Components of Matter

the
ATOMIC THEORY AND
PERIODIC TABLE

( CHM 021 )
Learning Outcomes
1. Interpret the classical laws of
chemical combination
2. Cite experimental evidence for
the existence of subatomic
particles.
3. List the three fundamental
particles of matter and describe
their charges and relative masses
4. Use the properties of sub atomic
particles to determine atomic
structure
5. Calculate the average atomic
mass of isotopes 2
Just how small is an atom
 Atoms: The Greek Idea
~384 B.C.E., Aristotle:
All matter is
composed of 4
elements, and all
matter is continuous,
not atomistic.
 Atoms: The Greek Idea
~ 450 B.C.E., Leucippus and
Leucippus
Democritus Atomos: Point at
which matter can no longer be
subdivided.

Democritus

First to propose that

matter is made up of
tiny indivisible particles
called “atomos”
meaning indivisible/
cannot be cut/
destroyed.
The next 2000 years
of chemical history
were dominated by
ALCHEMY, a
pseudoscience

6
 The Law of Conservation of Mass

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

(1743-1794)

• Early 1700’s Lavoisier: Law of

Conservation of Mass
– During a chemical change, matter is neither
created nor destroyed.
Lavoisier: The Law of
Conservation of Mass
LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTION

Joseph Louis Proust (1754-1826)

• Law of Definite Proportions
• Any pure sample of a chemical compound,
from whatever source and however prepared,
always contains the same elements and
always in the same proportions by mass.

9
 Proust: The Law of Definite
Proportions
• 1799, Proust: Law of Definite
Proportions
– A compound always contains the same
elements in certain definite proportions.
 Proust: The Law of Definite
Proportions
Regardless of the source, copper
carbonate has the same composition.
Proust: The Law of Definite Proportions
Berzelius experiment illustrates the Law of
Definite Proportions.
John Dalton and the Atomic Theory
of Matter

John Dalton (1766-1844)

• In 1808, published the book A New
System of Chemical Philosophy
wherein he presented the atomic
theory in detail.
• Law of Multiple Proportion

13
John Dalton and the Atomic Theory
of Matter
• 1803, John Dalton: Law of Multiple
Proportions
– Elements may combine in more than one set
of proportions, each set corresponds to a
different compound.
John Dalton and the Atomic Theory
of Matter
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles
called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the
same size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of
one element are different from the atoms of all other
elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one
element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of
atoms of any two of the elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not
result in their creation or destruction.
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• All matter is composed of extremely small,
indestructible particles called atoms.
- hard, indivisible spheres, no parts
(Billiard Ball Model)

NOW
We now know that atoms are NOT indestructible.
They consist of still smaller particles.

17
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• All atoms of a given element are identical, in
mass and other properties.
• Atoms of one element differ from the atoms of
all other elements.

NOW
We now know that atoms of a given element may
differ. Some elements have several isotopes

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Compounds are formed by the combination of the

atoms of different elements in fixed proportions.

NOW
Some compounds may have the same
composition but the atoms combine in different
ways. Example: Isomers

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

A chemical reaction involves the rearrangement

of atoms. No atoms are created, destroyed.

NOW!
In some reactions, atoms may break apart in that
some may lose electrons. But atoms do not break
apart to produce other atoms.

20
J. J. Thomson and the Cathode Ray Tube Experiment

Experiments by J.J. Thomson in 1897 led to

the discovery of a fundamental building
block of matter.

J.J. Thomson
experimenting, in the
Cavendish Lab. • Made a piece of equipment
called a cathode ray tube.
• It is a vacuum tube - all the air
has been pumped out.
Cathode Ray tube

http://cathode ray animation

Cathode Ray Tube

J.J. Thomson, measured mass/charge of e-

(1906 Nobel Prize in Physics) 23
Cathode Ray Tube

24
Thomson’s Experiment: summary

• The cathode rays are repelled by the

negative pole of a magnetic field

• This suggests that the ray consists of a

stream of negatively charged particles

• It correctly suggested that the atom consists

of an arrangement of + and – charges.

• It postulated the presence of the electron in

all matter
25
-electrons distributed randomly in a
diffuse positive cloud.
-“plum pudding” model: raisins dispersed
in pudding.
Millikan´s Experiment

Measured mass of e-
(1923 Nobel Prize in
Physics)

e- charge = -1.60 x 10-19 C

Thomson’s charge/mass of e- = -1.76 x 108 C/g

Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment e- mass = 9.10 x 10-28 g

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The Electron
• Charge to mass ratio (Thomson):
e/m = -1.76 x 108 C g-1

• Charge of the electron (Robert Millikan, 1909):

e = -1.60 x 10-19 C

 designated as 1 unit of charge; by

convention, the charge of the electron is given
as –1.

• Mass of the electron, m = 9.1 x 10-28 g

• Mass of the hydrogen atom – about 10-24 g

The electron is about 2000x lighter than the 28

hydrogen atom.
Types of Radioactivity

Discovered X-rays

Discovered
radioactivity in 1896
while working with
uranium

Coined the term

“radioactivity”.
Discovered radium
and polonium

29
Rutherford and the Gold Foil Experiment

- Ernest Rutherford -English physicist.

(1910)
-Believed in the plum pudding model of the
atom
 Used radioactivity.
 Alpha particles - positively charged
pieces- helium atoms minus electrons
 Shot them at gold foil which can be
made a few atoms thick.
 His experiments showed that
Thomson's "plum pudding" model of the
atom was untenable.
Rutherford´s Experiment
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

 particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~5% speed of light)

1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-)
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 g) 31
Rutherford´s Experiment

What he expected……..

The alpha particles to pass through without changing

direction very much.
Rutherford´s Experiment

Because……..

the positive charges were thought to be spread out

evenly. Alone they were not enough to stop the alpha
particles.
and he thought the mass was evenly distributed in
the atom
Rutherford´s Experiment

What he got
Rutherford´s Experiment

+
Rutherford´s Experiment

How he explained it….

• Since most of the particles went
through, it was mostly empty space.
• Because the pieces turned so +
much, the positive pieces were
heavy.
• Small volume, big mass, big
density.
• This small dense positive area is
the nucleus.
Rutherford’s Model of the Atom : Nuclear Model

atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m

nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m

“If the atom is the Houston

Astrodome, then the nucleus is a
marble on the 50-yard line.” 37
The Proton
Eugene Goldstein
(1850 – 1930)
• Identified the positively
charged particle in 1886
 The mass of this particle
almost the same as the
mass of the H atom
 The charge is equal in
magnitude (but opposite in
sign to that of the electron)
 Named the particle
proton
 Responsible for the total
+ charge of the nucleus
- nuclear charge
The Neutron

James Chadwick (1891 –

1974) H atoms: 1 p; He atoms: 2 p
• identified the neutron by
bombarding a thin Be sheet with α mass He/mass H should = 2
particles measured mass He/mass H = 4
• emission of very high energy
radiation similar to γ rays
• consisted of electrically NEUTRAL
particles with a slightly greater mass
than that of a proton.

 + 9Be 1n + 12C + energy

neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)
n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 x 10-24 g
Bohr´s Model
 Bohr´s Model

Line-Emission Spectrum

excited state

ENERGY IN PHOTON OUT

ground state
Bohr´s Model

• e- exist only in orbits with specific amounts of

energy called energy levels

• Therefore…

– e- can only gain or lose certain amounts of

energy

– only certain photons are produced

Bohr´s Model

65 Energy of photon depends

4 on the difference in energy
3
2 levels
1
Bohr’s calculated energies
matched the IR, visible, and
UV lines for the H atom

The Bohr model is a

hydrogen model. It helps
with the learning of the
quantum theory.
Electron Cloud Model

Developed by Erwin
Schrödinger and Werner
Heisenberg.

Erwin Schrödinger

Werner Heisenberg.
Electron Cloud Model

The said and atom

consisted of a dense
nucleus surrounded by a
cloud of electrons at
various levels in orbitals..
mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-

46
ATOMS, MOLECULES, IONS

Learning Objective
Use the sub‐atomic properties to
determine atomic structure

47
Main Features of the Atom

• atoms consist of a cloud of negatively charged, e-

• the e- cloud occupies most of the volume of atoms

• the nucleus consists of protons, p and neutrons, n

(nucleons)

• atoms are electrically neutral; # p (+) = # e (-)

• # of p+ and e- is characteristic of an element

48
 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei
Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U 49
Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

50
Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

51
Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

52
Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

ISOTOPES

 atoms of the same element which vary in

the # of n0 (varies in mass) but have the
same # of p

 Same atomic numbers, Z

 Different mass numbers, A

53
The Isotopes of Hydrogen

54
The Isotopes of Carbon

55
Example
Give the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons
in each of the following species:
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d) carbon-14
56
• Strategy Recall that the superscript denotes the mass
number (A) and the subscript denotes the atomic number (Z).

• Mass number is always greater than atomic number. (The

only exception is H, where the mass number is equal to the
atomic number.)

• In a case where no subscript is shown, as in parts (c) and

(d), the atomic number can be deduced from the element
symbol or name.

• To determine the number of electrons, remember that

because atoms are electrically neutral, the number of
electrons is equal to the number of protons.
57
Solution
(a) The atomic number is 11, so there are 11 protons.
The mass number is 20, so the number of neutrons is
20 − 11 = 9. The number of electrons is the same as the
number of protons; that is, 11.

(b) The atomic number is the same as that in (a), or 11.

The mass number is 22, so the number of neutrons is
22 − 11 = 11. The number of electrons is 11. Note that the
species in (a) and (b) are chemically similar isotopes of
sodium.

58
(c) The atomic number of O (oxygen) is 8, so there are
8 protons. The mass number is 17, so there are 17 − 8 = 9
neutrons. There are 8 electrons.

(d) Carbon-14 can also be represented as 14C. The atomic

number of carbon is 6, so there are 14 − 6 = 8 neutrons.
The number of electrons is 6.

59
Example

61
Example

62
Example

63
Example 1
Calculate the average atomic mass of magnesium
from these data.
The element magnesium (Mg) has three stable
isotopes with the following masses and abundances.

isotopes amu abundance

24Mg 23.9850 78.99%
25Mg 24.9858 10.00%
26Mg 25.9826 11.01%

Ans: 24. 3050 amu

64
Example 2

The atomic mass of lithium is 6.94, the naturally

occurring isotopes are 6Li = 6.015121 amu, and 7Li
= 7.016003 amu. Determine the percent abundance
of each isotope.

Ans: 6Li =7.59% , 7Li = 92.41%

65
ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS CHEMICAL
NOMENCLATURE

66
ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS CHEMICAL
NOMENCLATURE

• Apply the general rules to name the compounds

• Distinguish between binary and ternary compounds
• Write the formulas of diatomic and polyatomic molecules.
• Apply the accepted conventions in writing the formulas of ionic
compounds
• Assign correct names to: common monoatomic anions, common
inorganic cations and anions
• Name ionic compounds using the Roman numeral and Stock
systems
• Use the correct Greek prefixes in naming molecular compounds
of the binary type.
• Apply the accepted conventions in naming simple acids and
oxoacids
67
 68

Noble Gas
Halogen
The Modern Periodic Table

Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
ATOM

69
IONS & IONIC COMPOUNDS

An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive

or negative charge.

cation – ion with a positive charge

If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons
Na+ 10 electrons

anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.

17 protons
Cl 17 protons
17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons
70
A monatomic ion contains only one atom:
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-

A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom:

OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

71
Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations
and anions.
• The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in
each formula unit must equal zero.

The ionic compound NaCl

72
The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive
nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds.

73
74
Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table

75
Na+

cation

Cl-
anion

76
 SO4 2-

Polyatomic Anion

Combines with
cation to form Ionic
compound

77
 NaCl
IONIC COMPOUND

78
Formulas of Ionic Compounds
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6

Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2

CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

2 x +1 = +2 1 x -2 = -2

Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
79
Write the formula of
magnesium nitride, containing
the Mg2+ and N3− ions.

When magnesium burns in air,

it forms both magnesium oxide
and magnesium nitride.
Strategy Our guide for writing formulas for ionic compounds is
electrical neutrality; that is, the total charge on the cation(s)
must be equal to the total charge on the anion(s).

Because the charges on the Mg2+ and N3− ions are not equal,
we know the formula cannot be MgN.

Instead, we write the formula as MgxNy, where x and y are

subscripts to be determined.
Solution To satisfy electrical neutrality, the following
relationship must hold:
(+2)x + (−3)y = 0

Solving, we obtain x/y = 3/2. Setting x = 3 and y = 2, we write

Check The subscripts are reduced to the smallest whole-

number ratio of the atoms because the chemical formula of an
ionic compound is usually its empirical formula.
MOLECULES & MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a

definite arrangement held together by chemical forces.

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms:

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

diatomic elements

A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms:

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4 83
84
O2

CO2

PCl3

85
 SO4 2-

Polyatomic Anion

Combines with
cation to form Ionic
compound

86
87
A molecular formula shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance.

An empirical formula shows the simplest

whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance.

molecular empirical
H2O H2O
C6H12O6 CH2O

O3 O
N2H4 NH2
88
Example

Write the molecular formula of methanol, an organic solvent

and antifreeze, from its ball-and-stick model, shown below.
Example

Write the empirical formulas for the following

molecules:

(a)acetylene (C2H2), which is used in welding torches

(b)glucose (C6H12O6), a substance known as blood

sugar

(c) nitrous oxide (N2O), a gas that is used as an

anesthetic gas (“laughing gas”) and as an aerosol
propellant for whipped creams.
Solution
(a) There are two carbon atoms and two hydrogen atoms in
acetylene. Dividing the subscripts by 2, we obtain the
empirical formula CH.

(b) In glucose there are 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms,

and 6 oxygen atoms. Dividing the subscripts by 6, we
obtain the empirical formula CH2O. Note that if we had
divided the subscripts by 3, we would have obtained the
formula C2H4O2. Although the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to
oxygen atoms in C2H4O2 is the same as that in C6H12O6
(1:2:1), C2H4O2 is not the simplest formula because its
subscripts are not in the smallest whole-number ratio.
(c) Because the subscripts in N2O are already the smallest
possible whole numbers, the empirical formula for nitrous
oxide is the same as its molecular formula.
The fact that 4g of hydrogen (H2) reacts with 32g of oxygen
(O2) to give 36g of water is an illustration of what law?

1. Conservation of mass
2. Law of definite proportions
3. Law of multiple proportions
4. Law of combining elements
5. The periodic law
The fact that 4g of hydrogen (H2) reacts with 32g of oxygen
(O2) to give 36g of water is an illustration of what law?

1. Conservation of mass
2. Law of definite proportions
3. Law of multiple proportions
4. Law of combining elements
5. The periodic law