starting with the
predominant type. For example, a mixture of rain and snow should be described as either
RASN or SNRA.

SECTION 11
VISIBILITY
Table of contents

OBSCURATIONS ................................................................................................... 141
ATMOSPHERIC OBSCURATION DUE TO HYDROMETEORS ............................ 141
FOG AND MIST................................................................................................................... 141
RADIATION FOG ................................................................................................................ 142
ADVECTION FOG ............................................................................................................... 142
HILL FOG OR UPSLOPE FOG........................................................................................... 142
PRECIPITATION FOG OR FRONTAL FOG ....................................................................... 142
SEA SMOKE ....................................................................................................................... 142
ATMOSPHERIC OBSCURATION DUE TO LITHOMETEORS .............................. 143
VIEWING ANGLE AND LOCATION....................................................................... 143
PREVAILING VISIBILITY ....................................................................................... 143
VISIBILITY AND RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE ........................................................ 144
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING VISIBILITY AND/OR RVR ............................ 145
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH POOR VISIBILITY.............................................. 145
OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF VISIBILITY................................................... 146
METAR/SPECI CODE FOR VISIBILITY................................................................. 146
OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF RVR ............................................................. 147
METAR/SPECI CODE FOR RVR ........................................................................... 148

11. VISIBILITY
CCC Topic: 4. METEOROLOGICAL PHENPMENA
CCC Sub-topic: 4.3 Visibility

1. Explain the causes of atmospheric obscurity 2 METB 4.3.1
2. Differentiate between different types of visibility. 2 METB 4.3.2
3. State how visibility is measured 1 METB 4.3.3
4. Explain the significance of visibility in aviation. 2 METB 4.3.4
L CCC Level
Code CCC reference
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Virtually all flights will depend on visual conditions at some stage. Air traffic operating under
visual flight rules (VFR) depends on visual contact with the terrain and other aircraft during the
entire flight. Even aircraft operating under instrument flight rules (IFR) depend on visual
references when on the ground, and to a certain extent, during the take-off and landing phases.
It may be possible to land in zero visibility, nevertheless the problem of getting the aircraft safely
from the runway to the stand remains.
Low visibility necessitates increased distances between aircraft, mainly in aerodrome control, but
the delays caused and increased workload will very soon spread to other parts of ATS with
increased workload and disruptions throughout the whole system. Thick fog may also cause
diversions or even the temporary closure of aerodromes.
11.2 OBSCURATIONS
Weather phenomena that restrict visibility are called obscurations, and are sub-divided into those
caused by hydrometeors or lithometeors.
Unless otherwise stated, the reporting of an obscuration implies that the horizontal visibility at
the earth’s surface is 5,000 m or less.
ICAO Annex 3 lists the following types of obscurations caused by hydrometeors:
11.2.1 Fog (FG)

A suspension in the air of very small water droplets, reducing the horizontal visibility at the
Earth’s surface to less than 1,000 m.
Note: Fog may be reported even if the reported visibility is 1,000 m, or greater, if qualified as
shallow, patches, partial or vicinity.
11.2.2 Mist (BR)

A suspension in the air of very small water droplets, reducing the horizontal visibility at the
Earth’s surface to between 1,000 m and 5,000 m.
11.3 ATMOSPHERIC OBSCURATION DUE TO HYDROMETEORS

Water as a vapour is transparent and does not obscure visibility. However, liquid or solid water
particles, hydrometeors, greatly reduce visibility as mist, fog, clouds or falling precipitation.
A typical droplet size found in mist, fog or clouds is about 0.02 millimetres (mm). These drops fall
very slowly and will be kept suspended in the air by the slightest upward motion.
11.3.1 Fog and Mist

Fog and mist are composed of very small water droplets and are simply clouds touching the
ground. Droplets form because the air is cooled until it becomes saturated and condensation
takes place. Under normal conditions for this to occur the air must have a certain level of
humidity.
Note: condensation processes were explained in sections MET 4, WATER IN THE
ATMOSPHERE and MRT 9, CLOUDS.
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Although, the droplets are the same, fog differs from clouds in that the cooling required to
produce condensation is not normally achieved in the same way. The cooling producing fog and
mist usually arises from radiation, advection or mixing.
Fog differs from mist in the degree of obscuration. Fog is reported when the visibility is less than
1,000 m. Mist is reported when visibility is at least 1,000 m, but not more than 5,000 m.
11.3.2 Radiation Fog

Radiation fog is a result of cooling and condensation in the air near the ground. At night the
ground radiates heat out from the earth’s system, and the air close to the ground loses heat by
conduction. There are three main factors involved in its formation.
 Little or no cloud, since cloud cover will act as an insulating shield reducing the loss of
heat from the earth.
 Little or no wind, because a strong wind will mix the air close to the surface with drier
and/or warmer air above, and fog will not form.
 Nights of sufficient length, because on short summer nights the sun will rise before the air
close to the surface has cooled down sufficiently for condensation to occur on a large
enough scale.
If there is no wind, the result may be dew and/or shallow fog. In a very light wind, fog may be
restricted to a thin layer, but slightly more wind will spread the fog upwards forming a deeper
layer.
Radiation fog is dispersed by an increase in the wind, or by the heating of the fog from above by
the sun as it rises in the sky.
11.3.3 Advection Fog

Advection fog is formed when advective currents transfer warm moist air over a colder surface.
The warm air loses heat to the cold surface and fog forms if the cooling is sufficient for the air to
become saturated. When formed over the sea it is commonly known as sea fog. Over land,
advection fog is particularly likely in winter after a cold spell when a supply of milder moist air
arrives from the sea. Advection fog may persist for long periods, for as long as the wind direction
and supply of warm, moist air prevail.
11.3.4 Hill Fog or Upslope Fog

Hill fog is caused when moist air is forced to ascend over rising ground and is cooled below its
dew point by the process of expansion, so that condensation occurs at ground level somewhere
along the slope. Hill fog is most common in areas where warm air streams meet higher ground,
but is also frequent when radiation fog in valleys begins to lift and disperse and then condenses
again on the side of the hill.
11.3.5 Precipitation Fog or Frontal Fog

Fog can be formed if the air becomes saturated during continuous rain preceding a warm front or
warm occlusion. The fog forms in the colder air lying below the main cloudbank. Some of the
falling rain evaporates and the air becomes saturated. This type of fog is often called frontal fog.
11.3.6 Sea Smoke

Sea smoke is a form of tenuous fog which forms when extremely cold air passes over a
relatively warm moist surface. It only occurs in cold winter conditions. The mixing of the two air
masses results in a saturated air mass in which the fog forms. This is the same mechanism that
produces a fog when you breathe out on a very cold day.

11.4 ATMOSPHERIC OBSCURATION DUE TO LITHOMETEORS

Solid particles like sand, dust, smoke, or volcanic ash, known as lithometeors, may also reduce
the visibility. Smoke can also add to fog by producing an increased density of droplets as a result
of the increased number of condensation nuclei.
When visibility is reduced by predominantly solid particles (lithometeors) to 5,000 metres or less
the type of obscuration should be reported. The possibilities are haze, sand, dust, smoke and
volcanic ash.
Annex 3 describes the following types of obscurations caused by lithometeors:
11.4.1 Haze (HZ)

A suspension in the air of extremely small, dry particles invisible to the naked eye and sufficiently
numerous to give the air an opalescent appearance.
11.4.2 Sand (SA)

A suspension in the air of particles of hard, broken rock or minerals raised from the ground by
wind prior to the time of observation. Low drifting sand should always be reported regardless of
the value for horizontal visibility.
11.4.3 Smoke (FU)

A suspension in the air of small dry particles produced by combustion.
11.4.4 Dust (widespread) (DU)

A suspension in the air of dust or small particles of sand raised from the ground by wind prior to
the time of observation.
11.4.5 Volcanic Ash (VA)

A suspension in the air of particles of volcanic ash. Its presence should always be reported
regardless of the value for horizontal visibility.
11.5 VIEWING ANGLE AND LOCATION

A pilot’s view of a runway depends on the viewing angle and the lighting conditions. A pilot flying
on downwind next to an airfield may be able to see the runway quite clearly when looking down
through haze or a thin layer of cloud. On final approach the view will be at a shallow oblique
angle so the path through the obscuration will be much longer. This could be sufficient to
obscure the runway completely and the oblique or slant visibility experienced by the pilot may be
lower than the observed and reported visibility for the airfield. As the aircraft descends, the
viewing distance through the obscuration decreases, and in the case of a cloud, the pilot’s view
is greatly improved when the aircraft comes below the cloud base.
Visibility can also be greatly affected by the position of the sun relative to the viewing angle.
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B etter v isib ility
P o o r v isib ility
S lan t v isib ility
Figure 11.1: Visibility from different viewing positions
11.6 PREVAILING VISIBILITY

Prevailing visibility in aviation is a measurement of the greatest distance visible throughout at
least half of the horizon, not necessarily continuously. To take the prevailing visibility, controllers
reference a number of visual reference points: usually buildings, hills, or other geographic
features. The value obtained is usually reported on a METAR and recorded on the ATIS.
When the prevailing visibility is less than 4 miles, tower personnel are required to take a
prevailing visibility reading. If this reading differs from the ground reading (i.e., different readings
for different heights), the lower value of the two is used for aircraft operations.
11.7 VISIBILITY AND RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE

Visibility is the distance, in which certain visual objects can be exactly identified. With this rather
vague definition, the visibility depends on many subjective factors, like the observer, the visual
object and the time of the day. At night the term visibility is confined to shining objects (RWY-
lights!), so that the visibility paradoxically often improves at sunset.
Visibility for aeronautical purposes is the greater of:
a) the greatest distance at which a black object of suitable dimensions, situated near the
ground, can be seen and recognised when observed against a bright background; (Note.
This is also represented by the “meteorological optical range”, MOR);
b) the greatest distance at which lights in the vicinity of 1000 candelas can be seen and
identified against an unlit background.
Runway Visual Range (RVR) is:
The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of a runway can see the
runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or identifying its centre line.
Together with the vertical visibility, the RVR determines the category of precision approaches. In
cases of poor visibility like with drifting patches of fog, the RVR varies strongly in time and
space. Therefore it is reasonable to arrange a set of transmissometers along each runway.
There are at least three positions (A,B,C), two at the thresholds and another one around the
middle, and some-times there is a second parallel set for redundancy. The following symbol
marks the position of transmissometers in the landing charts:

11.8 INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING VISIBILITY AND/OR RVR

The modern instrument for measuring visibility is called a forward-scatter meter. It evaluates the
Meteorological Optical Range (MOR) by measuring the scatter of infrared light.
Figure 11.2: Examples of forward-scatter meter and transmissometer
RVR is measured by sets of transmissometers. A transmissometer is an instrument which

measures the amount by which obscuration reduces a beam of light between a transmitter and
receiver located about 100 meters apart. Normally three sets of transmissometers are required
along each runway. If suitably located, a forward-scatter meter may be used to measure both
RVR and visibility.
11.9 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH POOR VISIBILITY

Vision is the main sense that pilots use during flight. Most of their spatial orientation during flight,
even when 'on instruments' in IMC, comes from the visual system. If there is any disagreement
between vision and the other senses as it may occur during phases of low visibility, the visual
orientation information tends to override the other senses. This visual dominance is a potential
cause for illusions and severe disorientation during flight.
Poor visibility is a major cause of fatal accidents, many of them on the ground or as controlled
flight into terrain (CFIT). In low visibility there is a great risk of a pilot becoming disorientated on
the airfield and making a wrong turn, entering or crossing an active runway without clearance or
knowledge by ATC of this. Pilots on VFR flights may experience a complete loss of orientation
during low visibility. The consequences can be catastrophic and such events have given rise to
some of the worst accidents in aviation history.
In reduced visibility, approach procedures and visual flight rules must be strictly adhered to. Not
to do so means not only breaking the rules, but is also extremely dangerous. Disaster territory is
entered whenever a flight continues beyond a point where visual conditions fall below stipulated
minima.
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11.10 OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF VISIBILITY

The visibility should be measured or observed by reference to objects or lights whose distance
from the point of observation is known.
 when the visibility is less than 800 m it shall be expressed in steps of 50 m;
 when it is 800 m or more but less than 5 km, in steps of 100 m;
 when it is more than 5 km but less than 10 km, in kilometre steps;
 when it is 10 km or more, it shall be given as 10 km.
Visibility observations made for reports in the METAR/SPECI code forms shall be representative
of the aerodrome and its immediate vicinity. However, in local routine/special reports visibility
from more than one location along the runway may be given with the location indicated.
Figure 11.3: The steps for reporting of visibility values
The direction and value of only the lowest visibility should be reported when the visibility is not
the same in different directions and the visibility in other direction(s) is more than 50% above the
lowest visibility. When the lowest visibility is less than 1,500 m and the visibility in another
direction is more than 5,000 m both visibility values with respective directions should be
reported.
The term ‘CAVOK’, ‘cloud and visibility OK’, will replace information on visibility and RVR when
visibility is 10 km or more, if certain conditions for cloud and present weather are also met (see
section MET 6, Weather Phenomena).
Landing and aerodrome forecasts shall include visibility values. Area forecasts for low-level
flights shall give information on widespread areas of surface visibility below 5,000 m.
11.11 METAR/SPECI CODE FOR VISIBILITY

Visibility in METAR/SPECI code is a four-digit group without any unit, representing the visibility
value in metres.
If 10 km or more it is coded as 9999 and reported as 10 kilometres.
If less than 50 m then it is coded as 0000 and reported as less than 50 metres.

Other values are given as per the local reports, using the same steps in values.
Directional visibility is in the form ‘LLLLD(D)’, when visibility in other direction(s) is more than 50
% above the lowest visibility. ‘D(D)’ is direction in relation to the site of the meteorological station
in one of the eight points of the compass, for example N, NE. Directional visibility in this format is
only required when the minimum value is less than 5000 m.
Directional variations should be reported as ‘LLLLD(D) HHHHD(D)’ when lowest visibility ‘(LLLL)’
is less than 1,500 m and the visibility in another direction ‘HHHH’ is more than 5,000 m. ‘D(D)’
and ‘D(D)’ indicates here two different directions in relation to the site of the meteorological
station.
Examples:
Coded item: Meaning:
9999 Visibility is 10 kilometres or more
7000 Visibility is 7 kilometres
0450 Visibility is 450 metres

0000 Visibility is less than 50 metres
1200SE Visibility is 1200 metres to the South East and
more than 50% greater in another direction (but
not above 5 kilometres)
1200S 6000NE Visibility is 1200 metres to the South, and 6
kilometres to the North East
11.12 OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF RVR

RVR should be reported throughout periods when either the horizontal visibility or the RVR is
observed to be less than 1,500 m.
RVR observations:
 should, and shall in case of Cat II and III operations, be made on all runways intended for
use during periods of reduced visibility, … , at a lateral distance from the runway centre
line of not more than 120 m.
 shall be representative of the touchdown zone and, depending on category of operation
for which the runway is intended and the length of the runway, of the mid-point and the
stop-end of the runway.
Local reports should include all available RVR values for the runway(s) indicating locations.
Reports in the METAR/SPECI code forms should give only the value representing the
touchdown zone. Where there is more than one runway available for landing, values should be
included for all such runways up to a maximum of four and the runways to which the values refer
should be indicated.
RVR may be assessed visually (from a recommended height of 5 m), but on runways intended
for instrument approach and landing operations, instrument systems based on transmissometers
or forward-scatter meters should (Cat 1) / shall (Cat II or III) be used.
When RVR is assessed, reported values should be from 50 m to 1,500 m, or reports should
indicate that the RVR is less than 50 m or more than 1,500 m. If the RVR is observed to be
above or below the range which can be determined by the system in use, it should be reported
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using the term ‘ABV’/’BLW’ followed by the maximum/minimum value for the system.
When instrument systems are used, the averaging period for RVR values should be:
 10 minutes for reports in the METAR/SPECI code forms (except for when there is a
marked change during the observation period …) Variations and tendencies during the
10-minute period preceding the observation should be included in the METAR/SPECI
code forms.
 1 minute for local routine/special reports and for RVR indicators in ATS units.
11.13 METAR/SPECI CODE FOR RVR

The METAR/SPECI code group for RVR always includes the prefix ‘R’ followed by a two-digit
runway designator and a forward slash ‘/’ followed by a four-digit RVR value in metres. Parallel
runways will be distinguished by appending, to the runway designator, ‘L’, ‘C’ or ‘R’ indicating the
left, central or right parallel respectively. If the RVR is assessed/measured on two or more
runways, a complete RVR group will be given for each runway.
When RVR is assessed to be less than 50 m or more than 1,500 m, or if the RVR is observed to
be below or above the range which can be determined by the system in use, the value is
prefixed by either the letter ‘M’ and reported as BELOW, or by the letter ‘P’ and reported as
ABOVE.
If there have been fluctuations during the 10 minute observation period, the tendency will be
reported by a letter following the RVR value: ‘U’ for upward tendency, ‘D’ for downward tendency
and ‘N’ for no distinct tendency.
Under certain conditions METAR/SPECI will include two values for RVR, a minimum and a
maximum value separated by the letter ‘V’.
Examples:
RVR on runway 33L is 1,300 metres R33L/1300

RVR on runway 24L is 1100 metres and RVR on R24L/1100 R24R/1200
runway 24R is 1200 metres
RVR on runway 27C is above 1500 metres R27C/P1500
RVR on runway 33R is below 50 metres R33R/M0050
RVR on runway 24 is 800 metres, fluctuating with R24/0800N
no distinct tendency
RVR on runway 36 is varying between 500 and R36/0500V0650
650 metres
11.13.1 Note on the Observing and Reporting of Obscurations

Obscurations and other phenomena responsible for reduced visibility, for example dust storms,
should be observed and reported together with precipitation in the present weather group of the
various reports. This, together with their METAR/SPECI codes, will be covered in Section MET
13, Meteorological Information for Aviation.

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SECTION 12
METEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS
Table of contents

METEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS TO AVIATION ................................................... 152
SIGNIFICANT AND RECENT WEATHER.............................................................. 152
THUNDERSTORMS ............................................................................................... 152
ICING ..................................................................................................................... 154
OTHER PHENOMENA ........................................................................................... 155
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH WEATHER PHENOMENA................................. 157
OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF WEATHER PHENOMENA .......................... 158
METAR/SPECI CODE FOR PRESENT AND RECENT WEATHER....................... 159

12. METEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS

CCC Sub-topic: 4.4 Meteorological Hazards

1. State the meteorological hazards to aviation. 1 METB 4.4.1
2. Describe the effect of meteorological hazards on aviation 2 METB 4.4.2
L CCC Level
Code CCC reference
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12.1 METEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS TO AVIATION

The most of the specific hazards associated with each different weather element have been
dealt with in the appropriate chapters. In this chapter we will describe a significant
meteorological hazards not covered earlier in this document (thunderstorm, icing, etc.).
12.2 SIGNIFICANT AND RECENT WEATHER

The significant meteorological conditions to be included in observations at aerodromes are
specified in Annex 3 as cumulonimbus, thunderstorm, moderate and severe turbulence, wind
shear, hail, severe squall line, moderate or severe icing, freezing precipitation, severe mountain
waves, sandstorm, dust storm, blowing snow or funnel cloud.
Significant weather en-route is generally specified as phenomena similar in type to those above
for the aerodromes and will be reported in AIRMET and SIGMET reports.
As several of the significant weather phenomena can not be satisfactory observed from the
ground and to a large extent evidence of their existence will be derived from aircraft observations
and reports, ICAO has specified a requirement for special and other non-routine aircraft
observations during any phase of a flight.
Recent weather is any the following weather phenomena or combinations thereof observed at an
aerodrome during the period since the last issued routine report or last hour, whichever is the
shorter, but not at the time of observation:
 freezing precipitation
 moderate or heavy precipitation (including showers thereof)
 moderate or heavy blowing snow (including snowstorm)
 dust storm or sandstorm
 thunderstorm
 funnel cloud (tornado or water spout)
 volcanic ashes
12.3 THUNDERSTORMS
The term “thunderstorm” is given to cumulonimbus clouds which produce thunder and lightning.
This occurs in well developed cumulonimbus, thus thunderstorms are an indication of severe
updraughts and downdraughts.
Individual thunderstorms are usually no larger than 15 km in horizontal extent, and may occur
randomly in a larger area or along the line of a front. The vertical depth of a thunderstorm will
usually be 30,000 feet or more and the upper part will have a characteristic anvil shape
extending in the direction of the wind at that level.

12.3.1 Development and Structure

The first stage in the development of a thunderstorm is as a vigorously developing cumulus
cloud, due to either free or forced convection. There will be very strong upward-moving air
currents of up to 6,000 feet per minute.
The cloud then becomes a towering cumulus while progressing to the mature stage. Ice crystals
and water droplets start to form precipitation, which is suspended in the cloud by the air currents.
At the mature stage the cloud, now a cumulonimbus, has reached its maximum vertical extent.
Precipitation reaches the ground. Along with the precipitation, downdraughts will occur below the
cloud base. Strong upward and downward motion is encountered in different of parts of the
cloud, often resulting in severe turbulence.
Fig 12.1: The three stages in the life cycle of a thunderstorm cell.
In a fully developed thunderstorm the downdraughts may cause severe, localised winds of a
short duration to blow downwards and sideways out of the cloud base. They are normally called
microbursts or, sometimes, when the area affected is greater, macrobursts.
A gust front may be formed by the downdraughts spreading out as they reach the ground. There
is strong horizontal and vertical wind shear in the vicinity of the gust front.
On average, the duration of an individual thunderstorm cell is one to two hours, after which
dissipation starts. The loss of moisture through precipitation causes the cloud to shrink and
eventually the remains may evaporate, often feeding the formation of another cell.
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Figure 12.2: Fully developed thunderstorm
12.3.2 Favourable Conditions

Thunderstorms are more likely to form when:
 an ascending current of air is triggered, for example by free convection from a warm
surface region or by forced convection due to a cold front or mountains;
 there is conditional instability throughout a deep layer of 10,000 feet or more;
 the air has a high degree of humidity (condensation and the subsequent release of latent
heat cause the rising air to cool at the SALR and thus the layer becomes unstable).
12.3.3 Different Types of Thunderstorms

Thunderstorms can occur in several different weather situations but they are usually grouped
into two categories, air mass thunderstorms or frontal thunderstorms.
Air mass thunderstorms are associated with strong heating of lower layers by a warm surface.
This can arise from surface heating by solar radiation or the passing of a relatively cold air mass
over a warmer sea or land surface. These thunderstorms are usually isolated although they can
occur serially with several developing one after another.
Frontal thunderstorms are much more common at cold fronts than at warm fronts. They are more
likely to occur if the front is fast moving, with a steep frontal slope and conditionally unstable air
in the warm air mass. Frontal thunderstorms may form long narrow lines, extending for hundreds
of kilometres, which are known as thunderstorm squall lines. Extensive cloud masses around
fronts can sometimes make it difficult to identify frontal thunderstorms visually.
12.4 ICING
12.4.1 How Icing Forms

In temperate latitudes nearly all deep clouds will have significant portions containing super-
cooled water droplets at temperatures well below the freezing point. Only if the temperature of
the cloud is below -40 °C will all the water droplets in it be frozen. The super-cooled cloud
droplets are small, but are present in very large numbers and will freeze on coming into contact
with a solid object. When an aircraft passes through such a cloud the water droplets freeze
almost instantly as they strike the body of the aircraft, which will also be below the freezing point.

The speed and type of ice accretion during flight depends on the size of the droplets. Two types
of icing can occur, rime ice and clear ice.
12.4.2 Rime Ice

Rime ice tends to occur at very low temperatures, less than –15 °C, when the super-cooled
droplets are very small, often in the upper parts of clouds. The droplets freeze so rapidly on
impact that they do not spread out. More and more droplets freeze on top of the first layers and
the icing builds up, mainly on leading edges. Air trapped between the droplets creates an
opaque appearance. At higher altitudes, above around 20,000 ft, temperatures are normally well
below –20 °C, and the super-cooled droplets present are few and very small and so there is
practically no risk of icing. In addition, the skin of an aircraft is warmed by friction drag and this
further reduces the risk of icing on jet aircraft flying at or close to cruising speeds.
12.4.3 Clear Ice

Clear ice forms when larger super-cooled droplets hit the aircraft. They tend to spread out before
freezing completely and some droplets merge into each other, producing a solid layer of clear
ice, also known as ‘glaze ice’. Temperatures in the range 0 °C to –15 °C are favourable for the
production of clear ice, and so it generally occurs at lower levels than rime ice.
It is also possible for icing to develop when rain falls through a layer where the temperature is
below freezing. In such a layer, normally the result of an inversion, the rapid formation of clear
ice is likely. This type of icing is also called ‘rain ice’.
Different forms of ice form under different conditions but they all cause serious problems and
aircraft should avoid flying for prolonged periods in icing conditions. The countermeasures
against icing on an aircraft are anti-icing prior to take-off, by spraying the aircraft with a liquid or
gel, and de-icing in flight, by mechanical or heating devices in the leading edges of propellers,
engine cowlings and airframe. Even in temperatures well above zero, turbine engine de-icing
needs to be engaged, since the dramatic drop in pressure as air is drawn into an engine
produces a corresponding fall in temperature.
Icing Occurring on the Ground
Hoar frost, formed from deposition, may build up on parked aircraft and, if not removed before
take-off, will seriously affect the aerodynamics of the aircraft.
Frost or freezing FG, DZ or RA will negatively affect braking action.
12.5 OTHER PHENOMENA

These are generally a combination of wind and particles, for example dust storms or
waterspouts.
Annex 3 describes the following different types of other phenomena:
12.5.1.1 Dust/Sand Whirls (PO)

Small, rapidly rotating columns of wind, made visible by the dust, dirt or debris they pick up.
They usually occur in arid or semi-arid areas and are most likely to develop on clear, dry, hot
afternoons in response to surface heating. Also called whirlwinds or “dust devils”.
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12.5.1.2 Squall (SQ)

A strong wind rising suddenly and lasting for at least one minute before dying away. The
intensity and duration is longer than that of a gust. Squalls are frequently associated with the
passage of cold fronts.
12.5.1.3 Funnel Cloud (FC)

A violent, rotating column of air visibly extending from the base of a towering cumulus or
cumulonimbus toward the ground, raising dust, sand or litter from the ground, or water from the
sea, in a rotating column. Also called tornado or waterspout.
12.5.1.4 Dust Storm (DS)

Particles of dust lifted to great heights over a large area by a strong and turbulent wind.
12.5.1.5 Sandstorm (SS)

Particles of sand lifted to great heights over a large area by a strong and turbulent wind.
Characteristics of Present Weather

The characteristics of the present weather phenomena which should be reported, should be
described as necessary by the following qualifiers:
12.5.1.6 Thunderstorm (TS)

Normally used in combination with the relevant type(s) of precipitation to report the presence of
thunder and/or lightning, for example, TSRA. If there is no precipitation at the airport, TS may be
reported on its own.
12.5.1.7 Shower (SH)

Used in combination with the precipitation type(s) to report presence in the form of showers.
12.5.1.8 Freezing (FZ)

Used to report presence of super-cooled water droplets or precipitation. Used only in
combination with FG, DZ and RA.
12.5.1.9 Blowing (BL)

Used in combination with DU, SA or SN to report their presence when raised by the wind to a
height of two metres or more above the ground.
12.5.1.10 Low Drifting (DR)

Used in combination with DU, SA or SN to report their presence when raised by the wind to a
height of less than two metres above the ground.
12.5.1.11 Shallow (MI)

Less than two metres above ground level.
12.5.1.12 Patches (BC)

Used in combination with FG when the aerodrome is randomly covered by patches of fog.

12.6 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH WEATHER PHENOMENA

Most of the hazards and the most extreme conditions are found in thunderstorms. ATC radar is
normally designed to suppress weather, but severe weather conditions like thunderstorms are
displayed. However ATC radar is inadequate in giving a complete picture of thunderstorm
activity and should be used as supplementary information only. Modern commercial aircraft are
equipped with weather radar. Therefore, the air traffic controller will often get information about
the exact location of weather and requests to avoid it from pilots. Weather radar, as available to
the Met Service, is the most reliable way of identifying and tracking thunderstorms.
The dangers to aviation due to clouds and precipitation may come from one or a combination of
environmental dangers.
Convective air currents and winds associated with clouds may produce turbulence, squalls,
wind shear, and microbursts. All produce very rapid changes in both horizontal and vertical wind
speed. Severe turbulence can make it impossible to maintain an altitude and can subject the
aircraft structure to extreme stress. Wind shear and microbursts make landing very hazardous
as they cause sudden and rapid changes in lift.
Precipitation is associated with a reduction in visibility and a lowering of the cloud base.
Visibility can be reduced to a few hundred metres in rain or drizzle and only a few metres in
heavy snow. Heavy rain or snow can temporarily reduce the air-intake and so cause faulty
readings on pressure based instruments. Large hailstones can cause structural damage to
aircraft, especially in the air but also on the ground. Accumulations of rain or slush on runways
can cause aquaplaning and, like frost, snow and ice, a reduction in braking action.
Lightning and static electricity in a thunderstorm can cause interference on radio and
navigation aids, particularly in the medium frequency band. Magnetic compasses can be
seriously affected if the aircraft is struck by lightning. Structural damage caused by lightning is
usually superficial, such as the piercing of small holes in the metal skin.
Icing on aircraft, caused by super-cooled water droplets or freezing rain, is a major hazard to
aviation and it can have a large number of different effects, such as;
 disturbed aerodynamic flow, increased drag and added weight, with the result that the
stall speed goes up. This can even bring an aircraft down and is a serious danger for
smaller aircraft;
 structural damage to turbine engines due to ice detaching from engine cowlings;
 flame-out may occur in turbine engines due to ingestion of ice and slush from engine
cowlings or airframe surfaces (on aircraft with engines mounted on the rear fuselage);
 free movement of control surfaces and retractable landing gear may be obstructed;
 blocked static and dynamic air pressure intakes may produce faulty readings (affecting
altimeter, air speed indicator, vertical speed indicator, mach meter, etc.) ;
 carburettor intake may become blocked;
 propellers may become sufficient unbalanced to produce vibrations;
 vision through windscreens may be obstructed;
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Figure 12.3: Disturbed aerodynamic flow over a wing due to icing
Volcanic ash is a serious hazard since flying into a cloud of volcanic ash, which is not
detectable by radar, can lead to the failure of all engines, blocked air pressure intakes and, due
to its abrasive action, obscured vision through the windscreen.
12.7 OBSERVING AND REPORTING OF WEATHER PHENOMENA

The present weather occurring at the aerodrome and its immediate vicinity should be observed
in terms of type and characteristics, and qualified with respect to intensity or, as appropriate, the
proximity to the aerodrome. This is done by the met observer and no specific instruments are
required. It should be reported in local routine/special reports and reports in the METAR/SPECI
code forms.
The present weather phenomena belonging to the three groups, precipitation, obscurations, and
other phenomena, together with the relevant qualifiers for characteristics, intensity and location,
should be reported. The abbreviations/codes are given earlier in this document.
The term ‘CAVOK’, ‘cloud and visibility OK’, will be used to replace information on visibility, cloud
and present weather in all met reports when the following occurs simultaneously:
 the absence of any of the present weather phenomena listed above;
 the visibility is 10 km or more;
 there is no cloud below 5,000 ft or below the highest minimum sector altitude, whichever
is greater;
 no Cb.
Information on present weather is included not only in local routine/special reports and
METAR/SPECI, but also in other reports and charts, for example, local and aerodrome
forecasts, area forecasts for low level flights, and on synoptic, low level and significant weather
charts.
Local routine and special reports should also include the available supplementary information
concerning significant meteorological conditions, particularly those in the approach and the
climb-out areas, together with information on any recent weather to be reported.
 Abbreviations are used for significant weather, for example ‘MOD TURB’, ‘SEV ICE’ or
‘MTW’ (mountain wave).
 Location is given as ‘IN APCH’, ‘IN CLIMB_OUT’ or ‘INC’ (in cloud).
 Recent weather is reported with ‘RE’ preceding the relevant present weather
abbreviation.
 A maximum of three groups may be included in the supplementary information to
describe recent weather phenomena.
Reports in the METAR/SPECI code forms should give information on recent weather of

operational significance observed at the airport within the period since the last issued routine
report or last hour, whichever is the shorter, together with information on wind shear. Other
supplementary information should be given only in accordance with regional air navigation
agreement.
Additionally, a local meteorological message, ‘Wind shear warning’, may be issued to provide
information of the observed or expected existence of wind shear which could affect aircraft
during take-off or landing and in the approach, take-off or circling phase up to a height of 500 m
(1.600 ft).
‘Aerodrome warning’ messages shall be issued in accordance with local arrangements and shall
give information of meteorological conditions which could adversely affect aircraft on the ground.
AIRMET and SIGMET reports, area and route forecasts and significant weather charts shall
provide information about significant en-route phenomena. If the expected duration of a reported
phenomenon does not warrant the issuance of a SIGMET, a special air-report from an aircraft
may be disseminated by the meteorological watch office in the form of an ARS message (air-
report special).
In addition to being reported in a SIGMET, information about volcanic ash is reported in a special
ASHTAM message.
12.8 METAR/SPECI CODE FOR PRESENT AND RECENT WEATHER

The METAR/SPECI code for a present weather phenomena is a group composed of the
abbreviation for the type of weather, as listed above, preceded as required by one or more of the
qualifiers for intensity, vicinity and characteristics. For example: RA, +RA, -SHRA, TSRA, FG,
VCFG, or MIFG.
A combination of different types of precipitation should be reported as a single group with the
predominant type reported first, and be preceded by only one intensity qualifier referring to the
intensity of the total precipitation. For example: -RASN, +SNRA, and SHRASN all indicate the
presence of what is commonly known as sleet, describing the intensity (no sign indicating
moderate), if it is continuous or in the form of showers, and the predominance of rain or snow.
Where more than one phenomenon, other than a precipitation combination, is observed the
different phenomena should be reported in groups, and the groups should be separated by
spaces. The order of reporting is precipitation, followed by obscuration, followed by other
phenomena. For example FZDZ FG, -RA BR, TSGR SQ, or +TSRA BR.
Recent weather is reported with ‘RE’ preceding the relevant present weather code, for example
‘REFZDZ’, ‘RERA’ or ‘RETS’.
Wind shear information is included as supplementary information and written in abbreviated plain
language, for example: ‘WS IN APCH RWY 28’.
Examples:
Heavy rain +RA
Showers of (moderate) rain and snow SHRASN

Shallow fog MIFG
Freezing drizzle, fog FZDZ FG
Heavy thunderstorm with rain, mist +TSRA BR
Fog observed within 8 km of the aerodrome (but not actually at the VCFG
aerodrome)
Rain, which ceased since last observation RERA
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MET Meteorological Information for Aviation
Meteorological
Information for Aviation
25.08.2010 Page 161 of 196

Meteorological Information for Aviation ATCO Basic Training
SECTION 13
METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION FOR AVIATION
Table of contents

COMMON METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS .......................................................... 165
LOCAL REPORT, METAR AND SPECI ............................................................................. 166
LANDING FORECAST OR TREND-TYPE FORECAST..................................................... 166
AERODROME FORECAST, TAF AND TAF AMD.............................................................. 166
AREA AND ROUTE FORECASTS ..................................................................................... 166
SIGMET, AIRMET AND SPECIAL AIR-REPORT............................................................... 167
AERODROME WARNING................................................................................................... 167
WIND SHEAR WARNING ................................................................................................... 167
UNITS USED IN METEOROLOGY......................................................................... 167
ABBREVIATED PLAIN LANGUAGE ..................................................................... 168
DECODING METAR AND SPECI........................................................................... 169
DECODING OF TAF AND TAF AMD ..................................................................... 178
READING SIGMETS............................................................................................... 182

13. METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION FOR

AVIATION
CCC Topic: 5. METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION FOR AVIATION
CCC Sub-topic: 5.1 Messages and Reports

1. Apply the units of measurement appropriate to 3 METB 1.1.1
meteorology
2. Decode the content of weather reports and forecasts 3 METB 5.1.1
L CCC Level
Code CCC reference
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The meteorological service for air navigation produces a very large number of observations,
reports, forecasts, charts and other forms of data in a number of different codes and formats.
Pilots use many of those in their flight planning while only some messages, reports and charts
are used in real time as part of the service provided to pilots by the ATS.
A VFR pilot might call a simple answering machine for a low level forecast while commercial
pilots usually collect the meteorological flight document through self-briefing facilities
Prior to departure a pilot of a low-level flight to be flown VFR should brief him/herself on the met
reports and forecasts for departure and destination aerodromes, low-level forecast and AIRMET
information, as required depending on the type of flight.
Prior to departure a pilot of a commercial flight is required to brief him/herself on expected
meteorological and other conditions along the route. The meteorological flight document to be
provided at the aerodrome of departure is described in Annex 3 and further detailed in ICAO Doc
7754 ANP EUR (MET), which also specifies the type and frequency of reports required within the
EUR region. The document should include:
• existing and expected significant weather for the whole route to be flown;
• current and forecast upper winds and upper-air temperatures;
• aerodrome forecasts for departure, destination and alternate aerodromes;
• METARs and, where applicable SPECIs with TREND and runway state group for departure,
destination and alternate aerodromes; and
• any advisories and forecasts for tropical cyclones or volcanic ash.
The responsibility of the ATS, or more specifically the Flight Information Service (FIS), is to
provide the actual information including updates and supplementary information to complement
the information that the pilot collected before departure. Annex 11 describes the meteorological
information to be provided by ATS. It includes:
• weather conditions reported (METAR/SPECI and/or local routine/special report) and forecast
(TREND , TAF and/or TAF AMD) at departure, destination and alternate aerodromes;
• information on the state of the aerodrome movement areas when they are affected by snow,
ice or significant depths of water (runway state group);
• SIGMET and AIRMET information; and
 information concerning pre-eruption volcanic activity, volcanic eruptions and volcanic ash
clouds.
13.2 COMMON METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS

During the pre-flight briefing a pilot will receive all the relevant meteorological data that is
available at the time. The responsibility of the ATS is mainly to transmit updates to this.
For example, local reports and METAR/SPECI (for aerodromes not served by VOLMET and
ATIS), as well as any TAF AMD, AIRMET or SIGMET issued after the time of the pilot’s met
briefing, will have to be provided by the ATS. From this it becomes obvious that an air traffic
controller must be able to read, decode when necessary, and understand the most common
meteorological reports.
Note: Although some examples are provided in the text, it is recommended that, to illustrate this
25.08.2010 Page 165 of 196

chapter and give more decoding practise, samples of different reports are obtained from
the Internet or other sources.
Local Report, METAR and SPECI
A Local Routine Report is a report of a routine observation carried out at an aerodrome. Such
observations shall be made at regular intervals throughout the 24 hours of each day. In Europe
the interval is normally half an hour. Local routine reports are for dissemination at the aerodrome
of origin only, and shall be issued in abbreviated plain language. A local routine report shall be
issued in the METAR/SPECI code form for dissemination beyond the aerodrome of origin, and in
this form it is known as a METAR.
A Local Special Report is a report issued due to changes in one or more meteorological
elements between two routine observations. It shall be transmitted to the local ATS unit as soon
as the specified conditions occur. A list of criteria for special observations shall be established
for each aerodrome. Local special reports are for dissemination at the aerodrome of origin only,
and shall be issued in abbreviated plain language. For dissemination beyond the aerodrome of
origin a local special report shall be issued in the METAR/SPECI code form, and in this form it is
known as a SPECI. Aerodromes that disseminate half-hourly METARs are not required to issue
SPECIs. Information regarding this is available in ANP EUR or in each state’s AIP.
Local routine or special reports shall be used by the ATS at their airport of origin for arriving and
departing aircraft. METARs and SPECIs are mainly intended for flight planning purposes and
VOLMET broadcasts.
Landing Forecast or Trend-type Forecast
A Landing Forecast is a concise statement of the expected trend of the meteorological
conditions at an aerodrome, intended to meet the requirements of local users and of aircraft
within about one hour's flying distance from the aerodrome. It shall indicate significant changes
in surface wind, visibility, weather and/or cloud.
The landing forecast shall be prepared in the form of a Trend-type Forecast and shall be added
to the local routine/special report and to the METAR/SPECI for designated aerodromes as listed
in Doc 7754 ANP EUR (MET). The TREND group of a METAR or a SPECI shall be in the
METAR/SPECI code form. The period of validity shall be 2 hours from the time of the report of
which the landing forecast forms a part.
Aerodrome Forecast, TAF and TAF AMD
An Aerodrome Forecast shall be issued by the meteorological office at a specified time and
consist of a concise statement of the expected meteorological conditions at an aerodrome for a
specified period of not less than 9 hours and not more than 24 hours. The forecast shall include
surface wind, visibility, weather and cloud and expected significant changes to one or more of
these elements during the period. An Amended Aerodrome Forecast shall be issued if the
expected conditions change significantly. Aerodrome forecasts and amendments thereto, shall
be issued in accordance with a specific template and disseminated in the TAF code form. An
aerodrome forecast in code form is known as a TAF, and an amended aerodrome forecast in
code form is known as a TAF AMD.
Doc 7754 ANP EUR (MET) lists the aerodromes in Europe required to issue TAF/TAF AMD, and
states that validity periods should be 9 and/or 18 hours, where a 9 hr TAF should be issued
every three hours and an 18 hr TAF should be issued every 6 hours. The 18 hr TAF should be
an ‘18/24’, which is a TAF for a 24-hour period shortened by the omission of information relating
to the first 6 hours.
Area and Route Forecasts
Area and route forecasts shall contain upper winds, upper-air temperatures, significant en-route
weather phenomena and associated clouds. They are issued in abbreviated plain language and
area forecasts are often also issued in chart form.

An Area Forecast for low-level flights shall contain information about all weather significant to
low level traffic, for example areas of surface visibility below 5.000 m, areas with ceiling below
1.000 ft above ground level, pressure centres and fronts, forecast lowest QNH, etc.
Area and route forecasts are used mainly for flight planning purposes and only some are
distributed to ATS. For example, tabular forecasts of upper winds are relevant to an ACC/UAC,
whereas area forecasts for low-level flights in chart form are useful to an ATS unit providing flight
information service to VFR flights.
SIGMET, AIRMET and Special Air-report
A Meteorological Watch Office will issue a SIGMET message, giving information and a concise
description in abbreviated plain language concerning the occurrence and/or expected
occurrence of specified en-route weather phenomena which may affect the safety of aircraft
operations and of the development of those phenomena in time and space.
An AIRMET is a similar type of message for the lower airspace, up to FL100 (FL150 in
mountainous areas, or higher where necessary). Many European countries do not issue
AIRMETs, in which case SIGMETs and/or area forecasts for low-level flights will provide the
required information for these levels.
AIRMET/SIGMET is not issued at any specific time, but should be issued whenever required by
the weather situation. Doc 7754 ANP EUR (MET) states that ATS units should be advised, as
soon as possible, on SIGMET referring to their related FIR/UIR and on other SIGMET which
might affect aircraft in flight on the route ahead over a distance of up to 500 NM.
A SIGMET or an AIRMET may be based on a special air-report received from a pilot. However, if
the met forecaster considers that the phenomenon causing the report is not expected to persist,
a SIGMET or an AIRMET will not be issued and a Special Air-report shall be disseminated
instead.
A SIGMET or an AIRMET, which has not yet reached the end of its validity period, shall be
cancelled if the phenomena no longer occur or are no longer expected to occur in the area.
Aerodrome warning
An Aerodrome Warning is only for local distribution at the aerodrome and shall give concise
information, in plain language, of meteorological conditions which could adversely affect aircraft
on the ground, including parked aircraft, and the aerodrome facilities and services. Aerodrome
warnings are not issued by all European states.
Wind shear warning
Wind shear warnings shall give concise information of the observed or expected existence of
wind shear which could adversely affect aircraft during take-off or landing phases, on the runway
or up to 500 m (1,600 ft) above the runway.
Information on wind shear is to be included as supplementary information in local routine/special
reports and in METARs/SPECIs. In Europe wind shear warnings are normally issued in this
format only.
13.3 UNITS USED IN METEOROLOGY

The following table lists the common weather elements, gives examples of the instruments used
to measure these elements, and the units normally used in weather reports and forecasts
distributed to the Air Traffic Services. In most cases SI units are used.
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W eather Element Instruments Units

Air density Not m easured directly. Kilogram s per cubic
(Note: not Calculated from 3
m etre (kg/m )
reported) tem perature and
pressure
Cloud amount Estim ated by hum an Eighths of the sky
observer. covered (oktas)
Cloud base height Ceilom eter or estim ated Feet (ft) (non-SI unit)
by hum an observer.
Dew -point Not m easured directly. Degrees Celsius (C)
Calculated from (non SI)
tem perature and wet
bulb tem perature
Precipitation Rain gauge Millim etres of water
(Note: reported as type and intensity) equivalent (m m )
Pressure Barom eter or HectoPascal (hPa)
Barograph Millibar (m b) or inHg
is still used in som e
countries
Relative humidity Hygrom eter. Chem ical Percentage (%)
humidity sensors. Note: RH is not given in
(Can also be calculated aviation reports, instead
from tem perature dew point is used.
and dew-point)
Temperature Therm om eter (usually Degrees Celsius (C)
m ercury in glass (non SI)
or electrical)
Visibility Forward scatter m eter Kilom etres (km) or
or estim ated by m etres (m ), if less
observer than 5 km
W ind direction W ind sensor, wind vane o
Degrees( ) from true
or wind sock north
W ind speed W ind sensor or Knots (kt) nautical m iles
anem om eter per hour (non-SI).
Metres per second(mps)
or kilom etres per hour
(km h) m ay be used. Unit
is indicated in reports
Table 9.1: Instruments and units used for meteorological parameters
13.4 ABBREVIATED PLAIN LANGUAGE

Abbreviated plain language is used in local reports, area forecasts, SIGMET and to a certain
extent in TAF and in the TREND group of a METAR or SPECI. Abbreviated plain language in
met reports uses short forms of words, for example: HVY for 'heavy', BECMG for 'becoming' or
FM for ‘from’. Two letter abbreviations for types of weather and precipitation, like RA for 'Rain' or
GR for ‘Hail’, are METAR/SPECI codes and not actual abbreviations.
Additional examples of abbreviated plain language are given under the heading “Reading
SIGMETs”.

13.5 DECODING METAR AND SPECI

The Structure and syntax of the METAR/SPECI code form
METAR and SPECI contain information structured and coded in specific groups. The template
for METAR/SPECI is found in Appendix 2 to Annex 3 and the METAR/SPECI code form is
contained in WMO publication No. 306, 'Manual on Codes'.
The sequence of the groups is shown in the following table, where the groups have been
numbered for ease of reference. Letters after the numbers indicate if a particular group is:
(M) = mandatory and part of every message;
(C) = conditional and depend on meteorological conditions or method of observation. (Note :
Under certain specific conditions the term, ‘CAVOK’, will replace the three groups for Visibility,
Present Weather and Clouds.); or,
(O) = optional or subject to regional air navigation agreement.
1 (M) 2 (M) 3 (M) 4 (M) 5 (M)

Report ICAO Loca tion TIME of WIND VISIBILITY
TYPE Indicator observation
6 (C) 7 (C) 8 (M) 9 (M) 10 (M)

RVR PRESENT CLOUDS TEMPERATURE QNH
(Runway Visual Range) WEATHER & DEW POINT
11 (C) 12 (C) 13 (C) 14 (O)

RECENT WEATHER WIND SHEAR RUNWAY STATE TREND
Note: Examples in this section show how the decoded information should be read by ATS over
radiotelephony or other voice communication. Commas preceding and/or following digits
indicate when numbers should be read individually.
Group No 1: Identification of the type of report

This will indicate ‘METAR’ or ‘SPECI’.
‘METAR’ may be omitted in messages containing lists of METAR.
Group No 2: Location Identifier
The ICAO four letter location indicator of the aerodrome to which the observation refers.
Group No 3: Time
Time of observation in hours and minutes UTC followed by the letter Z.
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Example for Type, Location and Time:

METAR Code Reported/transmitted as :
METAR ELLX 1030Z MET report Luxembourg 1,0,3,0 Zulu
Group No 4: Wind
Wind direction is given in degrees true rounded to the nearest 10 degrees (three digits), followed
by the mean wind speed over the ten minute period immediately preceding the observation (two
digits, exceptionally three in case of extremely high wind speeds). These are followed, without a
space, by the abbreviation for the unit. Normally KT (knots) is used, but other units are possible
if so decided by local authorities and shall then be indicated instead; e.g. KMH or MPS.
If wind speed is varying by 10 knots or more from the mean speed, then the mean and the
maximum speed shall be reported as: mean speed followed by a G, for Gusting, followed by the
maximum gust speed in knots followed by unit (KT).
When the wind speed is less than 1 kt, this will be indicated by 00000 followed by the unit. The
corresponding term in plain language is ’CALM’.
If, during the 10-minute period preceding the time of the observation, the total variation in wind
direction is 60° or more but less than 180°, and mean speed is above 3 kt, the observed two
extreme directions between which the wind has varied will be given in clockwise order,
separated by ‘V’.
Directions for a variable wind are not given when the wind is variable in direction over 180° or
more, or when the mean speed is 3 kt or less. In such cases wind direction will be reported by
the term, ‘VRB’.
Examples:
METAR code Reported/transmitted as :
31015KT Wind 3,1,0 degrees , 1,5 knots
31015G27KT Wind 3,1,0 degrees , 1,5 knots , gusting 2,7 knots
00000KT Wind Calm
31015G35KT 280V350 Wind 3,1,0 degrees 1,5 knots , Gusting 35 knots , 2,8,0
degrees Variable 3,5,0 degrees
VRB05KT Wind variable 0,5 knots
Group No 5: Visibility
The standard group for visibility is four digits without any unit, representing the visibility value.
The unit used for reporting and transmitting visibility is the metre. If any other unit is used, this
should be specified by the authorities and transmitted clearly.
Visibility values are rounded down to and reported in the following increments:
If less than 800 m, 50 m
If 800 m or more but less than 5 km, 100 m
If 5 km or more but less than 10 km, 1 km

A visibility of 10 km or more is coded as 9999 and reported as 10 kilometres.

A visibility below 50 m is coded as 0000 and reported as below 50 metres.
If visibility is 5 kilometres or more, it is read in kilometres including the word kilometres. Values
below this are reported in metres either as thousands, or thousands and hundreds, or each digit
separately as shown in the table below.
Directional variations in visibility, with directions given in 8 points of compass, such as E, SE, S,
etc, should be reported when:
• the lowest visibility is less than 5000 m and visibility in other direction(s) are at least 50%
higher, or
• the lowest visibility is less than 1500 m and the visibility in another direction is more than
5000 m, in which case both directions should be given.
Examples:
9999 Visibility 10 kilometres
5000 Visibility 5 kilometres
4000 Visibility 4 thousand metres
2500 Visibility 2 thousand 5 hundred metres
0450 Visibility 4 , 5 , 0 metres
0050 Visibility 5 , 0 metres
0000 Visibility Below 5 , 0 metres
3000N Visibility 3 thousand metres to the North
1200S6000NE Visibility 1, 2,0,0 metres to the South , 6 kilometres to the
North East
Group No 6: RVR
The group for RVR always includes the prefix ‘R’ followed by a two-digit runway designator and
a forward slash ‘/’ followed by a four-digit RVR value in metres.
In the case of parallel runways, ‘L’, ‘C’ or ‘R’ indicating the left, central or right parallel
respectively, will be appended to the runway designator. If the RVR is assessed/measured on
two or more runways, a separate RVR group will be given for each runway.
When RVR is assessed to be less than 50 m or more than 1,500 m, or if the RVR is observed to
be below or above the range which can be determined by the system in use, the value will be
prefixed by either the letter ‘M’ and reported as BELOW, or by the letter ‘P’ and reported as
ABOVE.
If there have been fluctuations during the 10 minute observation period, fluctuations and
tendency will be reported by a letter following the RVR value: ‘U’ for upward tendency, ‘D’ for
downward tendency and ‘N’ for no distinct tendency.
If one-minute RVR values during the 10-minute period vary by more than 50 metres or 20 %,
whichever is greater, from the mean value, the METAR/SPECI will include a minimum and a
maximum RVR value separated by the letter ‘V’.
Note: Some states report RVR values down to 25 metres or up to 2000 metres.
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Examples:
R33L/1300 R,V,R (or Runway Visual Range) Runway 3,3 Left 1,3,0,0 metres
R24L/1100 R24R/1200 R,V,R Runway 2,4 Left 1,1,0,0 metres,
R,V,R Runway 2,4 Right 1,2,0,0 metres
R27R/P1500 R,V,R Runway 2,7 Right Above 1,5,0,0 metres
R33R/M050 R,V,R Runway 3,3 Right Below 050 metres
R24/0800D R,V,R Runway 2,4 , 8,0,0 metres , downward tendency
R24/0800N R,V,R Runway 2,4 , 8,0,0 metres , fluctuating
R36/500V650 R,V,R Runway 3,6 Minimum 5,0,0 metres Maximum 6,5,0 metres
Group No 7: Present Weather

Present Weather is reported in terms and sequence of: Intensity or Proximity + Characteristics +
Type, using abbreviations defined in Annex 3. Types of weather phenomena include
Precipitation, Obscurations and Other Phenomena.
Where more than one phenomenon, other than a precipitation combination, are observed, the
different phenomena should be reported in separate groups, separated by a space. The order of
reporting is precipitation, followed by obscuration, followed by other phenomena.
METAR Code f or Reported/
Intensity/Proximity transmitted as : Remark:
– Light the absence of an indicator (neither – nor +)
indicates moderate intensity, but
+ Heavy ‘moderate’ is not transmitted.
VC In the vicinity not at the aerodrome, but not further away
than 8 Km

METAR Code f or Reported/

Characteristics transmitted as : Remark:
TS Thunderstorm
SH Showers
FZ Freezing used only with FG,RA,DZ
BL Blowing used only with DU,SA,SN, indicates raised by
the wind
DR Drifting used only with DU,SA,SN, indicates raised
not above 2m above ground
MI Shallow used with FG, indicates less than 2m above
ground
PR Partial used with FG
BC Patches used with FG
METAR Co de fo r Reported/
Present Weather transmitted as : Remark:
Precipitation
DZ Drizzle
RA Rain
SN Snow
SG Snow Grains
PL Ice Pellets
IC Ice crystals also known as Diamond Dust
GR Hail
GS Small Hail and/or Snow Pellets
Obscurations
FG Fog visibility less than 1000 m, except when
qualified by MI, BC, PR or VC
BR Mist visibility at least 1000m but not more than
5000 m
SA Sand visibility 5000 m or less, except if ‘DRSA’
DU Dust (widespread) visibility 5000 m or less
HZ Haze visibility 5000 m or less
FU Smoke visibility 5000 m or less
VA Volcanic Ash
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Other phenomena
PO Dust/Sand whirls also called ‘Dust devils’
SQ Squall
FC Funnel Cloud Tornado or Waterspout
DS Dust storm
SS Sand storm
Examples:
+RA Heavy rain
SHRASN Showers of (moderate) rain and snow
MIFG Shallow fog
FZDZ FG Freezing drizzle, fog
+TSRA BR Heavy thunderstorm with rain, mist
VCSH Showers in vicinity
(Note: type and intensity of SH should not be reported in this case)
Group No 8: Cloud
The group for a cloud layer is three letters followed directly by three digits, where the letters
indicate amount of cloud and the digits indicate height of cloud base, in hundreds of feet, above
aerodrome elevation.
When the cloud base is diffused or ragged or fluctuating rapidly, the minimum height of the
cloud, or cloud fragments, should be given, followed by the relevant abbreviation. When the sky
is obscured (for example due to fog) and information on Vertical Visibility is available it should be
reported in hundreds of feet, preceded by the letters ‘VV’. If information is not available VV is
reported as VV///:
Type of cloud is not identified in METAR except for the significant convective clouds, Cb and
TCu, in which case their codes are added after the six characters group. If Cb and TCu appear
together, with a common base, the type of cloud will be given as Cb only.
The amount of cloud is described as follows;
FEW for amounts of 1 to 2 oktas;
SCT, meaning scattered, for amounts of 3 to 4 oktas;
BKN, meaning broken, for amounts of 5 to 7 oktas; and
OVC, meaning overcast, for amounts of 8 oktas.
Layers of cloud are reported as follows, (the ‘1-3-5 rule’), in ascending order of height:
First Group : Lowest individual layer of any amount (1 okta or more)
Second Group : Next higher layer, if coverage is 3 oktas or more
Third Group : Next higher layer, if coverage is 5 oktas or more
Additional Group : Significant convective cloud, if not already reported.

When no cloud is to be reported this may be coded as SKC, CAVOK or NSC, as appropriate,
where;
SKC, meaning ‘Sky Clear’, will be used for a cloudless sky;
CAVOK is a collective term that replaces Visibility, Cloud and Present Weather when the
following conditions occur simultaneously at the time of observation:
• Visibility, 10 Km or more;
• No clouds below 5000 ft or below the highest Minimum Sector Altitude, whichever is greater,
and no cumulonimbus type (even above 5000 ft); and
• No Present Weather or Precipitation to be reported in a METAR
NSC, meaning ‘Nil Significant Cloud’, may be used if the cloud requirement is met, but not all
other requirements for CAVOK are met.
Examples:
METAR Code Reported/Transmitted as:
SKC Sky clear
CAVOK CAV-O-KAY (The name has derived from the phrase Cloud and
Visibility OK)
FEW012 Few ,1 thousand 2 hundred feet
SCT035TCU Scattered , 3 thousand 5 hundred feet , Towering Cumulus
BKN030 Broken , 3 thousand feet
OVC050 Overcast , 5 thousand feet
VV003 Vertical Visibility 3 hundred feet
VV/// Vertical Visibility not available
Group No 9: Temperature / Dew point

Two groups of two digits separated by a slash represent the values in degrees Celsius for
temperature and dew point in this order. An ‘M’ will precede negative values. A value for which
no observation is available will be replaced by two slashes.
Examples:
20/15 Temperature 2, 0 , dew point 1, 5
05/00 Temperature 0, 5 , dew point 0
M00/M01 Temperature minus 0 , dew point Minus 0, 1
(Note: M00 indicates an observed temperature between –0.1 and –
0.5 C)
10/// Temperature 1, 0, dew point not available
Group No 10: QNH

QNH is reported as a four digit group preceded by the letter ‘Q’, representing value in whole
hPa. Unit should be transmitted, but is not indicated. For values below 1000 hPa, the first digit
will be 0, although it is not transmitted.
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Examples:
Q0995 Q,N,H 9,9,5 hectopascal
Q1005 Q,N,H 1,0,0,5 hectopascal
Note: For ‘inches of Hg’ (normally not used in Europe) the letter preceding the group will be ‘A’
followed by four digits indicating the pressure value in hundredths of inches.
Group No 11: Recent Weather

A group for Recent Weather is recognised by the code ‘RE’ preceding the code(s) of any
significant weather observed since the previous observation, but not at present observation. Up
to three groups of recent weather may be given.
Examples:
RETS Recent thunderstorm
RERA Recent rain
Group No 12: Wind Shear

The group for Wind Shear Warnings is in the form of the letters ‘WS’, followed by abbreviated
language, for example: TKOF for Take-Off and APCH for Approach, and will normally include the
relevant runway designator.
Examples:
WS TKOF RWY20 Wind shear Take-Off Runway 2,0
WS APCH RWY27L Wind shear approach Runway 2,7 Left
WS WRNG MBST APCH Wind shear warning, microburst on approach Runway 2,6
RWY 26
Group No 13: Runway State Group

The runway state group contains information about precipitation deposit and braking action on
the runway(s) and is common for certain aerodromes during the winter period.
The information given and the sequence is:
• runway designator;
• type of deposit;
• a value of 0-10, 11-25, 26-50 or 51-100 followed by ‘PCT’ (indicating percentage of runway
covered);
• a value and unit (for thickness of deposit); and
• ‘BA’ (for Braking Action) followed by value of BA
(either as the two digits following the decimal in the value of the measured friction coefficient,
or in the corresponding words, where 25 or less = POOR, 26 to 29 = MEDIUM/POOR,
30 to 35 = MEDIUM, 36 to 39 = MEDIUM/GOOD and 40 or greater = GOOD).

Examples:
METAR Code Reported/Transmitted as
RWY 02 ICE 51-100 PCT Runway 0, 2, ice covering more than half the runway, thickness 2
2 MM BA MEDIUM/GOOD millimetres, braking action medium to good
RWY 34 ICE 0-10 PCT Runway 3, 4, ice covering up to ten percent of the runway, thickness
LESS THAN 1 MM BA80 less than 1 millimetre, braking action 8, 0,
RWY 24 RIME or FROST Runway 2, 4, rime or frost covering more than half the runway,
51-100 PCT 1 MM BA36 thickness 1 millimetre, braking action 3, 6,
Group No 14: Trend

The TREND forecast group is recognised by beginning with one of the change indicators
‘BECMG’ or ‘TEMPO’ and will indicate significant changes beyond specified criteria in respect of
one or more of the elements surface wind, visibility, weather and cloud. The order of the
elements and the codes used shall be the same as in the main METAR/SPECI form, but only
those elements for which a change is forecast will be included.
The group may contain FM (for from), TL (for until) or AT, followed by a time group as required to
indicate period, followed in turn by the relevant elements in METAR/SPECI code. To indicate the
end of significant weather the abbreviation ‘NSW’ (no significant weather) may replace the
weather elements in a group. When subsequent changes are forecast several groups starting
with BECMG or TEMPO will be given.
When no change is expected the trend group will be given as ‘NOSIG’, for No Significant
Change.
Examples:
METAR Code Reported/Transmitted as
TEMPO TSRA Temporary Thunderstorm Rain
BECMG FM 1130 1200 Becoming from 1,1,3,0 Visibility 1,2,0,0 metres
BECMG AT 1430 31030KT Becoming at 1,4,3,0 wind 3,1,0 ,1,5 Knots variable between 2,9,0
290V010 and 0,1,0 degrees
TEMPO OVC045 BECMG Temporary Overcast 4 thousand 5 hundred feet Becoming from
FM 2100 BKN040 2,1,0,0 broken 4 thousand feet
NOSIG NoSig
25.08.2010 Page 177 of 196

METAR and SPECI examples:

METAR / SPECI Transmitted as
METAR EKCH 1130Z “METAR Copenhagen at 1,1,3,0,
05025KT 1000 SN Wind 0,5,0 degrees at 2,5 Knots, Visibility 1 thousand metres, Snow,
SCT025 OVC040 Clouds: Scattered 2 thousand, 5 hundred feet Overcast 4 thousand
M05/M09 Q0985 NOSIG feet, Temperature minus 5, Dew point minus 9, QNH 9,8,5 NoSig”
METAR LEMD 1430Z “METAR Madrid 1,4,3,0,
00000KT CAVOK 25/05 Wind Calm, Cav-o-Kay, Temperature 2,5 Dew point 0,5, QNH
Q1020 BECMG FM1500 1,0,2,0
8000 Becoming from 1,5,0,0 Visibility 8 kilometres”
SPECI HECA 1610Z “SPECI Cairo at 1,6,1,0,
27025G45KT 0600 Wind 2,7,0 degrees 2,5 knots, gusting 4,5 knots, Visibility 6,0,0
+BLSD SKC 40/05 Q1035 metres, heavy blowing sand, sky clear, Temperature 4,0, Dew point
RESS NOSIG 0,5, Q, N, H 1,0,3,5,
recent sand storm, NoSig”
METAR EGBB 1230Z METAR Birmingham 1,2,3,0, Wind 2,6,0 degrees 3,5 Knots, Visibility
26035KT 1200 1,2,0,0 metres, RVR runway 2,6, right 1,1,0,0 metres, upward
R26R/1100/U +RA tendency, Heavy rain, Overcast 5 hundred feet, Temperature 1, Dew
OVC005 01/M04 Q0998 point minus 4, QNH 9,9,8 Recent Thunderstorm, Becoming at
RETS BECMG AT 1400 1,4,0,0, (Cloud) scattered 3 thousand feet
SCT030
EFHK 071650Z 26005KT METAR Helsinki 1,6,5,0, Wind 2,6,0 degrees 0,5 Knots, Visibility 9
9000 -SG BKN008 kilometres, light snow grains, broken 8 hundred feet, Temperature
M09/M10 Q1007 RWY minus 0,9, Dew point minus 1, 0, QNH 1,0,0,7, Runway 04 right dry
04R DRY SNOW 51-100 snow covering more than half the runway, thickness 1 millimetre,
PCT 1 MM BA32 RWY 15 braking action 3, 2,
DRY SNOW 51-100 PCT Runway 15 right dry snow covering more than half the runway,
5 MM BA36 NOSIG= thickness 5 millimetres, braking action 3, 6, NoSig
Notes: METAR is not always stated in the messages.
The ‘=’ is an end of message sign.
13.6 DECODING OF TAF AND TAF AMD

TAF is an Aerodrome Forecast issued in coded form. TAF AMD is an Amended Aerodrome
Forecast in coded form. The template for an Aerodrome Forecast is found in Appendix 4 to
Annex 3 and the TAF code form is contained in WMO publication No. 306, 'Manual on Codes'.
TAF and TAF AMD have their own common specific format and structure, with the basic
structure repeated if there are changes forecast during the period of validity. The meteorological
elements are given in METAR/SPECI code.

Basic structure of the TAF

The table below illustrates the structure of a simple TAF or the primary part of a TAF containing
several parts or variants.
Groups are numbered for ease of reference and letters after the numbers indicate if a particular
group is
(M) = mandatory and part of every message;
(C) = conditional and depend on meteorological conditions or method of observation; or,
(O) = optional or subject to regional air navigation agreement.
Example 1:
Group 1 (M) 2 (M) 3 (M) 4 (M)
Content TYPE of ICAO Location Date/Time of Validity Period
report Indicator origin
Example TAF ELLX 152320Z 160624
5 (M) 6 (M) 7 (C) 8 (M)
Wind Visibility Weather Cloud
13010KT 9000 -SHRA BKN020 OVC030
The groups specific to TAF are:
Group No 3: Date/Time of origin
Day of the month and time of issue in six digits followed by ‘Z’. (Normally around one hour prior
to the beginning of the validity period of a 9 hour TAF and around 8 hours prior to the to the
beginning of the validity period of an 18 hour TAF.)
Group No 4: Validity Period
Six digits, the first two indicating the date, next two indicating the hour for the start of the period
followed by another two indicating the hour for the end of the period (may be next day).
Groups No 5 to 8:
The forecast value for each weather element. The group for Weather is conditional on any
weather being forecast.
Additional self-contained parts
The use of a change group, ‘FMHHMM’, will divide the TAF into two or more self-contained
parts. FM stands for ‘from’, and HHMM is a time in hour and minutes within the validity period of
the message as a whole from when the forecast conditions are expected to change. The parts
will together form the message. All elements are conditional and, if given in the first part (before
‘FM’), they must be included in the part following the ‘FM’ indicator. Thus, to the TAF in Example
1 the following example of a self-contained part 2 may be added:
25.08.2010 Page 179 of 196

Example 2:
Content Change Wind Visibility Weather Cloud
indicator and
time
Example FM1830 30005KT CAVOK
Variants
Change groups formed by the change and probability indicators BECMG, TEMPO, PROB30 or
PROB40 followed by a four digit time group are used to add variants to be included in (any of the
self-contained parts of) a TAF.
The time group represents the period when a change is going to take place, with the first 2 digits
representing the beginning and the second 2 digits the end of the period for which the variant is
valid. Both times must fall within the validity period of the TAF.
BECMG, for becoming, is used to indicate a gradual change forecast for the time frame given for
the variant.
TEMPO, for temporary, indicates temporary fluctuations forecast for the time frame given for the
variant.
PROB, for probability, followed by 2 digits, representing a percentage value, are used to indicate
the likelihood of an alternative change to one or more meteorological elements. It can be used
together with TEMPO for temporary fluctuations. 30 and 40 are the only percentage values used,
as less than 30% is considered improbable, and not mentioned, and more than 40% is
considered more than a probability, and is indicated by the use of BECMG, TEMPO or FM as
appropriate.
Only the elements for which a change is forecast are given. A possible variant to Example 1 is
given below:
Example 3:
Content Change indicator Wind Visibility Weather Cloud
and time
Example PROB40 TEMPO 1214 27020 3000 TSRA OVC020
G35KT SCT035CB
The full TAF, made up from the examples above, would read as follows:
TAF ELLX 152320Z 160624 13010KT 9000 -SHRA BKN020 OVC030 PROB40 TEMPO 1214
27020G35KT 3000 TSRA OVC020 SCT035CB FM1830 30005KT CAVOK
Other groups and abbreviations

After a change group, if any significant weather is no longer forecast, the abbreviation NSW will
be used to signify No Significant Weather.
When clear sky is probable and CAVOK or SKC are not appropriate NSC may be used for No
Significant Cloud.
The groups ‘AT’ or ‘TL’ followed by a four-digit time group, for hour and minutes, may be used to
indicate when a change is forecast to take place or to be completed.

A temperature group is optional and when included given at the end of the message. Currently
only a few states include it, either in the 9 hr or in the 18 hr TAF. The format, illustrated below, is
as follows: forecast maximum temperature, ‘TX’, followed by ‘/’ followed by two digits for the hour
when expected followed by ‘Z’. After a space ‘TN’, indicating minimum temperature, is given in
the same format. Negative values shall be preceded by ‘M’.
Group 9 (O)
Temperature
TX04/15Z TNM01/08Z
TAF AMD
If the Met office receives information which warrants a change in a current forecast, an Amended
Aerodrome Forecast shall be issued and disseminated in the form of a ‘TAF AMD’. It shall cover
the whole remaining validity period of the original TAF and differs only in the Type of report
group, which will be TAF AMD. The Date/Time of origin group will be that of the TAF AMD, but
Validity Period still that of the TAF which is replaced.
Example: TAF AMD EGLL 101425Z 101322 … replaces
TAF EGLL 101210Z 101322 …
Examples of TAF messages:
TAF ELLX 15220 0Z 160 624 1302 0KT 9000 SHRA BKN020 O VC030 TEM PO 0812 10 00
+RA PROB30 1416 RA BKN050
Transmitted as:
th
Aerodrome Forecast Luxembourg, valid (the 16 ) between 06 and 24 hours Wind 1,3,0, degrees 2,0,
knots, Visibility 9 Kilometres, Showers of Rain, Broken 2 thousand feet, Overcast 3 thousand feet.
Temporary between 08 and 12 hours, Visibility 1 thousand metres, Heavy Rain.
Probability 30 per cent , between 14 and 16 hours Rain , Broken 5 thousand feet.
TAF LEPA 081700Z 090018 30009KT 9999 SCT020 TEMPO 0018 SHRA PROB40 TEMPO
0018 4000 TSRA SCT018CB=
Transmitted as:
th
Aerodrome Forecast Palma, valid (the 9 ) between 00 and 18 hours Wind 3,0, 0, degrees 0,9,knots,
Visibility 1,0, Kilometres, Scattered 2 thousand feet.
Temporary between 0, 0 and 1,8, hours, Showers of Rain.
Probability 40 per cent, Temporary between 0,0, and 1,8, hours Rain , Visibility 4 thousand metres,
Thunderstorm and Rain, Scattered cumulonimbus 1 thousand 8 hundred feet
TAF LFP G 101100Z 1 01221 34003KT 99 99 SCT010 BKN015 BE CMG 1214 01007KT
TEMPO 1221 6000 -SN SCT008 BKN012 TEMPO 1720 3000 -SN SCT006 BKN010 BECMG
1618 07006KT TXM02/14Z TNM03/12Z=
Transmitted as:
Aerodrome Forecast Paris Charles de Gaulle, valid (the 10th) between 12 and 21 hours, Wind 3,4,0,
degrees 0,3,knots, Visibility 1,0, Kilometres, Scattered 1 thousand feet, Broken 1 thousand 5. Becoming
between 12 and 14 hours, Wind 0,1,0, degrees 0,7,knots. Temporary between 12 and 21 hours, Visibility
6 Kilometres, Light snow, Scattered 8 hundred feet, Broken 1 thousand 2 hundred feet, Temporary
between 17 and 20 hours, Visibility 3 thousand metres, Light snow, Scattered 6 hundred feet, Broken 1
thousand feet. Becoming between 16 and 18 hours, Wind 0,7,0, degrees 0,6,knots. Maximum
temperature Minus 0,2, at 14 hours, Minimum temperature Minus 0,3, at 12 hours.
25.08.2010 Page 181 of 196

13.7 READING SIGMETS

SIGMET information is issued in abbreviated plain language. It describes specified en-route
weather phenomena which may affect the safety of aircraft operations, and the development of
those phenomena in time and space. The table below includes the phenomena as listed in
Annex 3 and examples of common abbreviations.
Abbreviation: Transmitted as: Remark:
Weather phenomena
OBSC TS Obscured thunderstorm at subsonic cruising levels:
EMBD TS Embedded thunderstorm
FRQ TS Frequent thunderstorm
SQL TS Squall line
OBSC TS GR Obscured thunderstorm with hail
EMBD TS GR Embedded thunderstorm with hail
FRQ TS GR Frequent thunderstorm with hail
SQL TS GR Squall line thunderstorm with hail
TC (+ cyclone name) Tropical cyclone (+ name)
SEV TURB Severe turbulence
SEV ICE Severe icing
SEV ICE (FZRA) Severe icing due to freezing rain
SEV MTW Severe mountain wave
HVY DS Heavy dust storm
HVY SS Heavy sandstorm
VA (+ volcano name) Volcanic ash (+ volcano name)
MOD TURB Moderate turbulence to be included in SST SIGMETs
for transonic levels and
supersonic cruising levels:
SEV TURB Severe turbulence
ISOL CB Isolated cumulonimbus
OCNL CB Occasional cumulonimbus
FRQ CB Frequent cumulonimbus
GR Hail
VA (+ volcano name) Volcanic ash (+ volcano name)

Examples of other abbreviations

ABV Above LAN (In)land
BLW Below LYR Layer or layered
BTN Between LOC Local
CAT Clear air turbulence MOV Moving
CST Coastal NC No change
EMBD Embedded OBS Observed
EST Estimated OBSC Obscured
FCST Forecast STNR Stationary
INTSF Intensifying VSP Vertical speed
Examples of SIGMET messages:

The following examples are actual SIGMETs. The decoding given omits the address group of the
sender, as this is normally not read out, and the date of validity, as a SIGMET is always valid for
a period of hours that either have already begun or are imminent. The ‘=’ sign is an end of
message indicator.
WSFR31 LFPW 100900 LFMM SIGMET 2 VALI D 101000/101400 LFMM- FIR MARSEILLE
SEV TURB BTN PYRENEES AND RHONE VALLEY, BTN GND AND FL070, INTSF.=
Transmitted as:
SIGMET number 2 for Marseille FIR valid from 1,0,0,0, until 1,4,0,0. Severe turbulence between the
Pyrenees and the Rhone valley, between Ground and flight level 7,0, intensifying
WSLJ31 LJ LJ 240 445 L JLA SIGME T 1 VALID 240445/240600 LJLJ - LJ UBLJANA F IR
ISOL EMBD TS OBS SW PART OF FIR TOP FL340 STNR INTSF=
Transmitted as:
SIGMET 1 for Ljubljana FIR valid from 0,4,4,5, until 0,6,0,0. Isolated embedded thunderstorm observed
in south-western part of the FIR tops at flight level 3,4,0, stationary, intensifying
EGTT SIGM ET SST 01 VALID 1 00925/101325 E GRR-LONDON FIR MOD TURB FCST
FL260/370 SST ROUTES STNR WKN=
Transmitted as:
SIGMET S,S,T 1 for London FIR valid 0,9,2,5 until 1,3,2,5. Moderate turbulence forecast between flight
level 2,6,0 and 3,7,0 on S,S,T - routes, stationary and weakening
25.08.2010 Page 183 of 196


MET Glossary
Glossary
25.08.2010 Page 185 of 196

Glossary ATCO Basic Training
14. GLOSSARY

MET Glossary
Accretion (also called coagulation)

In cloud physics, the growth of a precipitation particle by the collision of a frozen particle with
a super cooled liquid droplet which freezes upon contact
Adiabat
A line of constant potential temperature on a thermodynamic diagram
Adiabatic process
A thermodynamic change of state of a system in which there is no transfer of heat or mass
across the boundaries of the system
Advection
A transfer of atmospheric properties by horizontal movements of air. Compare with
convection current.
Advection fog
A type of fog caused by the advection of moist air over a cold surface and the consequent
cooling of that air below the dew point
Air mass
A widespread body of air whose properties can be identified as having been established
while the air was situated over a particular region of the earth’s surface (air-mass source
region)
Air mass classification
A system used to identify and characterise the different air masses according to a basic
scheme
Altimeter
An aneroid barometer calibrated to indicate altitude instead of pressure
Altimeter setting
The value of air pressure to which the scale of a pressure altimeter is set
Altimetry
The measurement of heights in the atmosphere (altitude), generally by means of an altimeter
Altocumulus
A cumuliform middle cloud
Altostratus
A stratiform middle cloud
Analysis
In synoptic meteorology, a detailed study of the state of the atmosphere based on actual
observations
Aneroid barometer
An instrument measuring air pressure
Anticyclone
A closed circulation around a high pressure centre which is clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere
Atmosphere
The envelope of air surrounding the earth
25.08.2010 Page 187 of 196

Barometer
An instrument for measuring air pressure
Black body
A hypothetical “body” which absorbs all of the electromagnetic radiation striking it; that is,
one which neither reflects nor transmits any of the incident radiation
Blizzard
A violent intensely cold wind laden with dry snow picked up from the ground
Buoyancy
That property of an object that enables it to float on the surface of a liquid or ascend through
and remain freely suspended in a compressible fluid such as the atmosphere
Buys Ballot’s Law
The law stating that if an observer in the Northern Hemisphere stands with his back to the
wind, lower pressure will be on his left
C
Ceiling
The height above the ground or water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud below 6000
metres (20000 feet) covering more than half the sky.
Celsius
Currently preferred name for the temperature scale formerly known as centigrade
Chinook
The name given to the Föhn on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains
Circulation
The flow or motion of a fluid in or through a given area or volume
Cirrocumulus; Cirrostratus; Cirrus
Different types of high cloud
Clear-air turbulence
Turbulence encountered by aircraft in air that is devoid of any clouds, regardless of the
cause
Climate
The prevalent or characteristic meteorological conditions, and their extremes, of any place or
region
Climatology
The scientific study of climate
Cloud
A visible cluster of minute water and/or ice particles in the atmosphere, not reaching the
earth’s surface
Cloudburst
A popular name for excessively heavy rain usually associated with dense cumulus or
cumulonimbus clouds

MET Glossary
Cloud classification
A scheme for distinguishing and grouping clouds according to their appearance and when
possible their process of formation
Cold front
A discontinuity at the forward edge of an advancing cold air mass which is displacing warmer
air in its path
Condensation
The physical process by which a vapour becomes a liquid or solid; the opposite of
evaporation
Condensation level
The height at which a rising parcel of air becomes saturated and clouds form
Conditional stability (or conditional instability)
The state of a column of air when its vertical distribution of temperature is such that the layer
is stable for dry air but unstable for saturated air
Contrail
A cloud like a streamer frequently formed behind aircraft flying in clear cold humid air
Conduction
A heat-transfer process by molecular action but not involving molecular transport
Convection
A heat-transfer process whereby energy is conveyed by molecular transport
Convective instability
The state of an unsaturated parcel or layer of air which will produce instability if it is lifted
bodily to saturation
Coriolis force
A “fictitious” force which arises through measurement of a system moving in a straight line
relative to the stars will appear to curve when measured on a rotating earth
Cumulonimbus
A cloud with extensive vertical development
Cumulus
A heap cloud with less vertical development than cumulonimbus
Cyclone
A closed circulation about a low pressure centre which is counter-clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere
D
Density
The amount of mass per unit volume of a uniform homogeneous system
Depression
In meteorology an area of low pressure; a low or a trough
Dew point
The temperature to which air must be cooled, at constant pressure and moisture content, for
saturation to occur
Diurnal
Daily, especially pertaining to events which are completed within 24 hours and recur every
24 hours
25.08.2010 Page 189 of 196

Doldrums
The equatorial belt of calms or light variable winds lying between the two trade-wind belts
Downstream
The direction toward which a fluid is moving, usually implying the horizontal component of
the mean direction or direction of the basic current; the opposite of upstream
Drizzle
Precipitation from stratus clouds consisting of numerous minute droplets less than 0,5 mm in
diameter
Dry adiabat
A line of constant potential temperature on a thermodynamic diagram
Dry-adiabatic process
An adiabatic process in a system of dry air
E, F
Easterly wave
A migratory wavelike disturbance of the tropical easterlies
Evaporation
The transformation of a liquid to the gaseous state.
Fall wind
A strong, cold down slope wind
Föhn
A warm dry wind on the lee side of a mountain range, the warmth and dryness of the air
resulting from adiabatic compression in descending the mountain slopes
Fog
A cloud at or near the earth’s surface. Fog consists of numerous droplets of water which
individually are so small that they cannot readily be distinguished by the naked eye
Friction
The mechanical resistive force that opposes relative motions between bodies in contact
Front
The zone of transition between two air masses of different density
Frost
The sublimation product of water vapour which deposits directly as a solid on a surface
colder than the overlying air and which has a temperature below freezing
G
General circulation
In the broadest sense, the complete statistical description of atmospheric motions over the
earth
Geostrophic wind
The horizontal wind velocity in which the Coriolis force exactly balances the horizontal
pressure force
Gradient wind
The horizontal wind velocity in which balance is achieved between the Coriolis force,
pressure force, and centrifugal force

MET Glossary
Gravity
The force of attraction imparted by the earth on a terrestrial mass
Gust
A sudden brief increase in the speed of the wind
H
Hail
Precipitation in the form of balls or irregular lumps of ice which are always produced by
convective clouds, usually cumulonimbus
Haze
Fine dust or salt particles dispersed through a portion of the atmosphere
Heat
A form of energy transferred between systems because of a difference in temperature and
existing only in the process of energy transformation
High
An area of high air pressure that has closed circulation; an anticyclone
Humidity
Generally, some measure of the water vapour content of the air
I, J, K, L
Insolation
In general, solar radiation received at the earth’s surface
Instability
A property of the steady state of a system such that certain disturbances or perturbations
introduced into the steady state will increase in magnitude
Inversion
Generally, a departure from the usual decrease of temperature with altitude
Isobar
A line of equal or constant pressure
Isotherm
A line of equal or constant temperature
Jet stream
Relatively strong winds concentrated within a narrow stream in the upper atmosphere
Knot
The unit of speed in the nautical system equal to 1 nautical mile per hour
Land and see breeze
The complete cycle of diurnal local wind occurring on sea coasts due to differences in
surface temperature of land and sea
Lapse rate
The decrease of an atmospheric variable with height, the variable being temperature unless
otherwise specified
25.08.2010 Page 191 of 196

M, N, O
Millibar
Pressure unit, has in aviation been replaced by hectopascal. 1 mb = 1 hPa
Moisture
A general term referring to the water vapour content of the atmosphere or the total water
substance (gaseous, liquid or solid) present in a given volume of air
Nautical mile
The distance unit in the nautical system defined at 1852m or 1.15 statute mile
Nocturnal
Occurring between sunset and sunrise
Occluded front or occlusion
The front that is formed when and where a cold front overtakes a warm front or stationary
front
Orographic
Of, pertaining to, or caused by mountains
Ozone
A nearly colourless (but faintly blue) gaseous form of oxygen with a characteristic odour likes
that of weak chlorine. It is found in trace quantities in the atmosphere, primarily above the
tropopause
P, Q
Perturbation
Any departure introduced into an assumed steady state of a system
Polar air
Cold air having its source in the polar regions
Polar front
The frontal zone between air masses of polar origin and those of tropical origin
Precipitation
The collective name for moisture, in liquid or solid form large enough to fall from the
atmosphere
(Atmospheric) Pressure
The force exerted by the weight of a gas or a liquid (the atmosphere) per unit area. P = F /
S
Pressure gradient
The change in air pressure per unit of horizontal distance
Psychrometer
An instrument for measuring atmospheric humidity
R
Radar
A radio detection device which provides information on range, azimuth and/or elevation of
objects.
Radiation

MET Glossary
The process by which electromagnetic radiation is propagated through free space by virtue
of joint waves variations in the electric and magnetic fields in space. This concept is to be
distinguished from conduction and convection
Radiation fog
A major type of fog produced over a land area when radiational cooling reduce the air
temperature to or below its dew point
Radiosonde
A balloon-borne instrument for the simultaneous measurement and transmission of
meteorological data
Rain gauge
An instrument for measuring rainfall
Relative humidity
The ratio of the amount of moisture in the air to the amount which the air could hold at the
same temperature if it were saturated; usually expressed in percent
Ridge
An elongated area of relatively high pressure extending from the centre of a high pressure
region
Rotor cloud
A turbulent altocumulus-type cloud formation found in the lee of a large mountain barrier.
The term sometimes refers to a part of the cloud base along the leading edge of a
cumulonimbus cloud; it is formed by rolling action in the wind-shear region between cool
downdrafts within the clod and warm updrafts outside the cloud
S
Saturated air
Air that contains the maximum amount of water vapour it can held at a given pressure and
temperature (relative humidity of 100%)
Saturation adiabat
On a thermodynamic diagram a line representing a saturation expansion of an air parcel
Sleet
Generally, precipitation reaching the surface of earth as a mixture of snow and rain
Smog
A natural fog contaminated by industrial pollutants; a mixture of smoke and fog
Snow
Precipitation in the form of white or translucent ice crystals, chiefly in complex branched
hexagonal form and often clustered into snowflakes
Source region
An extensive area of the earth’s surface characterised by relatively uniform surface
conditions, where air masses remain long enough to take on characteristic temperature and
moisture properties imparted by that surface
Specific heat
The heat capacity of a system per unit mass
Squall line
Any non-frontal line or narrow band of active thunderstorms; a mature instability line
Stability
25.08.2010 Page 193 of 196

A state in which the vertical distribution of temperature is such that an air particle resists
displacement from its level
Standard atmosphere
A hypothetical vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature pressure and density which
by international agreement is taken to be representative of the atmosphere for purposes of
pressure altimeter calibrations aircraft performance calculations etc.
Steam fog
Fog formed when water vapour is added to air which is much colder than the vapour’s
source; most commonly formed when very cold air drifts across relatively warm water
Storm
A marked disturbance in the normal state of the atmosphere
Stratiform
Descriptive of clouds which are arranged in horizontal layers or sheets
Stratocumulus/Stratus
A form of low cloud
Streamline
A line that is parallel to the instantaneous velocity of the wind
Sublimation
A process by which a solid changes to a gas without going through the liquid state.
Sometimes also used for the opposite process (Deposition) by which a gas changes to a
solid
Super-cooling
The reduction of temperature of any liquid below the melting point of that substance’s solid
phase; that is cooling beyond its normal freezing point
Synoptic
In general, pertaining to or affording an over-all view
Synoptic chart
In meteorology any chart or map on which data and analyses are presented that describe
the atmosphere over a large area at a given moment

MET Glossary
Temperature
A measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance
Thermal wind
In general, the shear or change in direction of the geostrophic wind with height
Thermometer
An instrument for measuring temperature of the air
Thunder
The sound emitted by rapidly expanding gases along the channel of a lightning discharge
Thunderstorm
A storm invariably produced by a cumulonimbus cloud and always accompanied by thunder,
attended by strong wind gusts, heavy rain and sometimes hail
Trade winds
Two belts of winds one on either side of the equatorial doldrums, where the winds blow
almost constantly from easterly quadrants
Tropical air
Warm air having its source in the low latitudes, chiefly in the regions of the subtropical high
pressure systems
Tropical cyclone
A preferred name for hurricane; an intense tropical storm
Trough
An elongated area of low air pressure, usually extending from the centre of a low pressure
system
Turbulence
Irregular motion of the atmosphere produced when air flows over a comparatively uneven
surface, such as the surface of the earth, or when two currents of air flow past, or over each
other, in different directions, or at different speeds
U
Upper air
In synoptic meteorology and weather observing that portion of the atmosphere, which is
above the lower troposphere. No distinct lower limit is set but the term generally applied to
levels above 500 hPa
Upstream
The direction from which a fluid is moving. Compare with down-stream
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Vapour
Any gaseous substance that can exist in the gaseous state in equilibrium with its liquid
phase. Gaseous water is termed a vapour.
Visibility
For aeronautical purposes is the grater of:
the greatest distance at which a black object of suitable dimensions, situated near the
ground, can be seen and recognised when observed against a bright background;
the greatest distance at which lights in the vicinity of 1000 candelas can be seen and
identified against an unlit background
W, Z
Warm front
The discontinuity at the forward edge of an advancing current of relatively warm air which is
displacing a retreating colder air mass
Water vapour
Water substance in vapour form
Weather
The short term variations of the atmosphere in terms of temperature, pressure, wind,
moisture, cloudiness, precipitation and visibility
Westerlies
Specifically, the dominant west to east motion of the atmosphere centred over the middle
latitudes of both hemispheres
Wind
The horizontal movement of air relative to the earth’s surface
Zenith
That point on any given observer’s celestial sphere, which lies directly over his head

© European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation
EUROCONTROL 2008
This document is published by EUROCONTROL in the interests of exchange of information.

It may be copied in whole or in part, providing that EUROCONTROL is acknowledged as a
source. The information contained in this document may not be modified without prior written
permission from EUROCONTROL.

Basic MET TD 1004107

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Basic MET TD 1004107

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Institute of Air Navigation Services

Contact person: Tel / Email: Unit:

Edition Date Reason for change Pages affected

0.1 Jan 2003 Draft All

1.0 09.02.2004 Released issue All

Correction of typing errors.

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ATCO BASIC TRAINING

1. AVIATION AND METEOROLOGY ................................................................ 13

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1. AVIATION AND METEOROLOGY

Training Objectives L Code

L ................... CCC Level

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1.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF METEOROLOGY TO AVIATION

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1.2 METEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS TO AVIATION

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1.3 THE ORGANISATION OF METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES

Figure 1.2: The organisation of meteorological services for air navigation.

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1.4 THE ORIGIN OF METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION

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Observations from Satellites

Figure 1.3: Polar orbiting and geostationary satellites.

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1.5 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT USED IN METEOROLOGY

Weather element Instrument Unit

Air pressure barometer hPa, inch HG

Air temperature thermometer °C

Air density calculated kg/m³

Dew point calculated °C

Relative humidity hygrometer %

Cloud amount ceilometer okta

Cloud base ceilometer ft

Precipitation rain gauge mm

Ground visibility estimated by km or m

Runway visual transmissometer m

Wind direction wind vane / wind degree (°)

Wind speed anemometer kt

1.6 THE COLLECTION AND DISSEMINATION OF METEOROLOGICAL

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Figure 1.5: Examples of meteorological messages.

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Training objectives L Code

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2.1 IMPORTANCE TO ATS

2.2 DIVIDING THE ATMOSPHERE INTO LAYERS

2.2.1 The Troposphere

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