Kobe Danielle B.

Jebulan
CE-5A

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am very grateful because I have managed to complete this

task that was given to us by our lecturer. The assignment
cannot be completed without the help and informations that I
have gathered from the subject itself and from the internet.

I am also thanking my fellow classmates for the

encouragement and guidance in finishing this assignment and
for answering questions that I do not know. Of course, I would
like to express our gratitude to my friends and family for the
support and willingness to give every help and resources that
they could get in order for me to finish such task.

Above all, I express my gratitude to God for giving me hope.

I hope to finish such tasks very well in the near future.
 INTRODUCTION

What is a bridge?

The bridge is structure that provides passage over the obstacle of small caverns, a valley, road,
body of water, or other physical obstacle. Designs of bridges vary depending on the nature of the
terrain and the function of the bridge and where it is constructed. In simpler way, it is also
defined as a structure spanning and providing passage over a gap of barrier, such as a river or
roadway.


Classifications of Bridge by its Structure


Arch bridges – use arch as a main structural component (arch is always located below the
bridge, never above it). With the help of mid-span piers, they can be made with one or more
arches, depending on what kind of load and stress forces they must endure. The core component
of the bridge is its abutments and pillars, which have to be built strong because they will carry
the weight of the entire bridge structure and forces they convey.

Arch bridges can only be fixed, but they can support any decking fiction, including transport of
pedestrians, light or heavy rail, vehicles and even be used as water-carrying aqueducts. The most
popular materials for the construction of arch bridges are masonry stone, concrete, timber,
wrought iron, cast iron and structural steel.

Beam bridges – employ the simplest of forms – one or several horizontal beams that can
either simply span the area between abutments or relieve some of the pressure on structural piers.
The core force that impacts beam bridges is the transformation of vertical force into shear and
flexural load that is transferred to the support structures (abutments or mid-bridge piers).
Because of their simplicity, they were the oldest bridges known to man. Initially built by simply
dropping wooden logs over short rivers or ditches, this type of bridge started being used
extensively with the arrival of metalworks, steel boxes, and pre-stressed construction concrete.
Beam bridges today are separated into girder bridges, plate girder bridges, box girder bridges and
simple beam bridges.

Truss bridges – is a very popular bridge design that uses a diagonal mesh of most often
triangle-shaped posts above the bridge to distribute forces across almost entire bridge structure.
Individual elements of this structure (usually straight beams) can endure dynamic forces of
tension and compression, but by distributing those loads across entire structure, entire bridge can
handle much stronger forces and heavier loads than other types of bridges.

Truss bridges were introduced very long ago, immediately becoming one of the most popular
bridge types thanks to their incredible resilience and economic builds that require a very small
amount of material for construction. The most common build materials used for truss bridge
construction are timber, iron, steel, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete. The truss
bridges can be both fixed and moveable.

Cantilever bridges – are somewhat similar in appearance to arch bridges, but they support
their load, not through a vertical bracing but trough diagonal bracing with horizontal
beams that are being supported only on one end. The vast majority of cantilever bridges use one
pair of continuous spans that are placed between two piers, with beams meeting on the center
over the obstacle that bridge spans (river, uneven terrain, or others). Cantilever bridge can also
use mid-bridge pears are their foundation from which they span in both directions toward other
piers and abutments.
The size and weight capacity of the cantilever bridge impact the number of segments it uses.
Simple pedestrian crossings over very short distances can use simple cantilever beam, but larger
distances can use either two beams coming out of both abutments or multiple center piers.
Cantilever bridges cannot span very large distances. They can be bare or use truss formation both
below and above the bridge, and most popular constriction material are structural steel, iron, and
prestressed concrete.

Tied arch bridges – are similar in design to arch bridges, but they transfer the weight of the
bridge and traffic load to the top chord that is connected to the bottom cords in bridge
foundation. The bottom tying cord can be reinforced decking itself or a separate deck-
independent structure that interfaces with tie-rods.

They are often called bowstring arches or bowstring bridges and can be created in several
variations, including shouldered tied-arch, multi-span discrete tied-arches, multi-span continuous
tied-arches, single tied-arch per span and others. However, there is a precise differentiation
between tied arch bridges and bowstring arch bridges – the latter use diagonally shaped members
who create a structure that transfer forces similar to in truss bridges.

Tied arch bridges can be visually very stunning, but they bring with them costly
maintenance and repair.

Suspension bridges – utilize spreading ropes or cables from the vertical suspenders to
hold the weight of bridge deck and traffic. Able to suspend decking over large spans, this type of
bridge is today very popular all around the world.
Originally made even in ancient times with materials such as ropes or vines, with decking’s of
wood planks or bamboo, the modern variants use a wide array of materials such as steel wire that
is either braided into rope or forged or cast into chain links. Because only abutments and piers
(one or more) are fixed to the ground, the majority of the bridge structure can be very flexible
and can often dramatically respond to the forces of wind, earthquake or even vibration of
on-foot or vehicle traffic.

Cable-stayed bridges – use deck cables that are directly connected to one or more vertical
columns (called towers or pylons) that can be erected near abutments or in the middle of the span
of the bridge structure. Cables are usually connected to columns in two ways – harp design (each
cable is attached to the different point of the column, creating the harp-like “strings” and “fan”
designs (all cables connect to one point at the top of the column). This is a very different type of
cable-driven suspension than in suspension bridges, where decking is held with vertical
suspenders that go up to main support cable.

Originally constructed and popularized in the 16th century, today cable-stayed bridges are a
popular design that is often used for spanning medium to long distances that are longer than
those of cantilever bridges but shorter than the longest suspension bridges. The most common
build materials are steel or concrete pylons, post-tensioned concrete box girders and steel rope.
These bridges can support almost every type of decking (only not including heavy rail) and are
used extensively all around the world in several construction variations.
Types of Bridge

The vast majority of all bridges in the world are fixed in place, without any moving parts that
forces them to remain in place until they are demolished or fall due to unforeseen stress or
disrepair. However, some spaces are in need of multi-purpose bridges which can either have
movable parts or can be completely moved from one location to another. Even though these
bridges are rare, they serve an important function that makes them highly desirable.

Fixed Bridges
Fixed – Majority of bridges constructed all around the world and throughout our history are
fixed, with no moveable parts to provide higher clearance for river/sea transport that is flowing
below them. They are designed to stay where they are made to the time they are deemed
unusable due to their age, disrepair or are demolished. Use of certain materials or certain
construction techniques can instantly force bridge to be forever fixed. This is most obvious with
bridges made out of construction masonry, suspension and cable-stayed bridges where a large
section of decking surface is suspended in the air by the complicated network of cables and other
material.

Small and elevated bridges like Bridge of Sighs, ancient stone aqueducts of Rome such as Pont
du Gard, large medieval multi-arched Charles Bridge, and magnificent Golden Gate Bridge are
all examples of bridges that are fixed.

Temporary Bridges
Temporary bridges – Temporary bridges are made from basic modular components that can be
moved by medium or light machinery. They are usually used in military engineering or in
circumstances when fixed bridges are repaired, and can be so modular that they can be extended
to span larger distances or even reinforced to support heightened loads. The vast majority of
temporary bridges are not intended to be used for prolonged periods of time on single locations,
although in some cases they may become a permanent part of the road network due to various
factors.

The simples and cheapest temporary bridges are crane-fitted decking made out of construction
wood that can facilitate passenger passage across small spans (such as ditches). As the spans go
longer and loads are heightened, prefabricated bridges made out of steel and iron have to be
used. The most capable temporary bridges can span even distances of 100m using reinforced
truss structure that can facilitate even heavy loads.
Movable Bridges
Moveable bridges – Moveable bridges are a compromise between the strength, carrying capacity
and durability of fixed bridges, and the flexibility and modularity of the temporary bridges. Their
core functionality is providing safe passage of various types of loads (from passenger to heavy
freight), but with the ability to move out of the way of the boats or other kinds of under-deck
traffic which would otherwise not be capable of fitting under the main body of the bridge.

Most commonly, movable bridges are made with simple truss or tied arch design and are
spanning rivers with little to medium clearance under their main decks. When the need arises,
they can either lift their entire deck sharply in the air or sway the deck structure to the side,
opening the waterway for unrestricted passage of ships. While the majority of the moveable
bridges are small to medium size, large bridges also exist.

HISTORY OF BRIDGES

Bridge is not a construction but it is a concept, the concept of crossing over large spans of land or
huge masses of water, and to connect two far-off points, eventually reducing the distance
between them.

The first bridges were believed to be made by nature — as simple as a log fallen across a
stream. The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of wooden logs or planks
and eventually stones, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement.

Before pre-historic people began to build the crudest shelter for themselves they bridged streams.
Trees that have fallen across the stream from bank to bank acted as bridges. The wandering tribe
that first deliberately made a tree fall across a stream were the first bridge builders.

Observing monkeys swing of the several vines, led to connecting parallel cables with some sort
of cross pieces, to support as bridges. Later hand grips were proved which led to suspension
bridges.
The first bridges were natural of huge rock arch that spans. The first man-made bridges were tree
trunks laid across streams in girder fashion, flat stones, and festoons of vegetation, twisted or
braided and hung in suspension.

These three types – beam, arch, and suspension – have been known and built since ancient times
and are the origins from which engineers and builders derived various combinations such as the
truss, cantilever, cable-stayed, tied-arch, and moveable spans.

Suspension bridges had been known in China as early as 206 BC.

Chinese built big bridges of wooden construction, and later stone bridges, and the oldest
surviving stone bridge in China is the Zhaozhou Bridge built around 605 AD during the Sui
Dynasty.
This bridge is also historically significant as it is the world’s oldest open- stone segmental arch
bridge. The ancient Romans were the greatest bridge builders of antiquity.

They used cement, – called pozzolana consisting of water, lime, sand, and volcanic rock, which
reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone.

Though extremely versatile, wood has one obvious disadvantage and during the 18th century
there were many innovations in the design and a major breakthrough in bridge technology came
with the erection of the Iron Bridge in Coalbrookdale in England during 1779, using cast iron for
the first time as arches to cross the river Severn.

With the Industrial Revolution, steel, which has a high tensile strength, replaced wrought iron for
the construction of larger bridges to support large loads, and later welded structural bridges of
various designs were constructed.

Some famous bridges around the globe:

Advantages of Building a Bridge

Concrete bridges have been built in North America since 1889, when a single arch concrete
bridge spanning 20 ft was built in California. In 2013, over 400,000 concrete bridges were
documented in the National Bridge Inventory.

• Adaptability

Concrete bridges can be formed to match the environment and have been used for
large and small spans.

Resilience

Concrete bridges have proven to be resilient against all types of loads and impact.

Structural Redundancy

Concrete bridges form redundant load paths, leading to reliable structural

performance.
•

Long Term Durability

Concrete bridges have proven to be durable, even in harsh environments.

Low Maintenance

Concrete bridges require little maintenance.

Rapid Construction

Concrete bridges may be rapidly constructed using local labor.

•

Economy

Concrete bridges prove to be economical in initial cost and over the long term.

Flexibility

Concrete bridges may be formed using a variety of methods and can meet the
demands of any load rating or design features.

Aesthetics

Concrete bridges may include many aesthetic features such as color, shape, texture,
design or patents.
 •

Versatility

Concrete bridges may be used anywhere a crossing is required. They may be reinforced,
prestressed, precast, post-tensioned, segmental or cast-in-place to meet the design
requirements.

Constructability

Concrete bridges are rapidly constructed using a variety of construction techniques.

Disadvantages of Building a Bridge

 DESIGN OF BRIDGE

Type of bridge to be designed:

§ Deck Bridge

Data:

• Carriage Way- Two Lane (7.5 m wide)

• Clear Span- 7.5m
• Wearing Coat- 80mm
• Curbs- 500mm
• Width of Bearing- 400mm
• Girder Spacing (S.9.7.2.3)- 1.1m
• Length of tracked vehicle (Lt) = 3.6m
• Materials- M20 grade concrete, Fe U15 Steel
• Loading- IRC Class AA
• Reinforcement Strength(fy)- 420Mpa
• Concrete Compressive Strength(f’c)- 25MPa
• Concrete Density ( o)- 24kN/m3
• Wearing Coat Density (a)- 22kN/m3
• Clear Cover- 30mm
• Bar Diameter (main bar)- 25mm

Step 1: Permissible Stress Constant

cbc = 7Mpa

st = 190 Mpa

M = = = 13.33

M = = = 0.329

j = 1 = 1 = 0.89

Q = jk = (0.89) (0.329) (7) = 1.025

Step 2: Depth of Slab and Effective Span

• Assuming the thickness 80mm/1meter so,

a) Overall Thickness = 80(7.5)

= 600mm
 *Using 25mm Bars, Assume 30mm Clear Cover

Effective Depth = 600 (30 + )

Effective Depth = 557.5mm

b) Effective Span
*Given width of bearing, 0.4m

i. Clear Span + Effective Depth = (6 + 0.5575)

= 6.5575m
ii. Center to center of bearings = 6 + +
= 6.4m
* Use effective span (Le) = 6.4m

Step 3: Draw Cross Section of Bridge

Step 4: Dead Load Bending Moment

i. Dead Weight of Slab = c(tc)

= (24kN/m3) (0.600m)
Dead Weight of Slab = 14.4 kPa

ii. Weight of Wearing Coat = c(tw)

= (22kN/m3) (0.08m)
Weight of Wearing Coat = 1.76kPa
 iii. Total Load = Dead Load + Wearing Coat Load
= 14.4 + 1.76
Total Load = 16.16kPa

Dead Load Bending Moment = =

Mdead = 82.7392 kN.m

Step 5: Live Load Bending Moment

Ø Class AA

i. Impact Factor (If) = [25 - (Le) 5)]

= [25 - (6.4 5)]
If = 19.7%
ii. Effective Length of Road (Lr) = [Lt + 2(ts + tw)]
where:
Lt = Length of tracked vehicle = 3.6m
ts = 0.6m
tw = 0.08m

Lr = [3.6 + 2(0.6 + 0.08)]

Lr = 4.96m

1T = 10kN
Wt = [35(10) + 35(10)] (1 + 19.7%)
Wt 838 kN

Average Intensity of Load ( = =

= 24.5%

Maximum Bending Moment due to Live Load

Mmax = [ ] [ ]
 = [] []
Mmax = 119.0896 kN.m

iii. Total Design Moment = Mdead + Mlive

= 82.7392 + 119.0896
Total Design Moment = 201 kN.m

Step 6: Shear due to Class AA tracked vehicle

i. For maximum shear at support, IRC Class AA tracked vehicle is

arranged as shown:

then effective width:

be = 2.77(2.48) (1 ) + 1.01
be = 5.22m

width of dispersion = 2125 + 2050 +

width of dispersion = 6.785m

from be, new values of load intensity:

= =
= 24.9 kPa

ii. Shear Force, Va =

Va =
Va = 75.6462 kN

iii. Dead Load Shear =

= = 51.712 kN

Total Design Shear = 75.6462 + 51.712

Total Design Shear = 127.36 kN

Step 7: Design of Deck Slab

Effective depth required:

d=

d = 442.83mm

Effective depth provided = 557.5mm > 442.83

Use provided effective depth = 557.5mm

Step 8: Check for Shear Stress

= =

= 0.23 mPa

Check Parameters:

= = 0.38

From the table IS 456, check

= 0.30 mPa

Since >

Shear reinforcement is not required.

Distribution of Steel:

Bending moment for distribution of steel

Mdist = (0.3 Mlive + 0.2 Mdead)

= [0.3 (119.0896) + 0.2 (82.7392)]

Mdist = 52.275 kN.m

Using 12mm bar:

Effective depth = (557.5 30 + )

Effective depth = 548.5 mm

Ast.dist = =

Ast.dist = 563.6mm2
Spacing of 12mm bar =

Spacing of 12mm bar = 200mm